{{short description|Gas layer surrounding Jupiter}} [[File:Portrait of Jupiter from Cassini.jpg|thumb|375x375px|Jupiter's swirling clouds, in a true-color image taken during fly-by of the Cassini-Huygens probe on 29th of December, 2000]] The '''atmosphere of Jupiter''' is the largest planetary atmosphere in the Solar System. It is mostly made of molecular hydrogen and helium in roughly solar proportions; other chemical compounds are present only in small amounts and include methane, ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, and water. Although water is thought to reside deep in the atmosphere, its directly-measured concentration is very low. The nitrogen, sulfur, and noble gas abundances in Jupiter's atmosphere exceed solar values by a factor of about three.{{sfnp|Atreya et al.|2003}}
The atmosphere of Jupiter lacks a clear lower boundary, and gradually transitions into the liquid interior of the planet.{{sfnp|Guillot|1999}} From lowest to highest, the atmospheric layers are the troposphere, stratosphere, thermosphere and exosphere. Each layer has characteristic temperature gradients.<ref name=Seiff1998/> The lowest layer, the troposphere, has a complicated system of clouds and hazes composed of layers of ammonia, ammonium hydrosulfide, and water.{{sfnp|Atreya|Wong|2005}} The upper ammonia clouds visible at Jupiter's surface are organized in a dozen zonal bands parallel to the equator and are bounded by powerful zonal atmospheric flows (winds) known as ''jets'', exhibiting a phenomenon known as atmospheric super-rotation. The bands alternate in color: the dark bands are called ''belts'', while light ones are called ''zones''. Zones, which are colder than belts, correspond to upwellings, while belts mark descending gas.{{sfnp|Ingersoll et al.|2004|pp=2–5}} The zones' lighter color is believed to result from ammonia ice; what gives the belts their darker colors is uncertain.{{sfnp|Ingersoll et al.|2004|pp=2–5}} The origins of the banded structure and jets are not well understood, though a "shallow model" and a "deep model" exist.<ref name=1942Vasavada/> thumb|False colored morphing animation of Jupiter's clouds in motion
The Jovian atmosphere shows a wide range of active phenomena, including band instabilities, vortices (cyclones and anticyclones), storms and lightning.{{sfnp|Vasavada|Showman|2005|p=1974}} The vortices reveal themselves as large red, white or brown spots (ovals). The largest two spots are the Great Red Spot (GRS)<ref name=1978bVasavada/> and Oval BA,<ref name=1980Vasavada/> which is also red. These two and most of the other large spots are anticyclonic. Smaller anticyclones tend to be white. Vortices are thought to be relatively shallow structures with depths not exceeding several hundred kilometers. Located in the southern hemisphere, the GRS is the largest known vortex in the Solar System. It could engulf two or three Earths and has existed for at least three hundred years. Oval BA, south of GRS, is a red spot a third the size of GRS that formed in 2000 from the merging of three white ovals.{{sfnp|Vasavada|Showman|2005|p=1976}}
Jupiter has powerful storms, often accompanied by lightning strikes. The storms are a result of moist convection in the atmosphere connected to the evaporation and condensation of water. They are sites of strong upward motion of the air, which leads to the formation of bright and dense clouds. The storms form mainly in belt regions. The lightning strikes on Jupiter are hundreds of times more powerful than those seen on Earth, and are assumed to be associated with the water clouds.{{sfnp|Smith et al.|1979}}{{page needed|date=January 2026|reason=deduped reference; other Smith cites have pg. nos}} Recent Juno observations suggest Jovian lightning strikes occur above the altitude of water clouds ({{val|3|-|7|u=bars}}).{{sfnp|Becker et al.|2020}} A charge separation between falling liquid ammonia-water droplets and water ice particles may generate higher-altitude lightning.{{sfnp|Becker et al.|2020}} Upper-atmospheric lightning has also been observed {{val|260|u=km}} above the {{val|1|u=bar}} level.{{sfnp|Giles et al.|2020}}
== Vertical structure == [[File:Structure of Jovian atmosphere.png|thumb|400px|Vertical structure of the atmosphere of Jupiter. Note that the temperature drops together with altitude above the tropopause. The ''Galileo'' atmospheric probe stopped transmitting at a depth of {{val|132|u=km}} below the {{val|1|u=bar}} "surface" of Jupiter.<ref name=Seiff1998/>]]
The atmosphere of Jupiter is classified into four layers, by increasing altitude: the troposphere, stratosphere, thermosphere and exosphere. Unlike the Earth's atmosphere, Jupiter's lacks a mesosphere.{{sfnp|Ingersoll et al.|2000|pp=13–14}} Jupiter does not have a solid surface, and the lowest atmospheric layer, the troposphere, smoothly transitions into the planet's fluid interior.{{sfnp|Guillot|1999}} This is a result of having temperatures and the pressures well above those of the critical points for hydrogen and helium, meaning that there is no sharp boundary between gas and liquid phases. Hydrogen is considered a supercritical fluid when the temperature is above {{val|33|u=K}} and the pressure is above {{val|13|u=bar}}.{{sfnp|Guillot|1999}}
Since the lower boundary of the atmosphere is ill-defined, the pressure level of {{val|10|ul=bar}}, at an altitude of about {{val|90|u=km}} below {{val|1|u=bar}} with a temperature of around {{val|340|ul=K}}, is commonly treated as the base of the troposphere.<ref name=Seiff1998/> In scientific literature, the {{val|1|u=bar}} pressure level is usually chosen as a zero point for altitudes—a "surface" of Jupiter.{{sfnp|Guillot|1999}} As is generally the case, the top atmospheric layer, the exosphere, does not have a specific upper boundary.{{sfnp|Yelle|Miller|2004|p=1}} The density gradually decreases until it smoothly transitions into the interplanetary medium approximately {{val|5,000|u=km|fmt=commas}} above the "surface".{{sfnp|Miller et al.|2005}}
The vertical temperature gradients in the Jovian atmosphere are similar to those of the atmosphere of Earth. The temperature of the troposphere decreases with height until it reaches a minimum at the tropopause,{{sfnp|Ingersoll et al.|2004|pp=5–7}} which is the boundary between the troposphere and stratosphere. On Jupiter, the tropopause is approximately {{val|50|u=km}} above the visible clouds (or {{val|1|u=bar}} level). The pressure and temperature at the tropopause are about {{val|0.1|u=bar}} and {{val|110|u=K}}.<ref name=Seiff1998/>{{sfnp|Ingersoll et al.|2000|p=12}} (This gives a drop of {{nowrap|1=340 − 110 =}} {{val|230|u=°C}}, over {{nowrap|1=90 + 50 =}} {{val|140|u=km}}. The adiabatic lapse rate on Earth is around {{val|9.8|u=°C|up=km}}. The adiabatic lapse rate is proportional to the average molecular weight and the gravitational force. The latter is about 2.5 times stronger than on Earth, but the average molecular weight is about 15 times less.) In the stratosphere, the temperatures rise to about {{val|200|u=K}} at the transition into the thermosphere, at an altitude and pressure of around {{val|320|u=km}} and {{val|1|u=μbar}}.<ref name=Seiff1998>{{harvp|Seiff et al.|1998}}.</ref> In the thermosphere, temperatures continue to rise, eventually reaching {{val|1000|u=K}} at about {{val|1000|u=km}}, where pressure is about {{val|1|u=nbar}}.{{sfnp|Yelle|Miller|2004|pp=15–16}}
