{{Short description|Indigenous people of Mexico and California, US}} {{other uses}} {{infobox ethnic group | group = Kumeyaay | flag = | flag_caption = Flag of the Kumeyaay-Diegueño | population = As of 1990, 1,200 on reservations; 2,000 off-reservation{{sfn|Pritzker|2000|p=145}} | popplace = {{ubl|Mexico (Baja California)|United States (California)}} | langs = Ipai, Kumeyaay, Tipai, English, and Spanish | rels = | related = Luiseño, Cocopa, Quechan, Paipai and Kiliwa| }} thumb|Michael Connolly, from San Diego, pronounces ''Kumeyaay'' The '''Kumeyaay''', also known as '''<nowiki/>'Iipai-Tiipai''' or by the historical Spanish name '''Diegueño''', is a tribe of Indigenous people who live at the northern border of Baja California in Mexico and the southern border of California in the United States. They are an Indigenous people of California.
The Kumeyaay language belongs to the Yuman–Cochimí language family. The Kumeyaay consist of three related groups, the ''''Iipai''', '''Tiipai''', and '''Kamia'''. The San Diego River loosely divided the 'Iipay and the Tiipai historical homelands, while the Kamia lived in the eastern desert areas. The 'Iipai lived to the north, from Escondido to Lake Henshaw, while the Tiipai lived to the south, in lands including the Laguna Mountains, Ensenada, and Tecate. The Kamia lived to the east in an area that included Mexicali and bordered the Salton Sea.
==Name== {{further|California Missions}} The Kumeyaay or 'Iipai-Tiipai were formerly known as the '''Diegueños''', the former Spanish name applied to the Mission Indians living along the San Diego River.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.kumeyaay.com/the-indians-of-san-diego-county.html|title=The Indians of San Diego County|website=Kumeyaay.com|access-date=2020-10-29|archive-date=2020-11-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101184205/https://www.kumeyaay.com/the-indians-of-san-diego-county.html|url-status=live}}</ref> They are referred to as '''Kumiai''' in Mexico.
The term ''Kumeyaay'' translates as "People of the west", with the word ''meyaay'' meaning "steep" or "cliff".{{sfn|Hoffman|Gamble|2006|p=81}}
==Language== All languages and dialects spoken by the Kumeyaay belong to the Delta–California branch of the Yuman language family, to which several other linguistically distinct, but related, groups also belong (including the Cocopa, Quechan, Paipai, and Kiliwa). Native speakers contend that, within their territory, all Kumeyaay ('Iipay/Tiipay) can understand and speak to each other, if even after a brief familiarization.{{sfn|Smith|2005|p=12}}
Nomenclature and tribal distinctions are not widely agreed upon. According to Margaret Langdon, who is credited with doing much of the early work on documenting the language,{{sfn|Langdon|1990|pp=184-190}}<ref>{{cite news|url=http://legacy.sandiegouniontribune.com/uniontrib/20051102/news_1m2langdon.html|title=Obituary: Margaret Langdon; linguist helped write first local Indian dictionary|newspaper=The San Diego Union-Tribune|date=November 2, 2005|last=Barfield|first=Chet|access-date=October 10, 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161011055544/http://legacy.sandiegouniontribune.com/uniontrib/20051102/news_1m2langdon.html|archive-date=October 11, 2016}}</ref> the general scholarly consensus recognized three separate dialects:
* 'Iipai (Northern Digueño) * Kumeyaay proper (Kamia) * Tiipay (Southern Digueño) in northern Baja California
Katherine Luomala considered that the wide range of dialect variations reflected only two distinct languages, 'Iipai and Tiipai,{{sfn|Luomala|1978|page=[https://archive.org/details/handbookofnorth008stur/page/594 594]}} a view mostly supported by other researchers.{{sfn|Pritzker|2000|p=140}}{{sfn|Field|2012|p=557}}
Kumeyaay (Ipai–Tipai / Kumiai) is traditionally transmitted through oral narratives, song cycles, and ceremonial practices. Bird songs, which recount migratory journeys and ancestral histories, remain one of the most culturally significant forms of verbal art among Kumeyaay communities.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Kumeyaay Native American Oral Literature, Cultural Identity, and Language Revitalisation Brewminate: A Bold Blend of News and Ideas|url=https://brewminate.com/kumeyaay-native-american-oral-literature-cultural-identity-and-language-revitalisation/|date=2017-06-21|access-date=2025-11-29|language=en-US|last=Field|first=Margaret}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=Preston Arrow-Weed|url=https://actaonline.org/profile/preston-arrow-weed/|website=Alliance for California Traditional Arts|access-date=2025-11-29|language=en-US}}</ref> Although the number of first-language speakers has declined, linguistic elements continue to appear in song traditions and storytelling, and community-based language classes and revitalization programs operate on several Kumeyaay reservations and at Kumeyaay Community College.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Revitalizing the Kumeyaay language|url=https://ictnews.org/archive/revitalizing-the-kumeyaay-language/|website=ICT|date=2006-10-19|access-date=2025-11-29|language=en-US|first=Steven|last=Newcomb}}</ref>
Language preservation efforts are active on both sides of the U.S.–Mexico border. Community-based initiatives such as Kumeyaay Community College (Sycuan), university collaborations, and programs within individual reservations support adult classes, documentation, and curriculum development. Archival and museum collections relevant to Kumeyaay language, history, and oral traditions are held at regional institutions such as the Museum of Us and tribal museums including the Barona Cultural Center & Museum.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Barona Cultural Center & Museum: Bringing History to the Next Generation|url=https://ictnews.org/archive/barona-cultural-center-museum-bringing-history-to-the-next-generation/|website=ICT|date=2016-04-06|access-date=2025-11-29|language=en-US|first=Diana|last=Saenger}}</ref>
==History== [[Image:Kumeyaay.jpg|thumb|upright|Engraving by Arthur Carl Victor Schott, Sorony & Co., 1857]]
=== Pre-European contact === Evidence of the settlement in what is today considered Kumeyaay territory may go back twelve millennia.{{sfn|Erlandson|Rick|Jones|Porcasi|2010|page=62}} Circa 7000 B.C. marked the emergence of two cultural traditions: the California Coast and Valley tradition and the Desert tradition.{{sfn|Luomala|1978|page=[https://archive.org/details/handbookofnorth008stur/page/594 594]}} The Kumeyaay had land along the Pacific Ocean from present Oceanside, California, in the north to south of Ensenada, Mexico, and extending east to the Colorado River.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kumeyaay.info/kumeyaay_maps/kumeyaay_map.html|title=KUMEYAAY MAP 1776 Kumeyaay Territory, 2005 California Indian Reservations|website=Kumeyaay Information Village|access-date=2018-12-09|archive-date=2018-12-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181210230330/http://www.kumeyaay.info/kumeyaay_maps/kumeyaay_map.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The Cuyamaca complex, a late Holocene complex in San Diego County is related to the Kumeyaay peoples.<ref name=sca>{{cite web|url=http://www.scahome.org/about_ca_archaeology/chrono.html|title=A Glossary of Proper Names in California Prehistory|website=Society for California Archaeology|access-date=August 12, 2011|archive-date=December 28, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121228021200/http://www.scahome.org/about_ca_archaeology/chrono.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>
One view holds that historic 'Iipai-Tiipai emerged around one millennium ago, though a "proto-'Iipai-Tiipai culture" had been established by about 5000 B.C.{{sfn|Pritzker|2000|p=145}} Another view suggests that the "nucleus of later Tipai-Ipai groups" came together around A.D. 1000.{{sfn|Luomala|1978|page=[https://archive.org/details/handbookofnorth008stur/page/594 594]}} The Kumeyaay themselves traditionally hold that they have lived in San Diego since 10,000 B.C.<ref name=ki>{{cite web|url=http://www.kumeyaay.info/kumeyaay/|title=The Kumeyaay of Southern California|website=Kumeyaay Information Village|access-date=October 10, 2016|archive-date=September 28, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160928052851/http://www.kumeyaay.info/kumeyaay/|url-status=live}}</ref> At the time of European contact, Kumeyaay comprised several autonomous bands with thirty patrilineal clans.{{sfn|Luomala|1978|page=[https://archive.org/details/handbookofnorth008stur/page/592 592]}}
=== Spanish exploration and colonization === The first European to visit the region was Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo in 1542. He had initially met with the Kumeyaay, but this did not lead to any colonial settlement. Sebastián Vizcaíno also visited in 1602 and met with a band of Kumeyaay during the feast of ''San Diego de Alcalá'', thus giving the region of San Diego its name; however, this also did not lead to colonial settlement. [[File:Kosa'aay - California Birthplace 1769.jpg|thumb|288x288px|Location of the Kumeyaay village of Kosa'aay in yellow.]]
==== Missionization period ==== In 1769, the Portolá expedition anchored in San Diego Bay and, once on land, traveled to the Kumeyaay village of Cosoy (Kosa'aay) to recover and resupply. After their recovery, the Spanish established a presidio over the village and the Misión San Diego de Alcalá, incorporating the village into the settlement of San Diego. In 1769, under the Spanish Mission system, bands living near Misión San Diego de Alcalá (overlooking the San Diego River, in present-day Mission Valley), were called Diegueños; later bands, living near Mission San Luis Rey de Francia, were called the Luiseño.{{sfn|Luomala|1978|page=[https://archive.org/details/handbookofnorth008stur/page/592 592]}} The Spaniards brought with them new, non-native, invasive flora and domestic animals, which brought about some level of degradation to local ecology. This included grazing and foraging livestock animals such as pigs, goats, sheep, cattle, horses, donkeys, and various birds, like chickens, pheasants and ducks; the latter dirtying local water sources considerably.
