{{Short description|Regular travel to and from work}} {{Redirect|Commuter}} {{Other uses|Commute (disambiguation){{!}}Commute}} {{multiple issues| {{Globalize|article|USA|2name=the United States|date=May 2013}} {{more citations needed|date=May 2013}} }} {{Use dmy dates|date=January 2022}} thumb|Cycling as a form of commuting [[File:Rush hour at Shinjuku 02.JPG|thumb|Rush hour at Shinjuku Station, Tokyo]]
'''Commuting''' is periodically recurring travel between a place of residence and place of work or study, where the traveler, referred to as a '''commuter''', leaves the boundary of their home community.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dictionary.com/browse/commuter|title=the definition of commuter|website=Dictionary.com|access-date=2018-02-04}}</ref> By extension, it can sometimes be any regular or often repeated travel between locations, even when not work-related. The modes of travel, time taken and distance traveled in commuting varies widely across the globe. Most people in least-developed countries continue to walk to work. The cheapest method of commuting after walking is usually by bicycle, so this is common in low-income countries but is also increasingly practised by people in wealthier countries for environmental, health, and often time reasons. In middle-income countries, motorcycle commuting is very common.
The next technology adopted as countries develop is more dependent on location: in more populous, older cities, especially in Eurasia mass transit (rail, bus, etc.) predominates, while in smaller, younger cities, and large parts of North America and Australasia, commuting by personal automobile is more common. A small number of very wealthy people, and those working in remote locations around the world, also commute by air travel, often for a week or more at a time rather than the more typical daily commute. High-speed rail has enabled both daily and weekly commuting across larger distances, giving rise to super commuters. Transportation links that enable commuting also impact the physical layout of cities and regions, allowing a distinction to arise between mostly-residential suburbs and the more economically focused urban core of a city (process known as suburban sprawl), but the specifics of how that distinction is realized remain drastically different between societies, with Eurasian "suburbs" often being more densely populated than North American "urban cores". Commuters often cross administrative boundaries, be they municipal, county, state/province or even national. In fact in countries like Germany the legal definition of "commuter" requires them to cross at least one municipal boundary on their way to work.<ref>{{cite web | title=Glossar - Statistik der Bundesagentur für Arbeit | url=https://statistik.arbeitsagentur.de/DE/Navigation/Grundlagen/Definitionen/Glossar/Glossar-Nav.html;jsessionid=5CCEA3268DA6BD2167353F3B10666900?lv2=2018266&lv3=2061210 }}</ref> The European Union's freedom of movement combined with good cross-border infrastructure (e.g. the Strasbourg tramway crossing into neighboring Germany) allows for a significant number of international commutes.
== History ==
The first separation between workplace and place of residence occurred as a result of the invention of the steam railway.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Heblich |first1=Stephan |last2=Redding |first2=Stephen J |last3=Sturm |first3=Daniel M |title=The Making of the Modern Metropolis: Evidence from London* |journal=The Quarterly Journal of Economics |date=November 2020 |volume=135 |issue=4 |pages=2059–2133 |doi=10.1093/qje/qjaa014 }}</ref> The word ''commuter'' derives from the early days of rail travel in US cities, such as New York, Philadelphia, Boston and Chicago, where, in the 1840s, the railways engendered suburbs from which travelers paid a reduced or 'commuted' fare into the city. Later, the back formations "commute" and "commuter" were coined therefrom. Commuted tickets would usually allow the traveler to repeat the same journey as often as they liked during the period of validity: normally, the longer the period the cheaper the cost per day.<ref>{{Cite web| last = Paumgarten | first = Nick | title = There and Back Again: The soul of the commuter | newspaper = The New Yorker | date = 16 April 2007 | url = http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2007/04/16/070416fa_fact_paumgarten?printable=true | access-date = 9 October 2009}}</ref>
Before the 19th century, most workers lived less than an hour's walk from their work. The Industrial Revolution brought specialization of work and workplaces, and relocated most paid work from households and rural areas to factories in urban areas.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Encyclopedia of the City|last=Caves|first=R. W.|publisher=Routledge|year=2004|pages=138}}</ref> Today, many people travel daily to work a long way from their own towns, cities, and villages, especially in industrialised societies. Depending on factors such as the high cost of housing in city centres, lack of public transit, and traffic congestion, modes of travel may include automobiles, motorcycles, trains, aircraft, buses, and bicycles. Where Los Angeles is infamous for its automobile gridlock, commuting in New York is closely associated with the subway. In London and Tokyo and several European cities, "commuter" is automatically associated with rail passengers.<ref>Smoothly from Harrow: A Compendium for the London Commuter by Chris Moss (Blue Guides, 2013)</ref> According to journey-to-work studies, high wage workers, as well as men working in managerial employment, have longer journey-times than other workers. Studies also found that in the past, the use of public transport has increased the time spent every day on the journey-to-work.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Race And Place: Equity Issues In Urban America|author1=John W. Frazier|author2=Florence Margai|author3=Eugene Tettey-Fio|publisher=Avalon Publishing|year=2009|isbn=9780786730544}}</ref>
== Suburbs and the commuter towns== {{main|commuter town}} Commuting has had a large impact on modern life. It has allowed cities to grow to sizes that were previously not practical, and it has led to the proliferation of suburbs. Many large cities or conurbations are surrounded by commuter belts, also known as metropolitan areas, commuter towns, dormitory towns, or bedroom communities. The prototypical commuter lives in one of these areas and travels daily to work or to school in the core city.