Jupiter's troposphere contains a complicated cloud structure.{{sfnp|Atreya et al.|2005b}} The upper clouds, located in the pressure range {{val|0.6|–|0.9|u=bar}}, are made of ammonia ice.{{sfnp|Atreya et al.|1999}} Below these ammonia ice clouds, denser clouds made of ammonium hydrosulfide, {{chem2|(NH4)SH}}, or ammonium sulfide, {{chem2|(NH4)2S}} (between {{val|1|–|2|u=bar}}), and water ({{val|3|–|7|u=bar}}) are thought to exist.{{sfnp|West et al.|2004|pp=9–10, 20–23}}<ref name="1937Vasavada" /> There are no methane clouds as the temperatures are too high for it to condense.{{sfnp|Atreya et al.|2005b}} The water clouds form the densest layer of clouds and have the strongest influence on the dynamics of the atmosphere. This is a result of the higher condensation heat of water and higher water abundance as compared to the ammonia and hydrogen sulfide (oxygen is a more abundant chemical element than either nitrogen or sulfur).{{sfnp|Ingersoll et al.|2000|pp=13–14}} Various tropospheric (at {{val|200|–|500|u=mbar}}) and stratospheric (at {{val|10|–|100|u=mbar}}) haze layers reside above the main cloud layers.{{sfnp|West et al.|2004|pp=9–10, 20–23}}{{sfnp|Ingersoll et al.|2000|p=8}} The stratospheric haze layers are made from condensed heavy polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons or hydrazine, which are generated in the upper stratosphere ({{val|1|–|100|u=μbar}}) from methane under the influence of the solar ultraviolet radiation (UV).{{sfnp|Atreya et al.|2005b}} The methane abundance relative to molecular hydrogen in the stratosphere is about {{10^|-4}},{{sfnp|Miller et al.|2005}} while the abundance ratio of other light hydrocarbons, like ethane and acetylene, to molecular hydrogen is about {{10^|−6}}.{{sfnp|Miller et al.|2005}}
Jupiter's thermosphere is located at pressures lower than {{val|1|u=μbar}} and demonstrates such phenomena as airglow, polar aurorae and X-ray emissions.{{sfnp|Yelle|Miller|2004|pp=1–12}} Within it lie layers of increased electron and ion density that form the ionosphere.{{sfnp|Miller et al.|2005}} The high temperatures prevalent in the thermosphere ({{val|800|–|1000|u=K}}) could not be explained for over 50 years;{{sfnp|Yelle|Miller|2004|pp=15–16}} models predicted a temperature no higher than about {{val|400|u=K}}.{{sfnp|Miller et al.|2005}} Energy sources, including absorption of high-energy solar radiation (UV or X-ray), heating from the charged particles precipitating from the Jovian magnetosphere, friction-like Joule heating from currents in the auroral ionosphere, or dissipation of upward-propagating gravity waves,{{sfnp|Yelle|Miller|2004|pp=22–27}} were proposed as possible solutions for this "Energy Crisis". Global infrared observations of the temperature structure and an updated model indicate the discrepancy is the result of auroral energy sourced from Joule heating and redistributed via ion drag.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Müller-Wodarg |first1=Ingo C. F. |last2=Iñurrigarro |first2=Peio |last3=Moore |first3=Luke |last4=Koskinen |first4=Tommi T. |last5=Medvedev |first5=Alexander S. |date=2025-08-29 |title=Temperatures of Jupiter's Upper Atmosphere: The Role of the Planetary Magnetic Field |journal=The Astrophysical Journal Letters |volume=990 |issue=1 |pages=L22 |doi=10.3847/2041-8213/adfa21 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2025ApJ...990L..22M |issn=2041-8205}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Roberts |first1=Kate |last2=Moore |first2=Luke |last3=O’Donoghue |first3=James |last4=Melin |first4=Henrik |last5=Stallard |first5=Tom |last6=Müller-Wodarg |first6=Ingo |last7=Agiwal |first7=Omakshi |last8=Knowles |first8=Katie L. |last9=Tiranti |first9=Paola I. |last10=Mohamed |first10=Khalid |last11=Schmidt |first11=Carl |date=2026-02-05 |title=A Global View of Jupiter's Upper Atmosphere Through H3+ |journal=The Astrophysical Journal Letters |volume=998 |issue=1 |pages=L13 |doi=10.3847/2041-8213/ae3c9b |doi-access=free |issn=2041-8205}}</ref> The thermosphere and exosphere at the poles and at low latitudes emit X-rays, which were first observed by the Einstein Observatory in 1983.{{sfnp|Bhardwaj|Gladstone|2000|pp=299–302}} The energetic particles coming from Jupiter's magnetosphere create bright auroral ovals, which encircle the poles. Unlike their terrestrial analogs, which appear only during magnetic storms, aurorae are permanent features of Jupiter's atmosphere.{{sfnp|Bhardwaj|Gladstone|2000|pp=299–302}} The thermosphere was the first place outside the Earth where the trihydrogen cation ({{chem2|H3+}}) was discovered.{{sfnp|Miller et al.|2005}} This ion emits strongly in the mid-infrared part of the spectrum, at wavelengths between {{val|2|and|5|u=μm}}; this is a major cooling mechanism of the thermosphere.{{sfnp|Yelle|Miller|2004|pp=15–16}}
== Chemical composition == <div style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; width: 25em;"> {| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align: center; margin-right: 0; width: 100%;" |+ Elemental abundances relative to hydrogen <br /> in Jupiter and Sun{{sfnp|Atreya et al.|2003}} |- ! scope="col" | Element ! scope="col" | Sun ! scope="col" | Jupiter/Sun |- ! scope="row" | {{chem2|He}}/{{chem2|H}} | 0.0975 || {{val|0.807|0.02}} |- ! scope="row" | {{chem2|Ne}}/{{chem2|H}} | {{val|1.23e−4}} || {{val|0.10|0.01}} |- ! scope="row" | {{chem2|Ar}}/{{chem2|H}} | {{val|3.62e−6}} || {{val|2.5|0.5}} |- ! scope="row" | {{chem2|Kr}}/{{chem2|H}} | {{val|1.61e−9}} || {{val|2.7|0.5}} |- ! scope="row" | {{chem2|Xe}}/{{chem2|H}} | {{val|1.68e−10}} || {{val|2.6|0.5}} |- ! scope="row" | {{chem2|C}}/{{chem2|H}} | {{val|3.62e−4}} || {{val|2.9|0.5}} |- ! scope="row" | {{chem2|N}}/{{chem2|H}} | {{val|1.12e−4}} || {{unbulleted list |list_style=text-align:center; | {{val|3.6|0.5}} ({{val|8|u=bar}}) | {{val|3.2|1.4}} ({{val|9|–|12|u=bar}}) }} |- ! scope="row" | {{chem2|O}}/{{chem2|H}} | {{val|8.51e−4}} || {{unbulleted list |list_style=text-align:center; | {{val|0.033|0.015}} ({{val|12|u=bar}}) | {{val|0.19|–|0.58}} ({{val|19|u=bar}}){{ref label|B|b|none}} }} |- ! scope="row" | {{chem2|P}}/{{chem2|H}} | {{val|3.73e−7}} || 0.82 |- ! scope="row" | {{chem2|S}}/{{chem2|H}} | {{val|1.62e−5}} || {{val|2.5|±0.15}} |} {| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align: center; margin-right: 0; width: 100%;" |+ Isotopic ratios in Jupiter and Sun{{sfnp|Atreya et al.|2003}} |- ! scope="col" | Ratio ! scope="col" | Sun ! scope="col" | Jupiter |- ! scope="row" | {{chem2|^{13}C|link=carbon-13}}/{{chem2|^{12}C|link=carbon-12}} | 0.011 || {{val|0.0108|0.0005}} |- ! scope="row" | {{chem2|^{15}N|link=nitrogen-15}}/{{chem2|^{14}N|link=nitrogen-14}} | {{val|p=< |2.8e−3}} || {{val|2.3|0.3|e=-3}}<br/>({{val|0.08|–|2.8|u=bar}}) |- ! scope="row" | {{chem2|^{36}Ar|link=argon-36}}/{{chem2|^{38}Ar|link=argon-38}} | {{val|5.77|0.08}} || {{val|5.6|0.25}} |- ! scope="row" | {{chem2|^{20}Ne|link=neon-20}}/{{chem2|^{22}Ne|link=neon-22}} | {{val|13.81|0.08}} || {{val|13|2}} |- ! scope="row" | {{chem2|^{3}He|link=helium-3}}/{{chem2|^{4}He|link=helium-4}} | {{val|1.5|0.3|e=−4}} || {{val|1.66|0.05|e=−4}} |- ! scope="row" | {{chem2|D|link=deuterium}}/{{chem2|H|link=Hydrogen-1}} | {{val|3.0|0.17|e=−5}} || {{val|2.25|0.35|e=−5}} |} </div> The composition of Jupiter's atmosphere is similar to that of the planet as a whole.{{sfnp|Atreya et al.|2003}} Jupiter's atmosphere is the most comprehensively understood of those of all the giant planets because it was observed directly by the ''Galileo'' atmospheric probe when it entered the Jovian atmosphere on December 7, 1995.<ref>{{cite mailing list |last= McDowell |first= Jonathan |date= 1995-12-08 |title= Galileo at Jupiter |mailing-list= Jonathan's Space Report |publisher= Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics |number= 267 |url= http://www.planet4589.org/space/jsr/back/news.267 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110810051445/http://www.planet4589.org/space/jsr/back/news.267|archive-date= 2011-08-10 |url-status= dead }}</ref> Other sources of information about Jupiter's atmospheric composition include the Infrared Space Observatory (ISO),{{sfnp|Encrenaz|2003}} the ''Galileo'' and ''Cassini'' orbiters,{{sfnp|Kunde et al.|2004}} and Earth-based observations.{{sfnp|Atreya et al.|2003}}