After years of sexual assaults from the Spanish soldiers in the Presidio, and physical torture of Mission Indians using metal-tipped whips (by Mission staff),<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.historynet.com/battle-san-diego.htm|title=The Battle for San Diego|website=HistoryNet|date=October 11, 2017|last=Yagi|first=George|access-date=September 2, 2020|archive-date=September 29, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200929054409/https://www.historynet.com/battle-san-diego.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> the Tiipay-Kumeyaay villages led a revolt against the Spanish, burning down Mission San Diego and killing Father Luis Jayme along with two others. Missionaries and church leaders “apologized” and forgave the Kumeyaay, rebuilding their mission closer to the Kumeyaay village of Nipaquay or ''Nipawai''. Ultimately, the Spanish solidified their control over the area until the end of the mission era.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://sandiegohistory.org/journal/1997/july/missionrevolt/|title=Sociopolitical Aspects of the 1775 Revolt at Mission San Diego de Alcala|website=San Diego History Center|access-date=September 2, 2020|archive-date=August 12, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200812062403/https://sandiegohistory.org/journal/1997/july/missionrevolt/|url-status=live}}</ref>
==== Colorado River conflict ==== In the east, the Kamia-Kumeyaay were engaged in an armed regional conflict in the Colorado River region against a coalition of Yuman speaking tribes east of the Colorado River and the Cahuilla led by the Maricopa. The Kumeyaay aligned with Quechan-led coalition, along with the Mohave, Yavapai, Chemehuevi, and other smaller groups on the Colorado River. The Spanish mediated peace talks between the two warring factions in the mid-1770s, largely siding with the Quechan-aligned alliance. However, increased tensions between the Spanish and the Quechan led to resumed conflict in 1781, but with the Spanish being denied overland access to Alta California and siding with the Maricopa-aligned coalition.<ref>Naomi Sussman. “Indigenous Diplomacy and Spanish Mediation in the Lower Colorado-Gila River Region, 1771-1783.” ''Ethnohistory'', vol. 66, no. 2, Apr. 2019, pp. 329–52. ''EBSCOhost'', {{doi|10.1215/00141801-7298819}}.</ref> The Spanish would then refocus their attention westwards to secure their maritime access to Alta California on 'Iipay-Tiipay-Kumeyaay lands.
===Early Mexican rancho era===
====First Mexican Empire and First Mexican Republic period==== The Mexican Empire assumed ownership of Kumeyaay lands after defeating Spain in the Mexican War of Independence in 1821. The following year, Mexican troops confiscated all coastal lands from the Kumeyaay in 1822, granting much of the land to Mexican settlers, who became known as Californios,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.latinorebels.com/2018/11/22/givethanks/|title=Give Thanks and Remember Your Cousins|website=Latino Rebels|date=November 22, 2018|last=Gurling|first=Sara|access-date=September 3, 2020|archive-date=July 3, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230703082839/https://www.latinorebels.com/2018/11/22/givethanks/|url-status=live}}</ref> to develop the land for agriculture, beginning the California rancho era.
Kumeyaay fell victim to smallpox and malaria epidemics in 1827 and 1832, reducing their population.<ref name=Timeline>{{cite web|url=https://www.kumeyaay.com/kumeyaay-timeline.html|title=Kumeyaay Timeline|website=Kumeyaay.com|access-date=September 2, 2020|archive-date=November 26, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201126181530/https://www.kumeyaay.com/kumeyaay-timeline.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
Various disputes culminated to a skirmish between the Kumeyaay and Mexican soldiers stationed in San Diego in 1826, killing 26 Kumeyaay.<ref name=Timeline/> This provoked Lt. Juan M. Ibarra to lead several attacks on Kumeyaay-controlled lands, and killed 28 people in his attack on Santa Ysabel on April 5 of that year.<ref name=Connolly>{{cite web|url=https://www.kumeyaay.com/kumeyaay-the-mexican-period.html|title=Kumeyaay – The Mexican Period|website=Kumeyaay.com|last=Connolly|first=Mike|access-date=October 16, 2020|archive-date=October 23, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201023072157/https://www.kumeyaay.com/kumeyaay-the-mexican-period.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In retaliation, the Kamia-Kumeyaay attacked Fort Romualdo Pacheco on April 26 with the support of the Quechan, resulting in three dead Mexican soldiers and a fort that would never return to service.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ruhge |first=Justin |date=2005 |title=Historic California Posts: Fuerte de Laguna Chapala |url=https://www.militarymuseum.org/lagunachapala.html |access-date=2024-08-13 |website=www.militarymuseum.org}}</ref>
After decades of debates and delays, the missions in Alta California were secularized in 1833, and Ipai and Tipais lost their lands; band members had to choose between becoming serfs, trespassers, rebels, or fugitives.{{sfn|Luomala|1978|page=[https://archive.org/details/handbookofnorth008stur/page/595 595]}} This increased tensions between the Kumeyaay and the Mexican settlers as the economic instability threatened the security of Mexican and American merchants transiting through the area.
====Centralist Republic of Mexico period==== Under territorial governor José Figueroa, some of the Kumeyaay from Mission San Diego were allowed to resettle and establish San Pasqual pueblo in 1835, who would later become the San Pasqual Band of Diegueno Mission Indians.<ref name="San Pasqual">{{cite web|url=http://www.sanpasqualbandofmissionindians.org/about/history|title=History: 1769 - The Arrival of the Spaniards|website=SanPasqualBandofMissionIndians.org|access-date=September 2, 2020|archive-date=February 2, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210202212918/http://www.sanpasqualbandofmissionindians.org/about/history|url-status=live}}</ref> The Kumeyaay pueblo fought against hostile bands and protected Mexican settlers, with a decisive victory over an anti-Christian uprising and capturing its leader, Claudio.<ref name=Farris>{{cite web|url=https://sandiegohistory.org/journal/1997/april/panto/|title=Captain Jose Panto and the San Pascual Indian Pueblo in San Diego County 1835-1878|website=San Diego History Center|last=Farris|first=Glenn|access-date=September 2, 2020|archive-date=August 12, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200812033802/https://sandiegohistory.org/journal/1997/april/panto/|url-status=live}}</ref>
With conditions worsening, the Kumeyaay led an attack on Rancho Tecate in 1836, forcing the alcalde of San Diego to send an expedition to suppress the Kumeyaay, but returned unsuccessfully. Because of the failed venture, Mexico failed to adequately suppress talk of Californian secession from American settlers in northern Alta California.<ref name=Connolly/>
Further Kumeyaay raids on El Cajon (1836) and Rancho Jamul (1837) threatened the security of San Diego, as many residents of San Diego fled the city. The Kumeyaay were able to attack San Diego in the late 1830s. Kumeyaay advancements into Rancho Bernardo in the north and San Ysidro and Tijuana to the south at the end of the decade threatened to cut off San Diego from the rest of the Centralist Republic of Mexico. The Kumeyaay made preparations to lay siege on San Diego in the early 1840s and launched a second attack on San Diego in June 1842. However, San Diego managed to defend itself once more. While the siege failed, the Kumeyaay managed to control much of the south, east, and most of the north of the settlement, with the town becoming dependent on sea access maintain connections to the rest of Mexico. Together with Quechan resistance in the east, the Kumeyaay cut off Alta California of all land routes to the rest of the Mexican republic between the Colorado River and the Pacific Ocean up until the Mexican–American War, further threatening Mexican control of the southern Alta California coast. The Kumeyaay prevented Mexican usage of the ranchos around San Diego and evicted most of the Californios in the area by 1844, and continued launching raids deep into the Mexican controlled coast up until the start of the Mexican–American War.<ref name=Connolly/> The Mexican settlers became refugees on Point Loma as they waited for ships, hoping to evacuate from San Diego as Kumeyaay victories challenged their ability to hold the pueblo.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Cruz |first1=Debbie |last2=Mohebbi |first2=Emilyn |last3=Ruth |first3=Brooke |title=Prosecuting overdose deaths as homicides |url=https://www.kpbs.org/podcasts/san-diego-news-now/prosecuting-overdose-deaths-as-homicides |access-date=2023-12-07 |website=KPBS Public Media |publisher=KPBS |language=en |type=Podcast |publication-date=December 6, 2023}}</ref>
====Mexican-American War==== thumb|upright=1.35|Battle of San Pasqual, picturing the Kumeyaay pueblo
During the Mexican–American War, the Kumeyaay were initially neutral. The Kumeyaay of the San Pasqual pueblo were evacuated as the Americans approached the town. The Mexicans and the Californios were victorious over the Americans at the Battle of San Pasqual. A Kumeyaay leader, Panto, called on the Mexicans to cease hostilities with the Americans so that the Kumeyaay could tend to the wounded Americans, to which provided Panto and the San Pasqual Kumeyaay resupplied the Americans and helped ensure the American capture of the Pueblo de Los Ángeles and San Diego.<ref name="San Pasqual"/><ref name=Farris/>
===Late modern era=== After the Mexican–American War, Kumeyaay lands were split between the U.S. and Mexico through the Mexican Cession resulting from the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo.