As urban sprawl pushes further and further away from central business districts, new businesses can appear in outlying cities, leading to the existence of the reverse commuter who lives in a core city but works in the suburbs, and to a type of secondary commuter who lives in a more distant exurb and works in the outlying city or industrial suburb.
Depending on local taxation laws, commuting can lead to significant issues with municipal finances. Commuters work in one municipality while residing in another. As taxes are usually paid based on place of residence, the suburbs receive tax revenue from economic activity occurring in the central city. Meanwhile commuters often also use public infrastructure of the central city outside the immediate work and commuting context. One potential way to remedy the issue is to annex the commuter suburbs into the central city. However, depending on local laws, this may be legally difficult or impossible or politically unpalatable. Another potential measure is for municipalities to receive equalization payments so that "rich" municipalities pay a certain share of their tax revenue to "poor" municipalities.
==Gender differences== A UK study, published in 2009, found that on average women suffer four times as much psychological stress from their work commute as men do.<ref>Walsh, Meghan Ozy, "[https://www.pbs.org/newshour/nation/commuting-driving-women-workforce How a bad commute is worse for women than men]", ''PBS NewsHour'', 20 February 2015</ref><ref>{{cite report |last1=Roberts |first1=J. |last2=Hodgson |first2=R. |last3=Dolan |first3=P. |title=It's driving her mad: gender differences in the effects of commuting on psychological well-being |date=May 2009 |url=https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/id/eprint/10005/ }}</ref> An Indian study conducted in Mangalore led by Edmond Fernandes stated that creating a gender sensitive commuter-centric road safety policy requires to be developed to protect women while commuting as they felt stressed and scared to travel alone, particularly at night.<ref>{{cite journal |id={{Gale|A493214027}} |last1=Fernandes |first1=Edmond |last2=Nirgude |first2=Abhay |last3=Naik |first3=Poonam |last4=Dsouza |first4=Neevan |last5=Shetty |first5=Soumya |title=Study of commuter problems and opinions in a fast developing coastal city of Mangalore in India: A gender perspective analysis |journal=International Journal of Health & Allied Sciences |date=April 2017 |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=57 }}</ref>
== Education == Institutions that have few dormitories or low or no student housing populations are called ''commuter schools'' in the United States, like community colleges.
== Traffic == {{main|Traffic}} [[File:Trafficjam.jpg|thumb|Traffic jam in Baltimore, Maryland]] Most commuters travel at the same time of day, resulting in the morning and evening rush hours, with congestion on roads and public transport systems not designed or maintained well enough to cope with the peak demands. As an example, Interstate 405 located in Southern California is one of the busiest freeways in the United States. Commuters may sit up to two hours in traffic during rush hour. Construction work or collisions on the freeway distract and slow down commuters, contributing to even longer delays.
== Pollution == Cars carrying only one occupant use fuel and roads less efficiently than shared cars or public transport, and increase traffic congestion. Commuting by car is a major factor contributing to air pollution. Carpool lanes can help commuters reach their destinations more quickly, encourage people to socialize, and spend time together, while reducing air pollution. Some governments and employers have introduced employee travel reduction programs that encourage such alternatives as carpooling and remote work. Some are also carpooling using Internet sites to save money. Alternatives like personal rapid transit have also been proposed to reap the energy-efficiency benefits of a mass transit system while maintaining the speed and convenience of individual transport.