The two main constituents of the Jovian atmosphere are molecular hydrogen ({{chem2|H2}}) and helium.{{sfnp|Atreya et al.|2003}} The helium abundance is {{val|0.157|0.004}} relative to molecular hydrogen by number of molecules, and its mass fraction is {{val|0.234|0.005}}, which is slightly lower than the Solar System's primordial value.{{sfnp|Atreya et al.|2003}} The reason for this low abundance is not entirely understood, but some of the helium may have condensed into the core of Jupiter.{{sfnp|Atreya et al.|1999}} This condensation is likely to be in the form of helium rain: as hydrogen turns into the metallic state at depths of more than {{val|10,000|u=km|fmt=commas}}, helium separates from it forming droplets which, being denser than the metallic hydrogen, descend towards the core. This can also explain the severe depletion of neon (see Table), an element that easily dissolves in helium droplets and would be transported in them towards the core as well.{{sfnp|Wilson|Militzer|2010}}<ref name=Sanders2010>{{cite web |last= Sanders |first= Robert |date= 22 March 2010 |title= Helium rain on Jupiter explains lack of neon in atmosphere |website= UC Berkeley News Center |publisher= University of Berkeley |url= http://newscenter.berkeley.edu/2010/03/22/helium_rain/ |access-date= 24 July 2012 |archive-date= 1 May 2012 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120501195930/http://newscenter.berkeley.edu/2010/03/22/helium_rain/ |url-status= dead}}</ref>
The atmosphere contains various simple compounds such as water, methane ({{chem2|CH4}}), hydrogen sulfide ({{chem2|H2S}}), ammonia ({{chem2|NH3}}) and phosphine ({{chem2|PH3}}).{{sfnp|Atreya et al.|2003}} Their abundances in the deep (below {{val|10|u=bar}}) troposphere imply that the atmosphere of Jupiter is enriched in the elements carbon, nitrogen, sulfur and possibly oxygen{{ref label|B|b|none}} by a factor of 2–4 relative to the Sun.{{ref label|C|c|none}}{{sfnp|Atreya et al.|2003}} The noble gases argon, krypton and xenon also appear in abundance relative to solar levels (see table), while neon is much scarcer.{{sfnp|Atreya et al.|2003}} Other chemical compounds such as arsine ({{chem2|AsH3}}) and germane ({{chem2|GeH4}}) are present only in trace amounts.{{sfnp|Atreya et al.|2003}} The upper atmosphere of Jupiter contains small amounts of simple hydrocarbons such as ethane, acetylene, and diacetylene, which form from methane under the influence of the solar ultraviolet radiation and charged particles coming from Jupiter's magnetosphere.{{sfnp|Atreya et al.|2003}} The carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and water present in the upper atmosphere are thought to originate from impacting comets, such as Shoemaker-Levy 9. The water cannot come from the troposphere because the cold tropopause acts like a cold trap, effectively preventing water from rising to the stratosphere (see Vertical structure above).{{sfnp|Atreya et al.|2003}}
Earth- and spacecraft-based measurements have led to improved knowledge of the isotopic ratios in Jupiter's atmosphere. As of July 2003, the accepted value for the deuterium abundance is {{val|2.25|0.35|e=−5}},{{sfnp|Atreya et al.|2003}} which probably represents the primordial value in the protosolar nebula that gave birth to the Solar System.{{sfnp|Encrenaz|2003}} The ratio of nitrogen isotopes in the Jovian atmosphere, {{chem2|^{15}N|link=nitrogen-15}} to {{chem2|^{14}N|link=nitrogen-14}}, is {{val|2.3e-3}}, a third lower than that in the Earth's atmosphere ({{val|3.5e−3}}).{{sfnp|Atreya et al.|2003}} The latter discovery is especially significant since the previous theories of Solar System formation considered the terrestrial value for the ratio of nitrogen isotopes to be primordial.{{sfnp|Encrenaz|2003}}
== Zones, belts and jets == [[File:Map of Jupiter.jpg|thumb|A polar stereographic projection of Jupiter's atmosphere centered about Jupiter's south pole]] The visible surface of Jupiter is divided into several bands parallel to the equator. There are two types of bands: lightly colored ''zones'' and relatively dark ''belts.''{{sfnp|Ingersoll et al.|2004|pp=2–5}} The wider Equatorial Zone (EZ) extends between latitudes of approximately 7°S to 7°N. Above and below the EZ, the North and South Equatorial belts (NEB and SEB) extend to 18°N and 18°S, respectively. Farther from the equator lie the North and South Tropical zones (NtrZ and STrZ).{{sfnp|Ingersoll et al.|2004|pp=2–5}} The alternating pattern of belts and zones continues until the polar regions at approximately 50 degrees latitude, where their visible appearance becomes somewhat muted.{{sfnp|Rogers|1995|p=81}}
The difference in the appearance between zones and belts is caused by differences in the opacity of the clouds. Ammonia concentration is higher in zones, which leads to the appearance of denser clouds of ammonia ice at higher altitudes, which in turn leads to their lighter color.{{sfnp|Ingersoll et al.|2004|pp=5–7}} On the other hand, in belts clouds are thinner and are located at lower altitudes.{{sfnp|Ingersoll et al.|2004|pp=5–7}} The upper troposphere is colder in zones and warmer in belts.{{sfnp|Ingersoll et al.|2004|pp=2–5}} The exact nature of chemicals that make Jovian zones and bands so colorful is not known, but they may include complicated compounds of sulfur, phosphorus and carbon.{{sfnp|Ingersoll et al.|2004|pp=2–5}}
The Jovian bands are bounded by zonal atmospheric flows (winds), called jets. The eastward (prograde) jets are found at the transition from zones to belts (going away from the equator), whereas westward (retrograde) jets mark the transition from belts to zones.{{sfnp|Ingersoll et al.|2004|pp=2–5}} Such flow velocity patterns mean that the jets' eastward momentum decreases in belts and increases in zones from the equator to the pole. Therefore, wind shear in belts is cyclonic, while in zones it is anticyclonic.<ref name=1937Vasavada>{{harvp|Vasavada|Showman|2005|p=1937}}.</ref> The EZ is an exception to this rule, showing a strong eastward (prograde) jet and has a local minimum of the wind speed exactly at the equator. The jet speeds are high on Jupiter, reaching more than {{val|100|u=m/s}}.{{sfnp|Ingersoll et al.|2004|pp=2–5}} These speeds correspond to ammonia clouds located in the pressure range {{val|0.7|–|1|u=bar}}. The prograde jets are generally more powerful than the retrograde jets.{{sfnp|Ingersoll et al.|2004|pp=2–5}} The jets extend thousands of kilometers into the interior, as measured by the gravitometer instrument onboard of the Juno spacecraft.{{sfnp|Kaspi et al.|2018}} The direction at which the jets extend into the planet is parallel to Jupiter's axis of rotation{{sfnp|Galanti et al.|2021}} rather than in a radial direction (toward the center of the planet), consistent with the Taylor-Proudman theorem.{{sfnp|Busse|1976}} The Galileo Probe measured the vertical profile of a jet along its descent trajectory into Jupiter's atmosphere, finding the winds to decay over two to three scale heights{{ref label|A|a|none}} above the clouds, while below the cloud level, winds increase slightly and then remain constant down to at least {{val|22|u=bar}}—the maximum operational depth reached by the probe.{{sfnp|Ingersoll et al.|2000|p=12}}