====Yuma War and California genocide==== {{Further|Yuma War|California genocide}} In 1851, San Diego County unilaterally charged property taxes on Native American tribes in the county and threatened to confiscate land and property should they fail to pay up. This led to the San Diego Tax Rebellion of 1851 or "Garra's Revolt", with the destruction of Warner's Ranch led by the Cupeño, opening up a new western front of the Yuma War. The Kumeyaay agreed to join the revolt alongside Cahuilla, Cocopah, and Quechan warriors, but made no military commitments to attack San Diego or capture Fort Yuma.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.historynet.com/the-indian-tax-rebellion-of-1851.htm|title=The Indian Tax Rebellion of 1851|website=HistoryNet|date=June 12, 2006|access-date=September 3, 2020|archive-date=May 17, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210517184224/https://www.historynet.com/the-indian-tax-rebellion-of-1851.htm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1992-08-10-me-4992-story.html|title=San Diego History: Garra's Uprising|newspaper=Los Angeles Times|date=August 10, 1992|access-date=September 3, 2020|archive-date=April 11, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210411154805/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1992-08-10-me-4992-story.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
However, not all Kumeyaay bands fought on the same side of the Yuma war; the San Pasqual Band of Kumeyaay fought against the Quechan campaign to attack San Diego and defeated the Quechan in the San Pasqual Valley.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://viejasbandofkumeyaay.org/viejas-community/kumeyaay-history/kumeyaay-sense-of-the-land/|title=Kumeyaay Sense of the Land and Landscape|website=Viejas Band of Kumeyaay Indians|access-date=September 3, 2020|archive-date=November 1, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101193842/http://viejasbandofkumeyaay.org/viejas-community/kumeyaay-history/kumeyaay-sense-of-the-land/|url-status=live}}</ref>
The Kumeyaay withdrew from the war after the capitulation of the Cahuilla to the US and the failed attempt to capture Fort Yuma.
Compared to other California tribes, the Kumeyaay did not face the same magnitude of destruction and exploitation under the California genocide. This was due to the strategic positioning of the Kumeyaay and the lack of gold in the mountains. Additionally, Mexican officials in Baja California Territory threatened to intervene in the conflict if they committed any atrocities on tribes along the border, due to a mix of Mexican sympathies towards the Native Californians and a fear of refugees coming across the border.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.kumeyaay.com/kumeyaay-california-genocide.html|title=Kumeyaay – California Genocide|website=Kumeyaay.com|last=Connolly|first=Mike|access-date=October 16, 2020|archive-date=March 31, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331085632/https://www.kumeyaay.com/kumeyaay-california-genocide.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
====Establishment of Kumeyaay reservations in the U.S.==== thumb|A Historical Photograph of Kumeyaay Natives by Matilda Cox Stevenson On January 7, 1852, representatives of a number of Kumeyaay clans, including Panto, met with Commissioner Oliver M. Wozencraft and negotiated the Treaty of Santa Ysabel. The agreement was part of the "18 Treaties" of California, negotiated to protect Indian land rights. After the 18 Treaties were completed, the documents were sent to the United States Senate for approval. Under pressure from white settlers and the California Senate delegation, the treaties were all rejected.<ref name="San Pasqual"/>
From 1870 to 1910, American settlers seized lands, including arable and Native gathering lands. In 1875, President Ulysses S. Grant created reservations in the area, and additional lands were placed under trust patent status after the passage of the 1891 Act for the Relief of Mission Indians. The reservations tended to be small and lacked adequate water supplies.{{sfn|Shipek|1978|page=[https://archive.org/details/handbookofnorth008stur/page/610 610]}} The situation was made worse during the famine of 1880–1881, which forced many Kumeyaay to survive by accepting charity from whites, as they faced diseases, starvation and attacks from white settlers.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.kumeyaay.com/the-kumeyaay-threat-of-1860-1880.html|title=The Kumeyaay Threat of 1860-1880|website=Kumeyaay.com|last=Connolly|first=Mike|access-date=October 16, 2020|archive-date=July 3, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230703082811/https://www.kumeyaay.com/the-kumeyaay-threat-of-1860-1880.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
Some Kumeyaay chose not to establish a reservation inland and sought work in San Diego, many of whom migrated to the Kumeyaay village in what is now Balboa Park led by the Florida Canyon Kumeyaay Band. The village experienced growth after receiving immigrants from other Kumeyaay bands as well as from other Indigenous Californian and Bajeno tribes, who sought work in the city, transforming the village into a neighborhood integrated into the city fabric.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Jose Hatam Bio|url=http://www.americanindiansource.com/hatambio.html|access-date=2021-08-03|website=American Indian Source|archive-date=2021-07-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210725053310/http://www.americanindiansource.com/hatambio.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The village was then demolished in the early 1900s in preparation for the 1915 Panama–California Exposition, displacing the residents of the village.
[[File:El Capitan Reservoir - panoramio.jpg|thumb|Kumeyaay were displaced to construct El Capitan Reservoir]] In 1932, the Coapan Kumeyaay living and farming on the San Diego River were removed to make way for El Capitan Dam and El Capitan Reservoir and relocated their inhabitants at the Barona Reservation and the Viejas Reservation, further cutting down the agricultural capacity of the Kumeyaay reservations.<ref name=Timeline/>
====Kumeyaay in the Mexican Revolution (1910–1911)==== During the Mexican Revolution, the Magonistas gained the support of the Kumeyaay with an enthusiastic base, particularly in the Tecate region; many Kumeyaay from both sides of the border were enticed by their anarcho-syndicalist message of Indigenous liberation from the Mexican and American colonial nation-states starting with the end of the Porfirio Díaz dictatorship. The Kumeyaay supported the Magonistas as guides throughout the land, whose aid allowed them to control Mexicali, Tecate, and Tijuana during the Magonista rebellion of 1911.{{sfn|Muñoz|2012|pp=30–31}} However, the Kumeyaay did not participate in much of the active fighting in the Magonista Rebellion, and did not participate with Cocopah, Kiliwa, and Paipai tribes in raiding on small towns or looting Chinese-Mexican businesses in the region, and may have even smuggled Chinese-Mexican refugees to the American side of the border.{{sfn|Muñoz|2012|pp=30–31}} By the end of June, the rebellion was suppressed by the Madero administration.
After the revolution, the ban on Ejidos and other forms of communal living were lifted and the Kumeyaay were able to resume their traditional communal way of life legitimately with their communities in Valle de Las Palmas, Peña Blanca, and their five other reservations.<ref name=Maria>{{cite web|url=http://www.sohosandiego.org/enews/0518mariakumeyaay.htm|title=Kumeyaay Land: Baja California's Endangered Rural Heritage|website=SohoSanDiego.org|access-date=September 2, 2020|archive-date=February 21, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200221165141/http://www.sohosandiego.org/enews/0518mariakumeyaay.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
===Contemporary era===
====Kumeyaay-American economy and casino industry==== Kumeyaay people supported themselves by farming and agricultural wage labor; however, a 20-year drought in the mid-20th century crippled the region's dry farming economy.{{sfn|Shipek|1978|page=[https://archive.org/details/handbookofnorth008stur/page/611 611]}} For their common welfare, several reservations in the US formed the non-profit Kumeyaay, Inc.{{sfn|Shipek|1978|page=[https://archive.org/details/handbookofnorth008stur/page/616 616]}}
Cuts in Native American welfare programs under the Reagan and Bush Sr. administrations forced the reservation to find other means of income and capitalize on industries not possible off-reservation.<ref name=Banegas>{{cite journal|title=Indian Gaming in the Kumeyaay Nation|last=Banegas|first=Ethan|journal=The Journal of San Diego History Center|date=Winter 2017|publisher=San Diego History Center Quarterly|volume=63|issue=1|url=https://sandiegohistory.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/v63-1banegas.pdf|access-date=2021-05-12|archive-date=2021-11-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211129144113/https://sandiegohistory.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/v63-1banegas.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
left|thumb|Barona Resort Hotel In 1982, the Barona Band won its case in ''Barona Group of the Capitan Grande Band of Mission Indians v. Duffy'' (1982) to operate high-stakes bingo games, leading to the expansion of many Kumeyaay bingo operators into the casino industry. This helped establish Las Vegas-style gaming operations in the reservations in the region, evaporating reservation unemployment and poverty in a short time. In total, the Kumeyaay operate six casinos: Barona Valley Ranch Resort and Casino, Sycuan Resort and Casino, Viejas Casino & Resort, Valley View Casino and Hotel, Golden Acorn Casino and Travel Center, and Jamul Casino.<ref name=Banegas/>