Traffic emissions, such as from cars and trucks, also contribute.<ref>{{cite web |title=Clearing the Air |publisher=The Surface Transportation Policy Project |date=19 August 2003 |url=http://www.transact.org/report.asp?id=227 |access-date=2007-04-26 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070208230135/http://www.transact.org/report.asp?id=227 |archive-date=8 February 2007 }}</ref> Airborne by-products from vehicle exhaust systems cause air pollution and are a major ingredient in the creation of smog in some large cities.<ref>{{cite press release | url = http://yosemite.epa.gov/opa/admpress.nsf/6427a6b7538955c585257359003f0230/228d9bf38da42f7c8525743b006db951!OpenDocument&Start=1&Count=5&Expand=1 | archive-url = https://archive.today/20120805235601/http://yosemite.epa.gov/opa/admpress.nsf/6427a6b7538955c585257359003f0230/228d9bf38da42f7c8525743b006db951!OpenDocument&Start=1&Count=5&Expand=1 | url-status = dead | archive-date = 5 August 2012 | title = EPA Tools Available as Summer Smog Season Starts | date = 30 April 2008 | publisher = United States Environmental Protection Agency | location = Boston, Massachusetts}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.sierraclub.org/sprawl/report01/carsandtrucks.asp | title = Sprawl Report 2001: Measuring Vehicle Contribution to Smog | publisher = Sierra Club | year = 2001 | access-date = 15 January 2017 | archive-date = 15 November 2001 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20011115044348/http://www.sierraclub.org/sprawl/report01/carsandtrucks.asp | url-status = dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://library.thinkquest.org/26026/Environmental_Problems/smog_-_causes.html | title = Smog – Causes | work = The Environment: A Global Challenge |first1=Caroline |last1=Camic|first2=David |last2=Mericle|first3=Michael |last3=Muelly|first4=Mindy |last4=Taranto|first5=Neil |last5=Franklin|first6=Vikas |last6=Sonak |publisher=ThinkQuest |date=1999 | access-date = 25 October 2013 | archive-date = 19 January 2001 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20010119154200/http://library.thinkquest.org/26026/Environmental_Problems/smog_-_causes.html | url-status = dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | url = http://www.epa.gov/air/ozonepollution/pdfs/smog.pdf | publisher = United States Environmental Protection Agency | date = July 1999 | title = Smog – Who Does It Hurt? What You Need to Know About Ozone and Your Health |id=EPA-452/K-99-001|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130622161120/http://www.epa.gov/air/ozonepollution/pdfs/smog.pdf |archive-date= Jun 22, 2013 }}</ref> The major culprits from transportation sources are carbon monoxide (CO),<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www3.epa.gov/cgi-bin/broker?polchoice=CO&_debug=0&_service=data&_program=dataprog.national_1.sas | work = Air Emission Sources | title = State and County Emission Summaries: Carbon Monoxide | date = 25 October 2013 | publisher = United States Environmental Protection Agency}}</ref><ref name="queensland">{{cite web | url = http://www.tmr.qld.gov.au/Community-and-environment/Environmental-management/How-you-can-make-a-difference/Motor-vehicle-pollution.aspx | title = Motor vehicle pollution | publisher = Queensland Government | date = 4 April 2013 | access-date = 15 January 2017 | archive-date = 5 December 2019 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20191205161028/https://www.tmr.qld.gov.au/Community-and-environment/Environmental-management/How-you-can-make-a-difference/Motor-vehicle-pollution.aspx | url-status = dead }}</ref> nitrogen oxides (NO and NO<sub>x</sub>),<ref name="epa-no2">{{cite web | url = http://www.epa.gov/air/nitrogenoxides/health.html | archive-url = https://archive.today/20120802140219/http://www.epa.gov/air/nitrogenoxides/health.html | url-status = dead | archive-date = 2 August 2012 | work = Nitrogen Dioxide | title = Health | publisher = United States Environmental Protection Agency | date = 14 February 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.epa.gov/air/noxfacts.pdf | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20011110030903/http://www.epa.gov/air/noxfacts.pdf | url-status = dead | archive-date = 10 November 2001 | title = The Regional Transport of Ozone: New EPA Rulemaking on Nitrogen Oxide Emissions (EPA-456/F-98-006) | publisher = United States Environmental Protection Agency | date = September 1998}}</ref><ref name="EPA_NOx">{{cite web | url = http://www.epa.gov/cgi-bin/broker?