thumb|left|Zonal wind speeds in the atmosphere of Jupiter
The origin of Jupiter's colored banded structure is not completely clear, though it may resemble the cloud structure of Earth's Hadley cells. The simplest interpretation is that zones are sites of atmospheric upwelling, whereas belts are manifestations of downwelling.{{sfnp|Ingersoll et al.|2000|p=5}} When air enriched in ammonia rises in zones, it expands and cools, forming high and dense white clouds. In belts, however, the air descends, warming adiabatically as in a convergence zone on Earth, and white ammonia clouds evaporate, revealing lower, darker clouds. The location and width of bands, speed and location of jets on Jupiter are remarkably stable, having changed only slightly between 1980 and 2000. One example of change is a decrease of the speed of the strongest eastward jet located at the boundary between the North Tropical zone and North Temperate belts at 23°N.<ref name=1942Vasavada/>{{sfnp|Ingersoll et al.|2000|p=5}} However bands vary in coloration and intensity over time (see "specific band"). These variations were first observed in the early seventeenth century.{{sfnp|Graney|2010}}
=== Meridional circulation cells === Meridional circulation cells are a large-scale atmospheric motion where gas rises at a certain latitude, travel in the north-south (meridional) direction, descends, and get back to the origin in a closed cell circulation.{{sfnp|Holton|2004}} On Earth, the meridional circulation is composed of 3 cells in each hemisphere: Hadley, Ferrel and Polar cells. On Jupiter, the visible cloud bands gave indication for upward motion in the zones and downward motion in the belts, indicative only for the upper few bars.{{sfnp|Fletcher et al.|2020}} However, higher frequency of lightning flashes in the belts, indicative of upward atmospheric motion, gave indication for a reversed motion in the deeper atmosphere.{{sfnmp|1a1=Showman|1a2=de Pater|1y=2005|2a1=Ingersoll et al.|2y=2000}} Juno's microwave measurements probe the atmosphere down to {{val|p=~|240|u=bar}}.{{sfnp|Janssen et al.|2017}} These measurements confirmed the existence of these motions as a part of mid-latitudes large circulation cells with upward motion in the belts and downward motions in the zones, extending from {{val|p=~|1|u=bar}} down to at least {{val|p=~|240|u=bar}}.{{sfnp|Duer et al.|2021}} So far, 8 cells have been identified at each of Jupiter's hemispheres along latitudes 20°-60° N/S.{{sfnp|Duer et al.|2021}} The mid-latitude cells are driven by breaking of atmospheric waves, similar to the Ferrel cells on Earth.{{sfnp|Duer et al.|2021}} While on Earth, the return flow in the cells' lower branch is balanced by friction in the Ekman layer, the balance in Jupiter in yet unknown, but one possibility is that the friction is maintained by magnetic drag.{{sfnp|Liu|Schneider|2010}}
=== Specific bands === thumb|300px|Idealized illustration of Jupiter's cloud bands, labeled with their official abbreviations. Lighter zones are indicated to the right, darker belts to the left. The Great Red Spot and Oval BA are shown in the South Tropical Zone and South Temperate Belt, respectively.
The belts and zones that divide Jupiter's atmosphere each have their own names and unique characteristics. They begin below the North and South Polar Regions, which extend from the poles to roughly 40–48° N/S. These bluish-gray regions are usually featureless.{{sfnp|Rogers|1995|p=81}}
The North North Temperate Region rarely shows more detail than the polar regions, due to limb darkening, foreshortening, and the general diffuseness of features. However, the North-North Temperate Belt (NNTB) is the northernmost distinct belt, though it occasionally disappears. Disturbances tend to be minor and short-lived. The North-North Temperate Zone (NNTZ) is perhaps more prominent, but also generally quiet. Other minor belts and zones in the region are occasionally observed.{{sfnp|Rogers|1995|pp=85, 91–94}}
The North Temperate Region is part of a latitudinal region easily observable from Earth, and thus has a superb record of observation.{{sfnp|Rogers|1995|pp=101–105}} It also features the strongest prograde jet stream on the planet—a westerly current that forms the southern boundary of the North Temperate Belt (NTB).{{sfnp|Rogers|1995|pp=101–105}} The NTB fades roughly once a decade (this was the case during the ''Voyager'' encounters), making the North Temperate Zone (NTZ) apparently merge into the North Tropical Zone (NTropZ).{{sfnp|Rogers|1995|pp=101–105}} Other times, the NTZ is divided by a narrow belt into northern and southern components.{{sfnp|Rogers|1995|pp=101–105}}
The North Tropical Region is composed of the NTropZ and the North Equatorial Belt (NEB). The NTropZ is generally stable in coloration, changing in tint only in tandem with activity on the NTB's southern jet stream. Like the NTZ, it too is sometimes divided by a narrow band, the NTropB. On rare occasions, the southern NTropZ plays host to "Little Red Spots". As the name suggests, these are northern equivalents of the Great Red Spot. Unlike the GRS, they tend to occur in pairs and are always short-lived, lasting a year on average; one was present during the ''Pioneer 10'' encounter.{{sfnp|Rogers|1995|pp=113–117}}
The NEB is one of the most active belts on the planet. It is characterized by anticyclonic white ovals and cyclonic "barges" (also known as "brown ovals"), with the former usually forming farther north than the latter; as in the NTropZ, most of these features are relatively short-lived. Like the South Equatorial Belt (SEB), the NEB has sometimes dramatically faded and "revived". The timescale of these changes is about 25 years.{{sfnp|Rogers|1995|pp=125–130}}
[[File:PIA02863 - Jupiter surface motion animation.gif|thumb|500px|Zones, belts and vortices on Jupiter, November 2000. This 14-frame animation spans 24 Jovian days ≈10 Earth days. The wide equatorial zone [EZ] is visible in the center surrounded by two dark equatorial belts [SEB and NEB]. The grayish-blue irregular "hot spots" at the northern edge of the EZ change shape as they move east. The Great Red Spot is at the southern margin of the SEB. Strings of small storms rotate around northern-hemisphere ovals. The smallest features visible at the equator are about 600 km across. Small, bright features appearing for a single frame may be lightning storms. Black spots appearing for a frame in the SEB are moons of Jupiter occluding the field of view.]]