In response to the casino construction boom, the San Diego County government maintained a policy of opposition to any growth in tribal expansion under any circumstance in fears that land would be used to build more casinos, which broke down relations between the County and the Kumeyaay, Payomkawichum (Luiseño), and Kuupangaxwichem (Cupeño) tribal reservation governments.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/communities/north-county/story/2021-04-03/county-supervisor-desmond-announces-proposal-in-support-of-local-tribes|title=County may lift barriers to tribes expanding their reservations|newspaper=The San Diego Union-Tribune|date=April 3, 2021|last=Mapp|first=Lauren|access-date=April 6, 2021|archive-date=April 8, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210408032139/https://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/communities/north-county/story/2021-04-03/county-supervisor-desmond-announces-proposal-in-support-of-local-tribes|url-status=live}}</ref> This San Diego County Board of Supervisors repealed these policies in May 2021.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.10news.com/news/local-news/sd-county-supervisors-repeal-tribal-policies|title=San Diego County Supervisors repeal tribal policies|website=KGTV|date=May 6, 2021|access-date=May 6, 2021|archive-date=May 6, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210506033859/https://www.10news.com/news/local-news/sd-county-supervisors-repeal-tribal-policies|url-status=live}}</ref>
The relative success of gaming operations on many reservations has allowed them to buy naming rights of infrastructure around the San Diego region, such as the Sycuan Green Line of the San Diego Trolley and the SDSU Viejas Arena. Some reservations have also diversified their economic profile such as Campo Reservation-based Muht Hei inc which oversees the reservation's wind farm or Sycuan Band's acquisition of the U.S. Grant Hotel.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Campo Kumeyaay Nation {{!}} Muht Hei, Inc. {{!}} Kumeyaay Wind Farm |url=http://www.campo-nsn.gov/windfarm.html |access-date=2023-07-06 |website=www.campo-nsn.gov}}</ref><ref>[https://narf.org/nill/bulletins/state/documents/american_property_management.html AMERICAN PROPERTY MANAGEMENT CORPORATION, PETITIONER, V. THE SUPERIOR COURT OF SAN DIEGO COUNTY, RESPONDENT; U.S. GRANT HOTEL VENTURES, LLC, REAL PARTY IN INTEREST. NO. D060868. MAY 24, 2012.]</ref> Additionally, Sycuan also became the first Native American tribe to own part of a professional soccer franchise by becoming the co-owner of San Diego FC, a Major League Soccer expansion team, and the second to have an ownership stake in any professional sports team.<ref>Zeigler, Mark (May 18, 2023). "[https://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/sports/soccer/mls-in-san-diego/story/2023-05-18/futbol-finally-san-diego-becomes-major-league-soccers-30th-franchise-in-landmark-moment-for-sports-hotbed San Diego becomes Major League Soccer's 30th franchise in landmark moment for sport's hotbed]". ''The San Diego Union-Tribune''. Retrieved May 20, 2023.</ref> With the San Diego Padres being sold from the family of Peter Seidler in 2026, it was announced that Sycuan would also have a minority ownership in the new ownership group<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-04-23 |title=New Padres ownership group will include some familiar names |url=https://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/2026/04/22/new-padres-ownership-group-will-include-some-familiar-faces/ |access-date=2026-05-26 |website=San Diego Union-Tribune |language=en-US}}</ref>
====Kumeyaay-Mexican economy and the wine tourism industry==== On the Mexican side of the border, Kumeyaay communities manufacture traditional craftwork to sell on the American side of the border with partnering Kumeyaay souvenir gift shops and casinos.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kumeyaay.info/san_antonio_necua.html|title=SAN ANTONIO NECUA Baja California Mexico Kumeyaay Indians Documentary Kumiai Photos Pictures|website=Kumeyaay Information Village|access-date=September 2, 2020|archive-date=October 16, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201016162526/http://www.kumeyaay.info/san_antonio_necua.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
Many Kumeyaay there have moved into urban areas to seek better employment opportunities compared to their agrarian employment on the communities. The depopulation of their villages has allowed neighboring non-Native Ejidos to encroach on their lands.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.kumeyaay.com/juntas-de-nej%C3%AD.html|title=Juntas de Nejí|website=Kumeyaay.com|access-date=September 2, 2020|archive-date=March 17, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220317050930/https://www.kumeyaay.com/juntas-de-nej%C3%AD.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
thumb|Valle de Guadalupe (Guadalupe Valley), Baja California, Mexico
The Kumeyaay communities on the Mexican side of the border have largely retained their traditional heritage. Some villages faced water shortages, making it difficult to continue agricultural operation, which they portray in their film Kumeyaay Land. This led many communities to enter wine-tasting and tourism industries in the Guadalupe Valley.<ref>{{cite web|title=Native Kumiai Finding a New Way - The Baja Storyteller|url=https://www.bajabound.com/bajaadventures/bajastoryteller/kumiai.php|access-date=September 2, 2020|website=Baja Bound Insurance Services|archive-date=August 7, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807012230/https://www.bajabound.com/bajaadventures/bajastoryteller/kumiai.php|url-status=live}}</ref> Many bands began launching wine tours and festivals to attract tourists and foreign visitors from southern California and cruise passengers stopping at the Port of Ensenada.<ref name=Maria/>
====Kumeyaay and the US-Mexican border==== {{Further|Indigenous conflicts on the Mexico–United States barrier}} In 1998, the Kumeyaay established the Kumeyaay Border task force to work with federal immigration officials to secure free passage of Baja Kumeyaay bands to visit the US Kumeyaay bands and ensure their rights to protected graves and artifacts protected by the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act of 1990.<ref name=Timeline/>
However, border wall construction accelerated in 2020 and Kumeyaay representatives at the border to protect and preserve Kumeyaay artifacts were turned away from the construction area. This sparked protests among the bands and Kumeyaay women organized to lead a protest at the border in July. The La Posta Band filed a lawsuit in August against the Trump administration seeking to block further construction of the border wall through their sacred cemetery (burial sites).<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.voiceofsandiego.org/topics/news/border-report-kumeyaay-band-sues-to-stop-border-wall-construction/|title=Border Report: Kumeyaay Band Sues to Stop Border Wall Construction|website=Voice of San Diego|date=August 17, 2020|last=Srikrishnan|first=Maya|access-date=September 2, 2020|archive-date=August 20, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200820061641/https://www.voiceofsandiego.org/topics/news/border-report-kumeyaay-band-sues-to-stop-border-wall-construction/|url-status=live}}</ref>
==Society==
=== Traditional society ===
==== Social structure ==== left|thumb|Kumeyaay items Prior to Western assimilation, the Kumeyaay were organized into bands or clans called ''sibs'' or ''shiimull,'' which were grounded in family lineages with each sib home for 5 to 15 families. Each sib had their own territory and had the right to enforce land property rights in punishing thieves and trespassers. However, Kumeyaay did recognize the right to water and were also obligated to share food with visitors.<ref name=Pico>{{cite web|url=http://www.americanindiansource.com/khistories/kumeyaaymill.html|title=The Kumeyaay Millennium - Land History|website=www.americanindiansource.com|last=Pico|first=Anthony|access-date=October 31, 2020|archive-date=October 16, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201016214318/http://www.americanindiansource.com/khistories/kumeyaaymill.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
The Kumeyaay had a patriarchal society where the position of chief, or ''Kwaapaay'', was inherited from the father to son, although widows were sometimes permitted to assume the position. It was the Kwaapaay's role to protect traditions, hold ceremonies, and resolve disputes and was responsible for political, religious, and economic activities of the sib. Future Kwaapaays were often selected by a Kwaapaay of another with no family relations to ensure impartiality.<ref name=Pico/>
Kwaapaays were also accompanied by assistants and had a council of ''Kuseyaays''. ''Kuseyaays'' were made up of male or female priests, doctors, and other specialists in the fields of health, ecology, resource management, tradition, and religion. Kuseyaays could be called by the kwaapaay to provide information or to make decisions for the sib's welfare. Each family in the sib was allowed to follow and participate in the decision making, or could leave the sib and pursue their own decision.<ref name=Pico/>
The Kumeyaay practiced arranged marriage made by parents of different sibs. The future husband was expected to demonstrate his ability to hunt and needed to present the future bride the game he had killed. The bride would move into the husband's sib once they were married. Marriage relations were also made between sibs and other neighboring tribal groups as a gesture of peace between warring groups or as part of a trade relationship.<ref name=Bacich>{{cite web|url=https://www.californiafrontier.net/the-kumeyaay/|title=Native Americans of Southern California: The Kumeyaay|website=The California Frontier Project|date=November 13, 2019|last=Bacich|first=Damian|access-date=October 31, 2020|archive-date=November 7, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201107213748/https://www.californiafrontier.net/the-kumeyaay/|url-status=live}}</ref>
==== Shelter ==== thumb|Frame of an ''‘ewaa''
Kumeyaay generally lived in dome-shaped homes made from branches and covered with leaves of willow or tule, called 'ewaa. These structures had a hole at the top to let smoke out and rocks along its base to keep out wind and small animals.<ref name=Bacich/> Some Kumeyaay who lived in the mountains made their home out of slabs of bark.{{sfn|Hoffman|Gamble|2006|p=19}}
These structures were often temporary. When families moved or if someone died in the house, they were often burned down.<ref name=Bacich/>
==== Clothing ==== During warm seasons, men wore nothing except for a hide breechcloth to hold tools while women wore an apron or a skirt made from willow or elderberry bark. In the colder months, they would wear blankets made from willow bark or rabbit skins.
They wore agave sandals made from yucca and agave fibers when going over long distances, over sharp rocks, or hot sand. Some would wear bead necklaces as jewelry, with beads made of clam, abalone, or olivella shells. Additionally, men could get their nose pierced and women might have their chins tattooed.