_service=data&_debug=0&_program=dataprog.national_1.sas&polchoice=NOX | archive-url = https://archive.today/20121213042302/http://www.epa.gov/cgi-bin/broker?_service=data&_debug=0&_program=dataprog.national_1.sas&polchoice=NOX | url-status = dead | archive-date = 13 December 2012 | title = State and County Emission Summaries: Nitrogen Oxides | work = Air emission sources | publisher = United States Environmental Protection Agency | date = 25 October 2013}}</ref> volatile organic compounds,<ref name="queensland" /><ref name="epa-no2" /> sulfur dioxide,<ref name="queensland" /> and hydrocarbons.<ref name="queensland" /> Hydrocarbons are the main components of petroleum fuels such as gasoline and diesel fuel. These molecules react with sunlight, heat, ammonia, moisture, and other compounds to form the noxious vapours, ground level ozone, and particles that comprise smog.<ref name="queensland" /><ref name="epa-no2" />
Electric rail based options like trams, commuter rail, S-Bahn or subways drastically reduce pollution in urban areas<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gendron-Carrier |first1=Nicolas |last2=Gonzalez-Navarro |first2=Marco |last3=Polloni |first3=Stefano |last4=Turner |first4=Matthew A. |title=Subways and Urban Air Pollution |journal=American Economic Journal: Applied Economics |date=January 2022 |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=164–196 |doi=10.1257/app.20180168 |pmid=36643023 |pmc=9838121 }}</ref> as well as overall as electric traction is much more efficient than internal combustion engines. However, especially in the confined space of underground metro stations, localized air pollution from particulate matter produced by wear and tear on breaks, wheels, rails etc. can reach significant and potentially harmful levels.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Shunyao |last2=Qin |first2=Tianchen |last3=Tu |first3=Ran |last4=Li |first4=Tianyuan |last5=Chen |first5=Gang I. |last6=Green |first6=David C. |last7=Zhang |first7=Xin |last8=Feng |first8=Jialiang |last9=Liu |first9=Haobing |last10=Hu |first10=Ming |last11=Fu |first11=Qingyan |title=Indoor air quality in subway microenvironments: Pollutant characteristics, adverse health impacts, and population inequity |journal=Environment International |date=August 2024 |volume=190 |article-number=108873 |doi=10.1016/j.envint.2024.108873 |pmid=39024827 |bibcode=2024EnInt.19008873W |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Passi |first1=Amit |last2=Nagendra |first2=S.M. Shiva |last3=Maiya |first3=M.P. |title=Characteristics of indoor air quality in underground metro stations: A critical review |journal=Building and Environment |date=July 2021 |volume=198 |article-number=107907 |doi=10.1016/j.buildenv.2021.107907 |bibcode=2021BuEnv.19807907P }}</ref>
==Social trends== ===Commuting trends in the United States=== thumb|upright=1.6|Commuting times and patterns in US cities, 2023 US Census data In the United States, the Census Bureau's American Community Survey (ACS) collects data on commuting times, allowing an analysis of average commute time by industry, location, and vehicle. According to the 2014 ACS, the average commute time for adults in the United States was 26.8 minutes.
The occupations with the longest commutes were Construction and Mining (33.4 minutes), Computer Science and Math (31.8), and Business Operations Specialists (30.2), while those in the military had the shortest commute (21). In general, urban and suburban workers in the US have similar commute times (about 30 minutes), while rural workers have significantly shorter commutes (22.6 minutes).
In the US, over 90% of workers commute by car, while about 5% commute by public transportation.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Kopf|first1=Dan|title=Which Professions Have the Longest Commutes?|url=http://priceonomics.com/which-professions-have-the-longest-commutes/|website=Pricenomics|date=23 February 2016 |access-date=10 March 2016}}</ref> Statistical models<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bhat |first1=Chandra R. |last2=Misra |first2=Rajul |title=Discretionary activity time allocation of individuals between in-home and out-of-home and between weekdays and weekends |journal=Transportation |date=May 1999 |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=193–229 |doi=10.1023/A:1005192230485 |bibcode=1999Trans..26..193B }}</ref> indicate that in addition to demographics and work duration, commute time is one of the most important determinants of discretionary time allocation by individuals.