The Equatorial Region (EZ) is one of the most stable regions of the planet, in latitude and in activity. The northern edge of the EZ hosts spectacular plumes that trail southwest from the NEB, which are bounded by dark, warm (in infrared) features known as festoons (hot spots).<ref name=1987Vasavada/> Though the southern boundary of the EZ is usually quiescent, observations from the late 19th into the early 20th century show that this pattern was then reversed relative to today. The EZ varies considerably in coloration, from pale to an ochre, or even coppery hue; it is occasionally divided by an Equatorial Band (EB).{{sfnp|Rogers|1995|pp=133, 145–147}} Features in the EZ move roughly {{val|390|u=km/h}} relative to the other latitudes.{{sfnmp|Rogers|1995|1p=133|Beebe|1997|2p=24}}
The South Tropical Region includes the South Equatorial Belt (SEB) and the South Tropical Zone. It is by far the most active region on the planet, as it is home to its strongest retrograde jet stream. The SEB is usually the broadest, darkest belt on Jupiter; it is sometimes split by a zone (the SEBZ), and can fade entirely every 3 to 15 years before reappearing in what is known as an SEB Revival cycle. A period of weeks or months following the belt's disappearance, a white spot forms and erupts dark brownish material which is stretched into a new belt by Jupiter's winds. The belt most recently disappeared in May 2010.<ref>{{cite web|title=Jupiter, It Is A-Changing |last= Atkinson |first= Nancy |publisher=Universe Today|url=http://www.universetoday.com/2010/05/13/jupiter-it-is-a-changing/|date=2010|access-date=2010-12-24}}</ref> Another characteristic of the SEB is a long train of cyclonic disturbances following the Great Red Spot. Like the NTropZ, the STropZ is one of the most prominent zones on the planet; not only does it contain the GRS, but it is occasionally rent by a South Tropical Disturbance (STropD), a division of the zone that can be very long-lived; the most famous one lasted from 1901 to 1939.{{sfnp|Rogers|1995|pp=159–160}} thumb|This false color image from the HST reveals a rare wave structure just north of the planet's equator.<ref>{{cite web|title=Hubble's planetary portrait captures changes in Jupiter's Great Red Spot|url=http://www.spacetelescope.org/news/heic1522/|access-date=15 October 2015}}</ref> The South Temperate Region, or South Temperate Belt (STB), is yet another dark, prominent belt, more so than the NTB; until March 2000, its most famous features were long-lived white ovals BC, DE, and FA, which have since merged to form Oval BA ("Red Jr."). The ovals were part of South Temperate Zone, but they extended into STB partially blocking it.{{sfnp|Ingersoll et al.|2004|pp=2–5}} The STB has occasionally faded, apparently due to complex interactions between the white ovals and the GRS. The appearance of the South Temperate Zone (STZ)—the zone in which the white ovals originated—is highly variable.{{sfnp|Rogers|1995|pp=219–221, 223, 228–229}}
There are other features on Jupiter that are either temporary or difficult to observe from Earth. The South South Temperate Region is harder to discern even than the NNTR; its detail is subtle and can only be studied well by large telescopes or spacecraft.{{sfnp|Rogers|1995|p=235}} Many zones and belts are more transient in nature and are not always visible. These include the ''Equatorial band'' (EB),{{sfnp|Rogers|2003}} ''North Equatorial belt zone'' (NEBZ, a white zone within the belt) and ''South Equatorial belt zone'' (SEBZ).{{sfnp|Rogers|Metig|2001}} Belts are also occasionally split by a sudden disturbance. When a disturbance divides a normally singular belt or zone, an ''N'' or an ''S'' is added to indicate whether the component is the northern or southern one; e.g., NEB(N) and NEB(S).{{sfnp|Ridpath|1998}}
== Dynamics == thumb|upright=1.6|Hubble images of Jupiter taken under the OPAL (Outer Planet Atmospheres Legacy) program from 2015 to 2024, with approximately true color.
Circulation in Jupiter's atmosphere is markedly different from that in the atmosphere of Earth. The interior of Jupiter is fluid and lacks any solid surface. Therefore, convection may occur throughout the planet's outer molecular envelope. As of 2008, a comprehensive theory of the dynamics of the Jovian atmosphere has not been developed. Any such theory needs to explain the following facts: the existence of narrow stable bands and jets that are symmetric relative to Jupiter's equator, the strong prograde jet observed at the equator, the difference between zones and belts, and the origin and persistence of large vortices such as the Great Red Spot.<ref name=1942Vasavada>{{harvp|Vasavada|Showman|2005|pp=1942–1974}}.</ref>
The theories regarding the dynamics of the Jovian atmosphere can be broadly divided into two classes: shallow and deep. The former hold that the observed circulation is largely confined to a thin outer (weather) layer of the planet, which overlays the stable interior. The latter hypothesis postulates that the observed atmospheric flows are only a surface manifestation of deeply rooted circulation in the outer molecular envelope of Jupiter.<ref name=1943Vasavada>{{harvp|Vasavada|Showman|2005|pp=1943–1945}}.</ref> As both theories have their own successes and failures, many planetary scientists think that the true theory will include elements of both models.{{sfnp|Heimpel et al.|2005}}
=== Shallow models === The first attempts to explain Jovian atmospheric dynamics date back to the 1960s.<ref name=1943Vasavada/><ref>See, e.g., {{harvp|Ingersoll|Cuzzi|1969}}.</ref> They were partly based on terrestrial meteorology, which had become well developed by that time. Those shallow models assumed that the jets on Jupiter are driven by small scale turbulence, which is in turn maintained by moist convection in the outer layer of the atmosphere (above the water clouds).<ref name=1947Vasavada/>{{sfnp|Ingersoll et al.|2004|pp=16–17}} The moist convection is a phenomenon related to the condensation and evaporation of water and is one of the major drivers of terrestrial weather.{{sfnp|Ingersoll et al.|2004|pp=14–15}} The production of the jets in this model is related to a well-known property of two dimensional turbulence—the so-called inverse cascade, in which small turbulent structures (vortices) merge to form larger ones.<ref name=1947Vasavada>{{harvp|Vasavada|Showman|2005|pp=1947–1958}}.</ref> The finite size of the planet means that the cascade can not produce structures larger than some characteristic scale, which for Jupiter is called the Rhines scale. Its existence is connected to production of Rossby waves. This process works as follows: when the largest turbulent structures reach a certain size, the energy begins to flow into Rossby waves instead of larger structures, and the inverse cascade stops.<ref name=1949Vasavada>{{harvp|Vasavada|Showman|2005|p=1949}}.</ref> Since on the spherical rapidly rotating planet the dispersion relation of the Rossby waves is anisotropic, the Rhines scale in the direction parallel to the equator is larger than in the direction orthogonal to it.<ref name=1949Vasavada/> The ultimate result of the process described above is production of large scale elongated structures, which are parallel to the equator. The meridional extent of them appears to match the actual width of jets.<ref name=1947Vasavada/> Therefore, in shallow models vortices actually feed the jets and should disappear by merging into them.