The Kumeyaay started to abandon much of their traditional clothing after coming in contact with the Spanish, and adopted European-style clothing, wearing clothes that were normal in Latin America.<ref name=Bacich/>
==== Diet ==== Acorns were a staple of the Kumeyaay diet, and made acorn mush they called ''shawii,'' which could be used in dough to make bread by grinding with a mano and a metate. Other grains like pinon nuts or chia seeds were also stone-ground and consumed.{{sfn|Hoffman|Gamble|2006|p=27}} The Kumeyaay stored these grains in basket granaries made of willow leaves. They also consumed the leaves and fruits of the prickly pear and copal cactus, as well as cherries, plums, elderberries, and Manzanita berries.{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}} They also fermented many of these plants with water and honey to create alcohol.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://sandiegohistory.org/sdbeerhistory/|title=San Diego Brews|website=San Diego History Center|access-date=April 6, 2021|archive-date=September 22, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210922054021/https://sandiegohistory.org/sdbeerhistory/|url-status=live}}</ref>
They hunted for animals such as birds, rabbits, squirrels, and woodrats, as well as larger animals like antelope, deer, and mountain sheep. The Kumeyaay also ate more nutrient-rich insects such as crickets, grubs and grasshoppers.<ref name=Bacich/>
Kamia Kumeyaay in the Imperial Valley practiced some forms of agriculture, producing maize, beans, and teparies contrary to their mountain and coastal counterparts. The Kamia assimilated to the Patayan culture of their neighbors in the Imperial Valley and practiced a mixed subsistence economy that included floodplain cultivation as well as hunting and gathering.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gifford |first=E.W. |url=https://repository.si.edu/handle/10088/15564 |title=The Kamia of Imperial Valley |date=1931 |pages=21–22 |hdl=10088/15564}}</ref><ref name="Schaefer20023">{{cite report |url=https://www.californiaprehistory.com/Laylander/Ceramics/Schaefer2002.pdf |title=A3-Line Ceramic Pot Drops |last=Schaefer |first=Jerry D. |year=2002 |access-date=2025-12-19}}</ref>
==== Economy and communication ==== [[File:Kumeyaai basket.jpg|thumb|Kumeyaay coiled basket, woven by Celestine Lachapa, 19th century, San Diego Museum of Us]] [[Image:KumeyaayBasketMexicali.JPG|thumb|Kumeyaay willow storage basket at the Universidad Autónoma de Baja California cultural museum, Mexicali]] The Ipai-Tipai Kumeyaay traded with the Kamia Kumeyaay to obtain obsidian from an area south of the Salton Sea. Within the Tipai-Ipai, the coastal Kumeyaay traded salt, seaweed, and abalone shells for acorns, agave, mesquite beans, and gourds from the mountain Kumeyaay. They also traded along the Pacific coast to obtain Olivella shell beads from the Chumash, as well as tribes along the Gulf of California and in the American Southwest as far east as to trade with the Zuni.{{sfn|Hoffman|Gamble|2006|p=21}} Granite was also plentiful in Kumeyaay lands, which was used to trade for pestles, steatite, eagle feathers, and colored minerals for paint.{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}}
The Kumeyaay's maritime economy relied on shell fishing, and they built fishing boats, either balsa rafts made of reeds or dugout canoes.{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}} To support their maritime economy, they manufactured fishing spears, hooks, and nets made of agave fiber.<ref name=Bacich/>
Upon Spanish arrival, woven baskets were highly prized by the Europeans, as these baskets were so well made that they could hold water and it was possible to cook food with these baskets in an open fire. The strong demand for Californian woven baskets in Mexican and European markets strengthened the basket weaving economy among the Kumeyaay.{{sfn|Hoffman|Gamble|2006|p=29}}
The Kumeyaay had a system of trail runners who carried messages and announcements between bands, which notified the presence of the Spaniards prior to Cabrillo's arrival in San Diego.{{sfn|Hoffman|Gamble|2006|p=39}}
==== Weaponry ==== The Kumeyaay used archery in order to hunt prey. The arrows were made of wood, reeds, or cane, as well as chamise or greasewood plant for larger animals. Bows were made of mesquite or ash, as well as animal hides. They also equipped with throwing sticks better known as rabbit sticks, which were used to knock out small animals and were sometimes used in war.<ref name=Bacich/>
==== Culture ==== Kumeyaay cultural traditions place strong emphasis on oral performance, including song cycles, storytelling, and ceremonial music.<ref name=":0" /> Bird songs, which recount ancestral migrations and regional landscapes, remain one of the most prominent forms of traditional verbal art among Kumeyaay communities.<ref>{{Cite web|title=SAN PASQUAL Peon and Bird Singers Kumeyaay Tribe in County of San Diego|url=https://www.californiaindianeducation.org/cultural_events/2014/peon/|website=www.californiaindianeducation.org|access-date=2025-11-29|last=Salgado Jr.|first=Ernie C}}</ref> These songs are performed at social and ceremonial gatherings and continue to function as a repository of historical knowledge and cultural identity.<ref name=":1" />
The Kumeyaay has a continuous song and dance culture, of which many are still passed on to the next generation during special occasions. Occasions like the mourning of an important figure was honored by an Eagle Dance, and a War Dance accompanied those heading for battle. Men often sang songs with a rattle, while women supported the song through dance. Through the Mission, the Kumeyaay picked up skills in Western musical instruments, and joined the Mission choirs and orchestras.<ref name="Bacich" />
They also had animal companions and domesticated mockingbirds and roadrunners as pets{{Citation needed|date=April 2025}}.
==== Stories ==== {{See also|Mythologies of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Kumeyaay traditional narratives}}
One Kumeyaay creation story involves the original state of the world as being covered with salt water and tule, without land. The older brother Tuchaipa (also known as Tu-chai-pai, Tcaipakomat) and the younger twin brother Yokomatis (Yo-ko-mat-is) make the world. Tuchaipa rubs tobacco in his hand and blows it three times, causing the heavens to rise up and form the sky. He draws a line from east to west, named Y-nak and A-uk. He draws a line from north to south, named Ka-tulk and Ya-wak. He tells Yo-ko-mat-is that from the east three or four men are coming from the east, and from the east three or four Indians are coming, and he makes hills and valleys with hollows of water so the humans will not die of dehydration. He makes forests so humans will not die of cold. Then he makes humans out of mud, who can walk but never get tired, and tells them that they must walk to the east towards the light. When the humans reach the Sun, he makes the Moon, and tells the men they must run races when the Moon is small. Later, when there is less food and water, Tuchaipa calls together the men without the women and gives them three choices; to die forever; to live for a time and return; or to live forever. The men are divided over what to choose, and talk and talk without knowing what to do. Then the fly comes and says to choose to die forever, and so the men choose to be done with life and die forever. This is the reason why the fly rubs his hands together, to beg the forgiveness of humans.<ref>Du Bois, Constance Goddard. “The Mythology of the Diegueños.” ''The Journal of American Folklore'', vol. 14, no. 54, 1901, pp. 181–85. ''JSTOR'', {{doi|10.2307/533630}}. Accessed 26 May 2023.</ref><!-- (Also add the Impiety of the Frog and The Fiest of the death of tuchaipai, also in this source) -->
In another story, Tcaipakomat and Yokomatis have their eyes closed from the blinding salt water. Yokomatis tries to see atop the water, but opens his eyes and is blinded. Tcaipakomat goes on top of the water and sees nothing, so he makes little red ants (miskiluiw, ciracir) which fill the water with their bodies to make land. Then Tcaipakomat makes a type of black bird with a flat bill (xanyil) to come into being, but they were lost without their roosts, so Tcaipakomat takes red clay, yellow clay, and black clay to make a round flat object, and throws it into the sky to make a dimly-shining moon (halya). Tcaipakomat tries again with another piece of clay to make the brighter sun (inyau). Then he takes a light colored piece of clay (mutakwic), and splits it up, making a man, and the a woman (Sinyaxau, First Woman). The children of this man and this woman are people (ipai).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Decolonizing San Diego's History: An Iipay Reflection on the Context and Impact of 1769 |url=https://sandiegohistory.org/journal/2019/july/decolonizing-san-diegos-history-an-iipay-reflection-on-the-context-and-impact-of-1769/ |access-date=2023-05-26 |website=San Diego History Center {{!}} San Diego, CA {{!}} Our City, Our Story |language=en-US |archive-date=2023-05-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230526173739/https://sandiegohistory.org/journal/2019/july/decolonizing-san-diegos-history-an-iipay-reflection-on-the-context-and-impact-of-1769/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
=== Reservation era society ===
==== Education ==== The Kumeyaay Community College was created by the Sycuan Band to serve the Kumeyaay-Diegueño Nation, and describes its mission as "to support cultural identity, sovereignty, and self-determination while meeting the needs of Native and non-Native students". The college's focus is on "Kumeyaay History, Kumeyaay Ethnobotany and traditional Indigenous arts". It "serves and relies on resources from the thirteen reservations of the Kumeyaay Nation situated in San Diego county".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kumeyaaycommunitycollege.com/index.html|title=Kumeyaay Community College|access-date=October 10, 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071008222246/http://www.kumeyaaycommunitycollege.com/index.html|archive-date=October 8, 2007}}</ref> In the fall of 2016, Cuyamaca College began offering an associate degree in Kumeyaay Studies with courses at its Rancho San Diego campus, as well as at Kumeyaay Community College on the Sycuan reservation.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/news/education/sdut-college-expands-kumeyaay-studies-program-2016aug15-story.html|title=College expands Kumeyaay studies program|newspaper=The San Diego Union-Tribune|date=August 15, 2016|last=Huard|first=Christine|access-date=April 11, 2018|archive-date=April 11, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180411203737/http://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/news/education/sdut-college-expands-kumeyaay-studies-program-2016aug15-story.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
The Sycuan Institute on Tribal Gaming was also established at SDSU by the Sycuan Band with the focus on research and policy related to the tribal gaming industry.