=== Commuting College Students === The number of students who commute to college continues to increase significantly as the years go by. From 1996 to 2006 alone, the percentage of undergraduate students who commuted to campus began to increase at a rate of 30% to 50%.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Understanding and Addressing Commuter Student Needs |publisher=J. Patrick Biddix |pages=80}}</ref> By 2009 the percentage of students in the United States who commute to college or university was 85%<ref>{{Cite journal |last=He |first=Fanny |date=2019 |title=Undergraduate Commuter Students: Challenges and Struggles |id={{ERIC|EJ1341616}} |journal=Journal of Student Affairs |volume=15 |pages=43–49 }}</ref>
In a study involving 10 universities in Canada, 61% of students reported that their commute was a challenge to campus participation, while 30% perceived it as a barrier to academic success. Factors influencing satisfaction included commute mode, duration, travel attitudes, and campus type. Notably, 72% of students had one-way commutes of one hour or less, 22% had commutes lasting between 60 and 90 minutes, and 9% faced commutes exceeding 90 minutes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Taylor |first1=Ryan |last2=Mitra |first2=Raktim |title=Commute satisfaction and its relationship to post-secondary students' campus participation and success |journal=Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment |date=July 2021 |volume=96 |article-number=102890 |doi=10.1016/j.trd.2021.102890 |bibcode=2021TRPD...9602890T }}</ref>
=== Commuting and the scarcity of local employment === {{Unreferenced section|date=September 2023}} Commuting is often made necessary due to local employment market factors which may stem from the decline of manufacturing (i.e., in cities where large manufacturing employers have either closed or laid off workers, with no other employers to absorb that loss) and, in general, the sheer lack of local employment. More specifically, wages from local employers are often insufficient for a worker household to sustain itself. As a result, the needs of worker households must be sustained and this leads to a wider field of job search beyond a local area to the next nearest city or metropolitan area, resulting in the requirement for commuting. Hence, in areas where little or no transit options exist that can facilitate a journey to work to meet the requirements of a worker schedule, the use of a car is therefore made necessary. This is a personal choice driven by financial need, highlighting the broader issue of sustaining local economies.
===Social and health implications of commuting=== {{Unreferenced section|date=September 2023}} Since commuting largely stems from a need to travel outside a home community to sustain a household income while facing a bleak local employment market, this comes with additional social and health implications. First, there is the increased risk of injury and accident while driving as distance and time in the vehicle increases, which is generally observed when operating a vehicle. Fatigue and hazardous road conditions add to this risk. Second, while income from employment is greater in other cities, stress from commuting factors become a factor for personal health. Ironically, stress from having to locate employment or being placed in a low-income situation might lead to a similar outcome. However, this is dichotomous with the satisfaction of a sustainable income and good employment, which is clearly the goal of an individual who is faced with commuting. Research has found that cities hosting large numbers of inbound commuters tend to experience higher rates of property crime, linking commuting patterns to urban crime.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Puttock |first1=Simon |last2=Barros |first2=Umberto |last3=Pinheiro |first3=Diego |last4=Oliveira |first4=Marcos |title=Larger cities, more commuters, more crime? The role of inter‑city commuting in the scaling of urban crime |journal=Crime Science |year=2025 |volume=14 |article-number=19 |doi=10.1186/s40163-025-00264-8 |doi-access=free |hdl=1871.1/ee4d967a-d567-4606-89f6-8adb7ffcb48d |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Beyond physical stress long distance commuting is associated with a decrease as individuals have less time to engage on on-campus activities. Research suggests that for every ten minutes added to a commute there is a decline in social connections and civic participation. <ref>{{Citation |last=Oberle |first=Monika |title=Robert D. Putnam: Bowling Alone. The Collapse and Revival of American Community, New York: Simon and Schuster 2000, 541 S |date=2016 |work=Klassiker der Sozialwissenschaften |pages=408–411 |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-13213-2_95 |access-date=2026-05-07 |place=Wiesbaden |publisher=Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden |isbn=978-3-658-13212-5}}</ref>
==See also== {{div col}} * {{annotated link|Commuter rail}} * {{annotated link|Commuter worker}} * {{annotated link|Health and environmental effects of transport}} * {{annotated link|Extreme commuting}} * {{annotated link|Hypermobility (travel)}} * {{annotated link|Marchetti's constant}} * {{annotated link|Motorcycle commuting}} * {{annotated link|Reverse commute}} * {{annotated link|Slugging}} * {{annotated link|Standing passenger}} * {{annotated link|Student transport}} * {{annotated link|Transit-oriented development}} * {{annotated link|Urban planning}} {{div col end}}
==References== {{Reflist}}
==External links== {{Commons category}} {{Wiktionary}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20160325025132/http://indigestmag.com/blog/?p=9904#.UqKkhOJx6Sq "Commuters," a poetic rendition of the New Jersey-to-New York commuting life by Steve Peacock (2011) InDigestMag.com] * [https://www.census.gov/Press-Release/www/releases/archives/american_community_survey_acs/001695.html US Commuting Averages (2002)] * [https://www.theguardian.com/france/story/0,11882,1167366,00.html Some Commuters are travelling from France to London] * [http://www.platform11.org Platform 11 – Ireland's National Rail Commuter Group] * [https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/five-maps-reveal-new-truths-americas-megaregions-bruce-upbin?trk=eml-email_feed_ecosystem_digest_01-hero-0-null&midToken=AQGRFcgcMLnxPg&fromEmail=fromEmail&ut=0Zq3Rx3DMZ7nA1 Five Maps That Reveal New Truths About America's Megaregions]
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Category:Commuting Category:Transport and the environment Category:Urban geography Category:Types of travel