While these weather–layer models can successfully explain the existence of a dozen narrow jets, they have serious problems.<ref name=1947Vasavada/> A glaring failure of the model is the prograde (super-rotating) equatorial jet: with some rare exceptions shallow models produce a strong retrograde (subrotating) jet, contrary to observations. In addition, the jets tend to be unstable and can disappear over time.<ref name=1947Vasavada/> Shallow models cannot explain how the observed atmospheric flows on Jupiter violate stability criteria.<ref name=1945Vasavada>{{harvp|Vasavada|Showman|2005|pp=1945–1947}}.</ref> More elaborated multilayer versions of weather–layer models produce more stable circulation, but many problems persist.<ref name=1962Vasavada>{{harvp|Vasavada|Showman|2005|pp=1962–1966}}.</ref> Meanwhile, the Galileo Probe found that the winds on Jupiter extend well below the water clouds at {{val|5|–|7|u=bar}} and do not show any evidence of decay down to {{val|22|u=bar}} pressure level, which implies that circulation in the Jovian atmosphere may in fact be deep.{{sfnp|Ingersoll et al.|2004|p=12}}
=== Deep models === The deep model was first proposed by Busse in 1976.<ref name=1966Vasavada>{{harvp|Vasavada|Showman|2005|p=1966}}.</ref>{{sfnp|Busse|1976}} His model was based on another well-known feature of fluid mechanics, the Taylor–Proudman theorem. It holds that in any fast-rotating barotropic ideal liquid, the flows are organized in a series of cylinders parallel to the rotational axis. The conditions of the theorem are probably met in the fluid Jovian interior. Therefore, the planet's molecular hydrogen mantle may be divided into cylinders, each cylinder having a circulation independent of the others.<ref name=1966-1Vasavada>{{harvp|Vasavada|Showman|2005|pp=1966–1972}}.</ref> Those latitudes where the cylinders' outer and inner boundaries intersect with the visible surface of the planet correspond to the jets; the cylinders themselves are observed as zones and belts. [[File:Thermal emission of Jupiter.jpg|thumb|False color thermal image of Jupiter, by the NASA Infrared Telescope Facility.]] The deep model easily explains the strong prograde jet observed at the equator of Jupiter; the jets it produces are stable and do not obey the 2D stability criterion.<ref name=1966-1Vasavada/> However it has major difficulties; it produces a very small number of broad jets, and realistic simulations of 3D flows are not possible as of 2008, meaning that the simplified models used to justify deep circulation may fail to catch important aspects of the fluid dynamics within Jupiter.<ref name=1966-1Vasavada/> One model published in 2004 successfully reproduced the Jovian band-jet structure.{{sfnp|Heimpel et al.|2005}} It assumed that the molecular hydrogen mantle is thinner than in all other models; occupying only the outer 10% of Jupiter's radius. In standard models of the Jovian interior, the mantle comprises the outer 20–30%.<ref name=1970Vasavada>{{harvp|Vasavada|Showman|2005|p=1970}}.</ref> The driving of deep circulation is another problem. The deep flows can be caused both by shallow forces (moist convection, for instance) or by deep planet-wide convection that transports heat out of the Jovian interior.<ref name=1947Vasavada/> Which of these mechanisms is more important is not clear yet.
== Moist-convection and Y-shaped Structures on Jupiter's Equatorial Zone ==
Numerical simulations suggest that deep convection on Jupiter is primarily triggered by water condensation occurring at pressure levels ranging from approximately {{val|5|u=bar}} to {{val|500|u=mbar}}. At the upper altitudes of these convective plumes, where the pressure is a few hundred millibars, condensates such as {{chem2|NH3}}, {{chem2|H2S}}, and water are likely to form. In contrast, at pressures exceeding {{val|3|u=bar}}, water becomes the dominant condensate. Global climate model (GCM) simulations using Jupiter-DYNAMICO indicate weaker convective activity in the equatorial regions compared to mid- to high latitudes, consistent with lightning observations. It is also possible that during strong storms on Jupiter, ammonia vapor dissolves into lofted water ice at pressures between {{val|1.1|and|1.5|u=bar}}, forming a low-temperature liquid mixture of ammonia and water. This process facilitates the formation of ammonia-rich ''mushballs'' that transport ammonia to deeper layers of the atmosphere.{{sfnp|Rostami et al.|2025}}
A possible mechanism for the formation of Y-shaped structures on Jupiter's equator is that Y-shaped structures are driven by equatorial modons coupled with convectively baroclinic Kelvin waves (CCBCKWs). This mechanism suggests that Y-shaped structures result from large-scale localized heating in a diabatic environment, which, upon reaching a critical threshold of negative pressure or positive buoyancy anomaly, generates a ''hybrid structure''. This ''hybrid structure'' consists of a ''quasi equatorial modon'', a coherent dipolar structure, coupled with a CCBCKW that propagates eastward in a self-sustaining and self-propelled manner. Initially, the hybrid moves steadily eastward; however, the larger phase speed of the CCBCKW eventually leads to its detachment from the ''quasi equatorial modon''. The lifetime of this coupled structure varies from interseasonal to seasonal timescales.{{sfnp|Rostami et al.|2025}} Moist convection is a necessary condition for triggering the eastward-propagating structure.
=== Internal heat === As has been known since 1966,{{sfnp|Low|1966}} Jupiter radiates much more heat than it receives from the Sun. It is estimated that the ratio of the thermal power emitted by the planet to the thermal power absorbed from the Sun is {{val|1.67|0.09}}. The internal heat flux from Jupiter is {{val|5.44|0.43|u=W|up=m2}}, whereas the total emitted power is {{val|335|26|ul=PW}}. The latter value is approximately equal to one billionth of the total power radiated by the Sun. This excess heat is mainly the primordial heat from the early phases of Jupiter's formation, but may result in part from the precipitation of helium into the core.{{sfnp|Pearl et al.|1990|pp=12, 26}}
The internal heat may be important for the dynamics of the Jovian atmosphere. While Jupiter has a small obliquity of about 3°, and its poles receive much less solar radiation than its equator, the tropospheric temperatures do not change appreciably from the equator to poles. One explanation is that Jupiter's convective interior acts like a thermostat, releasing more heat near the poles than in the equatorial region. This leads to a uniform temperature in the troposphere. While heat is transported from the equator to the poles mainly via the atmosphere on Earth, on Jupiter deep convection equilibrates heat. The convection in the Jovian interior is thought to be driven mainly by the internal heat.{{sfnp|Ingersoll et al.|2004|pp=11, 17–18}}
== Discrete features == === Vortices === [[File:NH Jupiter IR (contrast enhanced).jpg|thumb|right|''New Horizons'' IR view of Jupiter's atmosphere, false color]] The atmosphere of Jupiter is home to hundreds of vortices—circular rotating structures that, as in the Earth's atmosphere, can be divided into two classes: cyclones and anticyclones.{{sfnp|Vasavada|Showman|2005|p=1974}} Cyclones rotate in the direction similar to the rotation of the planet (counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern); anticyclones rotate in the reverse direction. However, unlike in the terrestrial atmosphere, anticyclones predominate over cyclones on Jupiter—more than 90% of vortices larger than {{val|2000|u=km}} in diameter are anticyclones.<ref name=1978Vasavada>{{harvp|Vasavada|Showman|2005|p=1978}}.</ref> The lifetime of Jovian vortices varies from several days to hundreds of years, depending on their size. For instance, the average lifetime of an anticyclone between {{val|1000|and|6000|u=km}} in diameter is 1–3 years.<ref name=1977Vasavada>{{harvp|Vasavada|Showman|2005|p=1977}}.</ref> Vortices have never been observed in the equatorial region of Jupiter (within 10° of latitude), where they are unstable.{{sfnp|Vasavada|Showman|2005|p=1976}} As on any rapidly rotating planet, Jupiter's anticyclones are high pressure centers, while cyclones are low pressure.<ref name=1987Vasavada>{{harvp|Vasavada|Showman|2005|pp=1987–1989}}.</ref>