==== Community and cultural life ==== Kumeyaay funerals and mourning ceremonies (Takaay) incorporate song sequences that can include up to 117 individual songs, continuing for up to 24 hours, with rhythm supplied by gourd or tortoiseshell rattles rather than drums.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=Kumeyaay Customs and Traditions |url=https://www.kumeyaay.com/kumeyaay-customs-and-traditions.html |access-date=2026-03-27 |website=www.kumeyaay.com |language=en-gb}}</ref> The songs survived the Mission era in part because Spanish missionaries did not identify them as having religious content, unlike the ceremonies they actively suppressed.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Banegas |first=Larry |title=Kumeyaay History |url=https://www.kumeyaay.com/kumeyaayhistory/233-traditional-origins-of-southern-ca-bird-songs-public-performance-and-text-by-ron-christman-ipai-tipai.html |access-date=2026-03-27 |website=www.kumeyaay.com |language=en-gb}}</ref> Bird singing continues to be practiced at inter-band gatherings and functions as a vehicle for transmitting historical knowledge across generations.<ref name=":2" />
Kumiai communities in Baja California maintain kinship and ceremonial ties to US-side bands, with cross-border ceremony participation requiring visa arrangements on both sides of the border, as post-9/11 security measures significantly complicated what had previously been informal community visits.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |last=Hough |first=Elisa |last2= |first2= |date=August 26, 2016 |title=The Kumeyaay Communities of California |url=https://festival.si.edu/blog/2016/the-kumeyaay-communities-of-california/ |access-date=2026-03-27 |website=Smithsonian Folklife Festival |language=en-US}}</ref> Modified visa procedures negotiated with Mexican and US consular officials allowed Kumiai to attend ceremonial events in the United States, with Mexico's Indigenous affairs agency issuing identification cards and approximately 1,900 Kumiai eventually holding laser visas for this purpose.<ref>Alianza Indígena Sin Fronteras / Indigenous Alliance Without Borders; Leza, Christina. [https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/Documents/Issues/IPeoples/EMRIP/Call/IndigenousAllianceWithoutBorders.pdf "Handbook on Indigenous Peoples' Border Crossing Rights Between the United States and Mexico"]. Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. Retrieved March 27, 2026.</ref> Traditional crafts including pottery and basket weaving remain more intact in the isolated Baja communities than on the US side, partly because geographic remoteness sustained conditions closer to pre-contact subsistence practices.<ref name=":3" />
==Population== {{Further|Population of Native California}} Estimates for the pre-contact populations of most Native groups in California have varied substantially. In 1925, Alfred L. Kroeber proposed that the population of the Kumeyaay in the San Diego region in 1770 had been about 3,000.{{sfn|Kroeber|1925|p=88}} More recently, Katharine Luomala points out that this estimate depended on calculations of rates of baptisms at the Mission, and as such "ignores the unbaptized". She suggests that the region could have supported 6,000–9,000 people.{{sfn|Luomala|1978|p=[https://archive.org/details/handbookofnorth008stur/page/596 596]}} Florence C. Shipek goes further, estimating 16,000–19,000 inhabitants.{{sfn|Shipek|1986|p=19}}
In the late eighteenth century, it is estimated that the Kumeyaay population was between 3,000 and 9,000.{{sfn|Pritzker|2000|p=145}} In 1828, 1,711 Kumeyaay were recorded by the missions. The 1860 federal census recorded 1,571 Kumeyaay living in 24 villages.{{sfn|Luomala|1978|p=[https://archive.org/details/handbookofnorth008stur/page/596 596]}} The Bureau of Indian Affairs recorded 1,322 Kumeyaay in 1968, with 435 living on reservations.{{sfn|Luomala|1978|p=[https://archive.org/details/handbookofnorth008stur/page/596 596]}} By 1990, an estimated 1,200 lived on reservation lands, while 2,000 lived elsewhere.{{sfn|Pritzker|2000|p=145}}
==Tribes and reservations== {{Location map+|USA California San Diego County|relief=yes|places={{Location map~ | USA California San Diego County | label = Mesa Grande | lat = 33.088611 | long = -116.751944 | position = left | mark = Green_pog.svg | marksize = 7 }} {{Location map~ | USA California San Diego County | label = Santa Ysabel | lat = 33.171111 | long = -116.662222 | position = top | mark = Green_pog.svg | marksize = 7 }} {{Location map~ | USA California San Diego County | label = Viejas | lat = 32.850278 | long = -116.692500 | mark = Green_pog.svg | marksize = 7 }} {{Location map~ | USA California San Diego County | label = Barona | lat = 32.955278 | long = -116.844167 | position = bottom | mark = Green_pog.svg | marksize = 7 }} {{Location map~ | USA California San Diego County | label = Ewiiaapaayp | lat = 32.841667 | long = -116.385556 | position = right | mark = Green_pog.svg | marksize = 7 }} {{Location map~ | USA California San Diego County | label = Manzanita | lat = 32.754722 | long = -116.346111 | position = right | mark = Green_pog.svg | marksize = 7 }} {{Location map~ | USA California San Diego County | label = Campo | lat = 32.65014024753876 | long = -116.36419086126962 | mark = Green_pog.svg | marksize = 7 }} {{Location map~ | USA California San Diego County | label = La Posta | lat = 32.734444 | long = -116.391111 | mark = Green_pog.svg | marksize = 7 }} {{Location map~ | USA California San Diego County | label = Jamul | lat = 32.7026 | long = -116.8708 | position = bottom | mark = Green_pog.svg | marksize = 7 }} {{Location map~ | USA California San Diego County | label = Sycuan | lat = 32.782500 | long = -116.833056 | mark = Green_pog.svg | marksize = 7 }} {{Location map~ | USA California San Diego County | label = Inaja and Cosmit | lat = 33.0106 | long = -116.6417 | mark = Green_pog.svg | marksize = 7 }} {{Location map~ | USA California San Diego County | label = Laguna Kwaaymii | lat = 32.91056128391368 | long = -116.48000000214041 | position = right | mark = Red_pog.svg | marksize = 7 }} {{Location map~ | USA California San Diego County | label = Capitan Grande | lat = 32.925983 | long = -116.729328 | mark = Red_pog.svg | marksize = 7 }}|width=800|float=left|caption=Kumeyaay Reservations in San Diego County with current federally recognized reservations (green) and former reservations (red).}} {{Location map+|Mexico Baja California|places={{Location map~ | Mexico Baja California | label = Aguaje de la Tuna | lat = 32.5411 | long = -116.6136 | position = top | mark = Red_pog.svg | marksize = 7 }} {{Location map~ | Mexico Baja California | label = Juntas de Neji | lat = 32.375637422169625 | long = -116.33529481858932 | position = right | mark = Green_pog.svg | marksize = 7 }} {{Location map~ | Mexico Baja California | label = San José de la Zorra | lat = 32.18104322251777 | long = -116.68774753922807 | position = left | mark = Green_pog.svg | marksize = 7 }} {{Location map~ | Mexico Baja California | label = La Huerta | lat = 31.935494149323446 | long = -116.13302045025856 | position = right | mark = Green_pog.svg | marksize = 7 }} {{Location map~ | Mexico Baja California | label = San Antonio Necua | lat = 32.10497564706944 | long = -116.49858486262102 | position = bottom | mark = Green_pog.svg | marksize = 7 }} {{Location map~ | Mexico Baja California | label = Santa Catarina | lat = 31.654998233517603 | long = -115.8281430259546 | position = bottom | mark = Green_pog.svg | marksize = 7 }} {{Location map~ | Mexico Baja California | label = Peña Blanca | lat = 32.4000 | long = -116.3500 | position = top | mark = Red_pog.svg | marksize = 7 }}|width=800|float=left|caption=Kumeyaay Villages in Mexico with federally recognized villages (green) and unrecognized villages (red)}} {| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" |+ Kumeyaay reservations and village communities ! rowspan="2" |Reservation ! rowspan="2" |Language affiliation ! rowspan="2" |Location ! rowspan="2" |Associated Kumeyaay village(s) ! rowspan="2" |Population ! rowspan="2" |Federal recognition<ref>{{cite report|chapter-url=http://www.bia.gov/cs/groups/webteam/documents/document/idc1-029026.pdf|title=Notice 145A2100DD/A0T500000.000000/AAK3000000: Indian Entities Recognized and Eligible to Receive Services|publisher=Government Publishing Office|date=January 14, 2015|volume=80|issue=9|pages=1942–1948|series=Federal Register|chapter=Department of the Interior, Bureau of Indian Affairs|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150209025423/http://www.bia.gov/cs/groups/webteam/documents/document/idc1-029026.pdf|archive-date=February 9, 2015|oclc=1768512}}</ref> ! colspan="3" |Area in mi<sup>2</sup> (km<sup>2</sup>)<ref name="AF20102">{{cite web|title=U.S. Census website|url=https://www.census.gov/|access-date=2017-03-21|archive-date=1996-12-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19961227012639/http://www.census.gov/|url-status=live}}</ref><!--Do not update with ACS, as their population figures for reservations are wildly inaccurate--> ! rowspan="2" |Includes ORTL?<ref name="AF20102" /> |- !Land !Water !Total |- |Inaja Band of Diegueno Mission Indians of the Inaja and Cosmit Reservation |'Iipay |San Diego County |Inyaha Cosmit |15 |1875 |{{Convert|3.48|km2|mi2|sigfig=3|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |0 |{{Convert|3.48|km2|mi2|sigfig=3|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |no |- |Mesa Grande Band of Diegueno Mission Indians of the Mesa Grande Reservation |'Iipay |San Diego County |Tekemak