thumb|left|150px|Great Cold Spot on Jupiter, false color<ref>{{cite web|title=Great Cold Spot discovered on Jupiter|url=https://www.eso.org/public/images/potw1716a/|website=www.eso.org|access-date=17 April 2017}}</ref> [[File:PIA21972 Jupiter Blues.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Jupiter clouds in false color<br />(''Juno''; October 2017)]] The anticyclones in Jupiter's atmosphere are always confined within zones, where the wind speed increases in direction from the equator to the poles.<ref name=1977Vasavada/> They are usually bright and appear as white ovals.{{sfnp|Vasavada|Showman|2005|p=1974}} They can move in longitude, but stay at approximately the same latitude as they are unable to escape from the confining zone.{{sfnp|Vasavada|Showman|2005|p=1976}} The wind speeds at their periphery are about {{val|100|u=m/s}}.<ref name=1980Vasavada/> Different anticyclones located in one zone tend to merge when they approach each other.<ref>{{harvp|Vasavada|Showman|2005|p=1975}}.</ref> However Jupiter has two anticyclones that are somewhat different from all others. They are the Great Red Spot (GRS)<ref name=1978bVasavada>{{harvp|Vasavada|Showman|2005|pp=1978–1980}}.</ref> and the Oval BA;<ref name=1980Vasavada>{{harvp|Vasavada|Showman|2005|pp=1980–1982}}.</ref> the latter formed only in 2000. In contrast to white ovals, these structures are red, arguably due to dredging up of red material from the planet's depths.<ref name=1978bVasavada/> On Jupiter the anticyclones usually form through merges of smaller structures including convective storms (see below),<ref name=1977Vasavada/> although large ovals can result from the instability of jets. The latter was observed in 1938–1940, when a few white ovals appeared as a result of instability of the southern temperate zone; they later merged to form Oval BA.{{sfnp|Vasavada|Showman|2005|pp=1977, 1980–1982}}
In contrast to anticyclones, the Jovian cyclones tend to be small, dark and irregular structures. Some of the darker and more regular features are known as brown ovals (or badges).<ref name=1978Vasavada/> However the existence of a few long–lived large cyclones has been suggested. In addition to compact cyclones, Jupiter has several large irregular filamentary patches, which demonstrate cyclonic rotation.{{sfnp|Vasavada|Showman|2005|p=1974}} One of them is located to the west of the GRS (in its wake region) in the southern equatorial belt.{{sfnp|Vasavada|Showman|2005|p=1979}} These patches are called cyclonic regions (CR). The cyclones are always located in the belts and tend to merge when they encounter each other, much like anticyclones.<ref name=1977Vasavada/>
The deep structure of vortices is not completely clear. They are thought to be relatively thin, as any thickness greater than about {{val|500|u=km}} will lead to instability. The large anticyclones are known to extend only a few tens of kilometers above the visible clouds. As of 2008, the early hypothesis that the vortices are deep convective plumes (or convective columns) is not shared by the majority of planetary scientists.{{sfnp|Vasavada|Showman|2005|p=1976}}
==== Great Red Spot ==== {{Main|Great Red Spot}} <!--DO NOT split this section into a separate article without first discussing the issue on the talk page. Please keep in mind that this article evolved from attempts to expand "Great Red Spot" --> [[File:NASA14135-Jupiter-GreatRedSpot-Shrinks-20140515.jpg|thumb|left|400px|The Great Red Spot is decreasing in size (May 15, 2014).<ref name="NASA-20140515">{{cite web |last1=Harrington |first1= J. D. |last2=Weaver |first2=Donna |last3=Villard |first3=Ray |title=Release 14-135 - NASA's Hubble Shows Jupiter's Great Red Spot is Smaller than Ever Measured |url=http://www.nasa.gov/press/2014/may/nasas-hubble-shows-jupiters-great-red-spot-is-smaller-than-ever-measured |date=May 15, 2014 |work=NASA |access-date=May 16, 2014 }}</ref>]] The Great Red Spot (GRS) is a persistent anticyclonic storm, 22° south of Jupiter's equator; observations from Earth establish a minimum storm lifetime of 350 years.<ref>{{cite web |author= Staff |date= November 17, 2006 |title=Jupiter Data Sheet |website= Space.com News |publisher= Future US |url= http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/solarsystem/jupiter-ez.html |access-date= 2008-06-03 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080511205433/http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/solarsystem/jupiter-ez.html |archive-date= 11 May 2008 |url-status= live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date= August 10, 2000 |title= The Great Red Spot |publisher= Dept. Physics & Astronomy, University of Tennessee |url= http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr161/lect/jupiter/redspot.html |access-date= 2008-06-03| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080607102754/http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr161/lect/jupiter/redspot.html |archive-date= 7 June 2008 |url-status= dead}}</ref> A storm was described as a "permanent spot" by Gian Domenico Cassini after observing the feature in July 1665 with his instrument-maker Eustachio Divini.{{sfnp|Rogers|1995|p=6}} According to a report by Giovanni Battista Riccioli in 1635, Leander Bandtius, whom Riccioli identified as the Abbot of Dunisburgh who possessed an "extraordinary telescope", observed a large spot that he described as "oval, equaling one seventh of Jupiter's diameter at its longest." According to Riccioli, "these features are seldom able to be seen, and then only by a telescope of exceptional quality and magnification".{{sfnp|Graney|2010|p=256}} The Great Spot has been continually observed since the 1870s, however.
The GRS rotates counter-clockwise, with a period of about six Earth days{{sfnp|Smith et al.|1979|p=954}} or 14 Jovian days. Its dimensions are {{val|24,000|–|40,000|u=km|fmt=commas}} east-to-west and {{val|12,000|–|14,000|u=km|fmt=commas}} north-to-south. The spot is large enough to contain two or three planets the size of Earth. At the start of 2004, the Great Red Spot had approximately half the longitudinal extent it had a century ago, when it was {{val|40,000|u=km|fmt=commas}} in diameter. At the present rate of reduction, it could potentially become circular by 2040, although this is unlikely because of the distortion effect of the neighboring jet streams.{{sfnp|Irwin|2003|p=171}} It is not known how long the spot will last, or whether the change is a result of normal fluctuations.{{sfnp|Beatty|2002}} thumb|right|200px|Two images of the Great Red Spot (center-right) and Oval BA (lower left) taken in May, 2008. Top: Infrared image by the Very Large Telescope, showing the cool centers of the storms. Bottom: Optical image by the Hubble Space Telescope. According to a study by scientists at the University of California, Berkeley, between 1996 and 2006 the spot lost 15 percent of its diameter along its major axis. Xylar Asay-Davis, who was on the team that conducted the study, noted that the spot is not disappearing because "velocity is a more robust measurement because the clouds associated with the Red Spot are also strongly influenced by numerous other phenomena in the surrounding atmosphere."<ref>{{cite web |last= Britt |first= Robert Roy |title= Jupiter's Great Red Spot Is Shrinking |publisher= Space.com News |date= 2009-03-09 |url= http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/090309-mm-jupiter-great-red-spot.html |access-date= 2009-02-04 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090311235511/http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/090309-mm-jupiter-great-red-spot.html |archive-date= 11 March 2009 |url-status= live}}</ref>
Infrared data have long indicated that the Great Red Spot is colder (and thus, higher in altitude) than most of the other clouds on the planet;{{sfnp|Rogers|1995|p=191}} the cloudtops of the GRS are about {{val|8|u=km}} above the surrounding clouds. Furthermore, careful tracking of atmospheric features revealed the spot's counterclockwise circulation as far back as 1966 – observations dramatically confirmed by the first time-lapse movies from the ''Voyager'' flybys.{{sfnp|Rogers|1995|pp=194–1966}} The spot is spatially confined by a modest eastward jet stream (prograde) to its south and a very strong westward (retrograde) one to its north.{{sfnp|Beebe|1997|p=35}} Though winds around the edge of the spot peak at about {{cvt|120|m/s|km/h}}, currents inside it seem stagnant, with little inflow or outflow.{{sfnp|Rogers|1995|p=195}} The rotation period of the spot has decreased with time, perhaps as a direct result of its steady reduction in size.{{sfnp|Rogers|2006}} In 2010, astronomers imaged the GRS in the far infrared (from {{val|8.5|to|24|u=μm}}) with a spatial resolution higher than ever before and found that its central, reddest region is warmer than its surroundings by between {{val|3|–|4|ul=K}}. The warm airmass is located in the upper troposphere in the pressure range of {{val|200|–|500|u=mbar}}. This warm central spot slowly counter-rotates and may be caused by a weak subsidence of air in the center of GRS.{{sfnp|Fletcher et al.|2010|p=306}}