Kumehall |98 |1875 |{{Convert|7.06|km2|mi2|sigfig=3|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |0 |{{Convert|7.06|km2|mi2|sigfig=3|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |no |- |San Pasqual Band of Diegueno Mission Indians of California |'Iipay |San Diego County |Ahmukatlatl (Pueblo San Pasqual) |1,097 |1910 |{{Convert|5.79|km2|mi2|sigfig=3|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |0 |{{Convert|5.79|km2|mi2|sigfig=3|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |no |- |Iipay Nation of Santa Ysabel (formerly Santa Ysabel Band of Diegueno Mission Indians of the Santa Ysabel Reservation) |'Iipay |San Diego County |Elcuanan (Santa Ysabel) |330 |1893 |{{Convert|60.67|km2|mi2|sigfig=4|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |0 |{{Convert|60.67|km2|mi2|sigfig=4|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |no |- |Laguna Indian Reservation (Kwaaymii Reservation) (defunct 1989)<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-12-23-mn-418-story.html|title=Last Full-Blooded Kwaaymii Indian Dies at 87|newspaper=Los Angeles Times|date=December 23, 1989|last=Ray|first=Nancy|access-date=November 28, 2020|archive-date=December 24, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201224031004/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-12-23-mn-418-story.html|url-status=live}}</ref> |'Iipay |San Diego County |Inyahkai? Aha-Hakaik? |0 |1947 (defunct) | | | |no |- |Campo Band of Diegueno Mission Indians of the Campo Indian Reservation |Tiipay |San Diego County |Meelqsh G'tay |362 |1893 |{{Convert|66.73|km2|mi2|sigfig=4|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |0 |{{Convert|66.73|km2|mi2|sigfig=4|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |no |- |Capitan Grande Band of Diegueno Mission Indians of California |Tiipay, 'Iipay |San Diego County |'E-quilsch a-mahk (Cuyamac) |0 |1875 |{{Convert|64.43|km2|mi2|sigfig=4|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |{{Convert|0.00083|km2|mi2|sigfig=2|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |{{Convert|64.43|km2|mi2|sigfig=4|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |no |- |Barona Group of Capitan Grande Band of Mission Indians of the Barona Reservation |Tiipay, 'Iipay |San Diego County | |640 |1875 |{{Convert|24.12|km2|mi2|sigfig=3|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |0 |{{Convert|24.12|km2|mi2|sigfig=3|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |no |- |Viejas (Baron Long) Group of Capitan Grande Band of Mission Indians of the Viejas Reservation |Tiipay, 'Iipay |San Diego County |Matkwatay |520 |1875 |{{Convert|6.50|km2|mi2|sigfig=3|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |0 |{{Convert|6.50|km2|mi2|sigfig=3|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |no |- |Ewiiaapaayp Band of Kumeyaay Indians (formerly the Cuyapaipe Community of Diegueno Mission Indians of the Cuyapaipe Reservation) |Tiipay |San Diego County |Ewiiaapaay |7 |1893 |{{Convert|22.14|km2|mi2|sigfig=3|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |0 |{{Convert|22.14|km2|mi2|sigfig=3|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |no |- |Jamul Indian Village of California |Tiipay |San Diego County |Hamul |60 |1975 |{{Convert|0.060|km2|mi2|sigfig=2|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |0 |{{Convert|0.060|km2|mi2|sigfig=2|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |no |- |La Posta Band of Diegueno Mission Indians of the La Posta Indian Reservation |Tiipay |San Diego County |Amai'tu |55 |1893 |{{Convert|16.56|km2|mi2|sigfig=3|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |0 |{{Convert|16.56|km2|mi2|sigfig=3|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |no |- |Manzanita Band of Diegueno Mission Indians of the Manzanita Reservation |Tiipay, Kamia |San Diego County |Snyaawkwatun |78 |1893 |{{Convert|18.58|km2|mi2|sigfig=3|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |0 |{{Convert|18.58|km2|mi2|sigfig=3|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |yes |- |Sycuan Band of the Kumeyaay Nation |Tiipay |San Diego County |Sekwan |211 |1875 |{{Convert|3.31|km2|mi2|sigfig=3|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |0 |{{Convert|3.31|km2|mi2|sigfig=3|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |yes |- !Village community !Language affiliation !Location !Kumeyaay name !Population !Recognized communities in Mexico ! ! ! ! |- |Aguaje de la Tuna (Tecate) |Tiipay |Tecate Municipality |Ha'samen |18 |No | | | | |- |Juntas de Neji |Tiipay |Tecate Municipality |Neji |25 |Yes | | | | |- |Peña Blanca |Tiipay |Tecate Municipality |'Ui'hapal |2 |No | | | | |- |San José de la Zorra |Tiipay |Playas de Rosarito Municipality Ensenada Municipality |{{ubl|Mat Purjao|Iškišup?}} |77 |Yes | | | | |- |La Huerta |Tiipay |Ensenada Municipality |Axta |131 |Yes | | | | |- |San Antonio Necua |Tiipay |Ensenada Municipality |Eñekwa |204 |Yes | | | | |- |Santa Catarina |Tiipay, Kamia |Ensenada Municipality | |133 |Yes | | | | |}
==Villages==
===Present-day cities with Kumeyaay village origins===
* Kosa'aay ''(Cosoy)'' (San Diego) * Pa-tai (Ensenada)<ref name=Laylander>{{cite web|url=https://www.sandiegoarchaeology.org/Laylander/Baja/places.kumeyaay1.htm|title=bajacalifology.org - Kumeyaay Place Names|website=www.sandiegoarchaeology.org|access-date=September 1, 2020|archive-date=October 1, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221001070757/https://www.sandiegoarchaeology.org/Laylander/Baja/places.kumeyaay1.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> * Pawai (Poway) * Sinyweche (Santee) * Tecate * Tecuan (Tijuana)
===Other former villages in the US=== [[File:Kumeyaay Land Acknowledgement Bench.jpg|thumb|Kumeyaay Land Acknowledgement bench art at San Diego State University]]
In '''Tepacul Watai''' ''(City of San Diego'' ''in 'Iipay Kumeyaay)'':<ref>{{Cite web|last=Felix-Ibarra|first=Ana Patricia|date=2021-08-17|title=Kumeyaay Placenames|url=https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/b8b9dffb544d423891e36727c03842f6|url-status=live|access-date=2021-12-28|website=ArcGIS StoryMaps|language=en|archive-date=2021-12-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211228184213/https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/b8b9dffb544d423891e36727c03842f6}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Kumeyaay Sense of the Land and Landscape - Viejas Band of Kumeyaay Indians|url=http://viejasbandofkumeyaay.org/viejas-community/kumeyaay-history/kumeyaay-sense-of-the-land/|access-date=2021-12-28|language=en-US|archive-date=2022-11-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101193842/http://viejasbandofkumeyaay.org/viejas-community/kumeyaay-history/kumeyaay-sense-of-the-land/|url-status=live}}</ref>{{div col|colwidth=25em}} *Nyip 'ewai (Nipaquay) (Mission Valley) *Matt Xtaat (Choyas) (Barrio Logan) *Utay (Otay Mesa) *Jamo (Pacific Beach) *'Iilh Taawaa (Ystagua) (Sorrento Valley) *Milh Ixox (Melijo) (Tijuana River Valley) *Onap (San Clemente Canyon) *Tisirr (Downtown San Diego) *Totakamalam (Point Loma) *Sinyau-Pichkara (Rancho Bernardo) *Awil-Nyawa (Rancho Penasquitos) *Ahwell-ewa (North City, San Diego) *Hatam's Village (within the former Native American neighborhood in San Diego) (Balboa Park) {{div col end}}In the County of San Diego{{div col|colwidth=25em}} *Chaip/Chayp (Chula Vista) *Meti (National City, California) *Neti (Spring Valley, San Diego County, California) *'Aa Kuskilly (Apusquel) (Bonita, California) *Tapin/Jacunmat (El Cajon) *Matt Tumau (Matamo) (El Cajon near Dehesa, California) *Milh 'Ewa (Michegua) (Sycramore Canyon, Santee, California) *Alyshuhwi (Imperial Beach) *Hayal/Jayal (Olivenhain, Encinitas) *Hakutl (Encinitas) *Kulaumai (Solana Beach) *Tehayiiw/Ajopunquile (La Costa) *Hamashaw (Jamacha) *Canapu (Ramona, California) *Shpank/Epegam (Ballena, California) *Hapatul *Cojuat *Hakwa (Anza-Borrego) *Hortluke (near Ranchita) *Winal (near Ocotillo Wells) *Wi-i (near Ocotillo Wells) {{div col end}}In Imperial County{{div col|colwidth=25em}} *Kwpol (Imperial, California) *Sitcarknyewa (near Brawley, California) *Matakal (near Rockwood, California) *Hacamikalau {{div col end}}
===Other former villages in Mexico=== In the Municipality of Tijuana<ref name=Laylander/>{{div col|colwidth=25em}} *Kwa-kwa (Cuero de Venado) *Wanya pu:wam (Cerro de Bonifacia) *We-ilmex (near Presa El Carrizo) *Mat g'tay *Mat Hasil Ewik Kakap (Islas Coronado) {{div col end}}In the Municipality of Tecate{{div col|colwidth=25em}} *Mat'haina:l (Villareal de San José) *Cikaú (Tanama) *Mat'kwoho:l (Cañon Manteca) *Uap 'cu:l uit (Cañon Manteca) *Ja-kwak-wak (Las Juntas) *Hacamum/Ha'kumum (Agua Tule) *Metot'tai (Valle de las Palmas) *Kwat' Kunšapax (Las Calabazas) *Cukwapa:l (El Compadre) *'Ui'ha'tumer *Mutu Cata (Cañon del Cansio) *Jat'ám (Santa Clara) *Ha'mat'tai (Jamatay) *Ha'kume (Ejido Jacume) {{div col end}}In the Municipality of Mexicali{{div col|colwidth=25em}} *Hwat Nyaknyuma (Ejido Lázaro Cárdenas) *Wekwilul *Hakwisiay {{div col end}}In the Municipality of Ensenada{{div col|colwidth=25em}} *Jhlumúk (Valle de Guadalupe) *Jiurr-jiurr (Agua Escondida) *Kwar Nuwa (El Sauzal) *'Ui'cikwar (Real del Castillo) *Yiu kwiñi:l (Ojos Negros) *Ha'cur (San Salvador) *Hispap *Matnuk *Hakwisay *Hacukpin *Hameskiny {{div col end}}
==See also== * Cinon Duro Mataweer * Kumeyaay traditional narratives * Kumeyaay astronomy * O. M. Wozencraft negotiated the Treaty of Santa Ysabel on January 7, 1852.<ref>{{cite journal|title=San Diego Indians and the Federal Government Years of Neglect, 1850-1865|last=Carrico|first=Richard L.|date=Summer 1980|journal=The Journal of San Diego History|publisher=San Diego Historical Society|url=https://www.sandiegohistory.org/journal/80summer/neglect.htm|access-date=2010-06-22|archive-date=2011-12-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111220190527/https://www.sandiegohistory.org/journal/80summer/neglect.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> * Sycuan Institute on Tribal Gaming at San Diego State University * Viejas Arena at San Diego State University * Viejas Casino
==References== {{Reflist|20em}}
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Álvaro Obregón, México, 01000, DF|publisher=Instituto Nacional de Estudios Históricos de las Revoluciones de México|isbn=978-6-07791-683-3|pages=30–31}} * {{cite book|last=Pritzker|first=Barry M.|year=1998|chapter=Tipai-Ipai|title=Native Americans:Southwest-California-Northwest Coast-Great Basin–Plateau Native Americans: An Encyclopedia of History, Culture and Peoples|publisher=ABC-CLIO|pages=196–197|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y84rc5HGKpEC&pg=PA196|isbn=978-0-874-36836-9}} * {{cite book|last=Pritzker|first=Barry M.|year=2000|chapter=Tipai-Ipai|title=A Native American Encyclopedia: History, Culture and Peoples|place=Oxford|publisher=Oxford University Press|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/nativeamericanen0000prit/page/145|pages=[https://archive.org/details/nativeamericanen0000prit/page/145 145–147]|isbn=978-0-19513-877-1}} * {{cite book|editor1-last=Pritzker|editor1-first=Barry M.|editor2-last=Johansen|editor2-first=Bruce E.|year=2007|chapter=Tipai-Ipai|title=Encyclopedia of American Indian History|publisher=ABC-CLIO|page=1071|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sGKL6E9_J6IC&pg=PA1071|isbn=978-1-851-09818-7}} * {{cite book|last=Shipek|first=Florence C.|year=1978|chapter=History of Southern California Mission Indians|title=Handbook of North American Indians|volume=8: California|editor-first=Robert F.|editor-last=Heizer|place=Washington, DC|publisher=Smithsonian Institution|pages=[https://archive.org/details/handbookofnortha08heiz/page/610 610–618]|isbn=978-0-16004-574-5}} * {{cite book|last=Shipek|first=Florence C.|year=1986|chapter=The Impact of Europeans upon Kumeyaay Culture|title=The Impact of European Exploration and Settlement on Local Native Americans|editor-first=Raymond|editor-last=Starr|place=San Diego|publisher=Cabrillo Historical Association|pages=13–25|oclc=17346424}} * {{cite book|last=Smith|first=Kalim H.|year=2005|title=Language Ideology and Hegemony in the Kumeyaay Nation: Returning the Linguistic Gaze|location=San Diego, CA|publisher=University of California Press}} Master's Thesis. * {{cite book|last=Waldman|first=Carl|year=2014|title=Encyclopedia of Native American Tribes|publisher=Infobase Publishing|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WxomdGVLjZ0C&pg=PA89|isbn=978-1-438-11010-3}} * {{cite journal|title=Kumeyaay Language Variation, Group Identity and The Land|last=Field|first=Margaret|date=October 2012|journal=International Journal of American Linguistics|volume=78|issue=4|pages=557–573|doi=10.1086/667451|jstor=10.1086/667451|s2cid=147262714|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/667451|url-access=subscription}} * {{cite journal|title=Social Differentiation and Exchange among the Kumeyaay Indians during the Historic Period in California|last1=Gamble|first1=Lynn H.|last2=Zepeda|first2=Irma Carmen|year=2002|journal=Historical Archaeology|volume=36|issue=3|pages=71–91|doi=10.1007/BF03374351|jstor=25616993|s2cid=161306672|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25616993|url-access=subscription}} * {{cite journal|title=Kumeyaay Cultural Landscapes of Baja California's Tijuana River Watershed|last1=Gamble|first1=Lynn H.|last2=Wilken-Robertson|first2=Michael|year=2008|journal=Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology|volume=28|issue=2|pages=127–152|jstor=27825888|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27825888}} * {{cite journal|title=Handbook of the Indians of California|last=Kroeber|first=A. L.|author-link=Alfred L. Kroeber|year=1925|journal=Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin|number=78|location=Washington, DC}} * {{cite journal|title=Diegueño: how many languages?|last=Langdon|first=Margaret|author-link=Margaret Langdon|year=1990|journal=Proceedings of the 1990 Hokan-Penutian Languages Workshop|editor-first=James E.|editor-last=Redden|pages=184–190|location=Carbondale, IL|publisher=University of Southern Illinois}} * {{cite journal|title=A Shaman's "Sucking Tube" from San Diego County|last=O’Neil|first=Dennish|date=Summer–Winter 1983|journal=California Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology|volume=5|issue=1/2|pages=245–247|jstor=27825148|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27825148}} * {{cite journal|title=Seri Bands in Cross-Cultural Perspective|last=Sheridan|first=Thomas E.|date=Summer 1982|journal=Kiva|volume=47|issue=4|pages=185–213|doi=10.1080/00231940.1982.11760572|jstor=30247342|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/30247342|url-access=subscription}} * {{cite journal|title=Kumeyaay Socio-Political Structure|last=Shipek|first=Florence C.|date=Winter 1982|journal=Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology|volume=4|issue=2|pages=296–303|jstor=27825128|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27825128}} * {{cite journal|title=Pipes and Tobacco Use Among Southern California Yuman Speakers|last=Underwood|first=Jackson|year=2002–2004|journal=Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology|volume=24|issue=1|pages=1–12|jstor=23799624|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23799624}} * {{cite journal|title=Excavation and Analysis of a Stone Enclosure Complex in San Diego County|last1=Van Wormer|first1=Stephen R.|last2=Carrico|first2=Richard L.|year=1993|journal=Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology|volume=15|issue=3|pages=234–246|jstor=27825522|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27825522}}
==Further reading== * Du Bois, Constance Goddard. 1904–1906. "Mythology of the Mission Indians: The Mythology of the Luiseño and Diegueño Indians of Southern California." ''The Journal of the American Folk-Lore Society'', Vol. XVII, No. LXVI. p. 185-8 [1904]; Vol. XIX. No. LXXII pp. 52–60 and LXXIII. pp. 145–64. [1906]. * Miskwish, Michael C. ''Kumeyaay: A History Book''. El Cajon, CA: Sycuan Press, 2007. * Miskwish, Michael C, and Joel Zwink. ''Sycuan: Our People, Our Culture, Our History: Honoring the Past, Building the Future''. El Cajon, Calif.: Sycuan Band of the Kumeyaay Nation, 2006.
==External links== {{Commons category|Kumeyaay people}} * [http://www.kumeyaay.info/kumeyaay/ Kumeyaay.info: The Kumeyaay Tribes Guide — Tribal Bands of the Kumeyaay Nation (Diegueño)] — in San Diego County, California + Baja California state, México * [http://www.kumeyaay.info/ Kumeyaay Information Village], with educational materials for teachers * [https://www.kumeyaay.com/ Kumeyaay.com], information website of Larry Banegas, Barona Reservation * [http://www.kumeyaay.org/ Kumeyaay Indian Language and Culture by Sam Brown] * [http://www.kumeyaaycommunitycollege.com/ Kumeyaay Community College] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130317020212/http://www.kumeyaaycommunitycollege.com/ |date=2013-03-17 }} and its *[http://kumeyaaycommunitycollege.com/kumeyaay-studies-program/ Kumeyaay Studies Program in conjunction with Cuyamaca College]{{Dead link|date=July 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20180412082736/https://www.cuyamaca.edu/academics/departments/wl/naky/default.aspx Kumeyaay Department at Cuyamaca College] * [http://www.sacred-texts.com/nam/ca/mmi/index.htm Mythology of the Mission Indians, by Du Bois, 1904-1906.] * [http://www.sacred-texts.com/nam/ca/rpdi/index.htm Religious Practices of the Diegueño Indians, by T.T. Waterman, 1910.] * [http://linguistics.berkeley.edu/~survey/languages/kumeyaay.php Kumeyaay (Diegueño) language] overview at the Survey of California and Other Indian Languages * [http://www.desertusa.com/desert-people/kumeyaay.html A.R. Royo, "The Kumeyaay: San Diego County and Baja] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20161007062733/http://www.ailla.utexas.org/search/collection.html?c_id=130 Corpus of Kumiai and Ko’alh spoken in Baja California, Mexico] by Margaret Field from the Archive of the Indigenous Languages of Latin America, containing digital audio and hi-definition video from four Baja Kumiai communities: San Jose de la Zorra, La Huerta, Alamo-Neji, Necua and San Jose Tecate * {{YouTube|id=4iexCvL4FLk|title=Kumeyaay Indians of Baja California}} * Samuel Brown recounts {{YouTube|id=vUYFah5Fc3c|title=Viejas Reservation - Lesson 1 How to say Kumeyaay}} (2010)
{{Indigenous peoples of California}} {{Indigenous peoples of Mexico}}
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Category:Kumeyaay Category:Mission Indians Category:History of San Diego Category:History of San Diego County, California Category:History of Baja California Category:Indigenous peoples of California Category:Indigenous peoples of Mexico