The Great Red Spot's latitude has been stable for the duration of good observational records, typically varying by about a degree. Its longitude, however, is subject to constant variation.{{sfnmp|1a1=Reese|1a2=Solberg|1y=1966|2a1=Rogers|2y=1995|2pp=192–193}} Because Jupiter's visible features do not rotate uniformly at all latitudes, astronomers have defined three different systems for defining the longitude. System II is used for latitudes of more than 10°, and was originally based on the average rotation rate of the Great Red Spot of 9h 55m 42s.{{sfnmp|1a1=Stone|1y=1974|2a1=Rogers|2y=1995|2pp=48, 193}} Despite this, the spot has "lapped" the planet in System II at least 10 times since the early 19th century. Its drift rate has changed dramatically over the years and has been linked to the brightness of the South Equatorial Belt, and the presence or absence of a South Tropical Disturbance.{{sfnp|Rogers|1995|p=193}} thumb|left|250px|Approximate size comparison of Earth superimposed on this Dec 29, 2000 image showing the Great Red Spot It is not known exactly what causes the Great Red Spot's reddish color. Theories supported by laboratory experiments suppose that the color may be caused by complex organic molecules, red phosphorus, or yet another sulfur compound. The GRS varies greatly in hue, from almost brick-red to pale salmon, or even white. The higher temperature of the reddest central region is the first evidence that the Spot's color is affected by environmental factors.{{sfnp|Fletcher et al.|2010|p=306}} The spot occasionally disappears from the visible spectrum, becoming evident only through the Red Spot Hollow, which is its niche in the South Equatorial Belt (SEB). The visibility of GRS is apparently coupled to the appearance of the SEB; when the belt is bright white, the spot tends to be dark, and when it is dark, the spot is usually light. The periods when the spot is dark or light occur at irregular intervals; in the 50 years from 1947 to 1997, the spot was darkest in the periods 1961–1966, 1968–1975, 1989–1990, and 1992–1993.{{sfnp|Beebe|1997|pp=38–41}} In November 2014, an analysis of data from NASA's Cassini mission revealed that the red color is likely a product of simple chemicals being broken apart by solar ultraviolet irradiation in the planet's upper atmosphere.{{sfnp|Loeffler|Hudson|2018}}<ref>{{cite web |author= NASA Science Editorial Team |date= May 22, 2023 |orig-date= November 28, 2014 |title= Is Jupiter's Great Red Spot a Sunburn? |website= Science@NASA |url= https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2014/28nov_sunburn/ |access-date= 2026-01-21}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date= November 11, 2014 |title= Jupiter's Red Spot is Likely a Sunburn, Not a Blush |website= Cassini-Huygens Mission to Saturn |publisher= NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory |url= http://www.nasa.gov/jpl/cassini/jupiters-red-spot-is-likely-a-sunburn-not-a-blush/ |url-status= dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160706161328/http://www.nasa.gov/jpl/cassini/jupiters-red-spot-is-likely-a-sunburn-not-a-blush/ |archive-date=2016-07-06 }}</ref>
The Great Red Spot should not be confused with the Great Dark Spot, a feature observed near Jupiter's north pole (bottom) in 2000 by the ''Cassini–Huygens'' spacecraft.<ref>{{cite news |last= Phillips |first= Tony |date= March 12, 2003 |title= The Great Dark Spot |website= Science@NASA |url=https://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2003/12mar_darkspot.htm |access-date= 2007-06-20 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070615100054/https://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2003/12mar_darkspot.htm |archive-date= 15 June 2007 }}</ref> A feature in the atmosphere of Neptune was also called the Great Dark Spot. The latter feature, imaged by ''Voyager 2'' in 1989, may have been an atmospheric hole rather than a storm. It was no longer present in 1994, although a similar spot had appeared farther to the north.{{sfnp|Hammel et al.|1995|p=1740}}
==== Oval BA ==== thumb|Oval BA (left){{Update|part=section|date=January 2026|reason=}} Oval BA is a red storm in Jupiter's southern hemisphere similar in form to, though smaller than, the Great Red Spot (it is often affectionately referred to as "Red Spot Jr.", "Red Jr." or "The Little Red Spot"). A feature in the South Temperate Belt, Oval BA was first seen in 2000 after the collision of three small white storms, and has intensified since then.{{sfnp|Sanchez-Lavega et al.|2001}}
The formation of the three white oval storms that later merged into Oval BA can be traced to 1939, when the South Temperate Zone was torn by dark features that effectively split the zone into three long sections. Jovian observer Elmer J. Reese labeled the dark sections AB, CD, and EF. The rifts expanded, shrinking the remaining segments of the STZ into the white ovals FA, BC, and DE.{{sfnp|Rogers|1995|p=223}} Ovals BC and DE merged in 1998, forming Oval BE. Then, in March 2000, BE and FA joined, forming Oval BA{{sfnp|Sanchez-Lavega et al.|2001}} {{see below|{{section link||White ovals}}, below}}.
thumb|Formation of Oval BA from three white ovals thumb|Oval BA (bottom), Great Red Spot (top) and "Baby Red Spot" (middle) during a brief encounter in June, 2008 Oval BA slowly began to turn red in August 2005.{{sfnp|Go et al.|2006}} On February 24, 2006, amateur astronomer Christopher Go discovered the color change, noting that it had reached the same shade as the GRS.{{sfnp|Go et al.|2006}} As a result, NASA writer Dr. Tony Phillips suggested it be called "Red Spot Jr." or "Red Jr."<ref>{{cite web |last= Phillips |first= Tony |date= March 3, 2006 |title= Jupiter's New Red Spot |website= Science@NASA |url= https://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2006/02mar_redjr.htm |access-date= 2008-10-16 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20081019024917/https://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2006/02mar_redjr.htm |archive-date= 19 October 2008 }}</ref>
In April 2006, a team of astronomers, believing that Oval BA might converge with the GRS that year, observed the storms through the Hubble Space Telescope.<ref name="Phillips2006-06-05">{{cite web |last= Phillips |first= Tony |date= June 5, 2006 |title= Huge Storms Converge |website= Science@NASA |url= https://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2006/05jun_redperil.htm |access-date= 2007-01-08 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070202190145/https://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2006/05jun_redperil.htm |archive-date= 2 February 2007 }}</ref> The storms pass each other about every two years, but the passings of 2002 and 2004 did not produce anything exciting. Dr. Amy Simon-Miller, of the Goddard Space Flight Center, predicted the storms would have their closest passing on July 4, 2006.<ref name="Phillips2006-06-05"/> On July 20, the two storms were photographed passing each other by the Gemini Observatory without converging.<ref>{{cite news |last= Michaud |first= Peter |date= July 20, 2006 |title= Gemini Captures Close Encounter of Jupiter's Red Spots |publisher= Gemini Observatory |url= http://www.gemini.edu/index.php?option=content&task=view&id=196 |access-date= 2007-06-15}}</ref>
Why Oval BA turned red is not well understood. According to a 2008 study by Dr. Santiago Pérez-Hoyos of the University of the Basque Country, the most likely mechanism is "an upward and inward diffusion of either a colored compound or a coating vapor that may interact later with high energy solar photons at the upper levels of Oval BA."<ref name=basque>{{cite news |title= Diffusion Caused Jupiter's Red Spot Junior To Color Up |date=September 26, 2008 |publisher= ScienceDaily |url= https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/09/080922100452.htm |access-date= 2008-10-16 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080930054916/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/09/080922100452.htm |archive-date= 30 September 2008 |url-status= live}}</ref> Some believe that small storms (and their corresponding white spots) on Jupiter turn red when the winds become powerful enough to draw certain gases from deeper within the atmosphere which change color when those gases are exposed to sunlight.<ref name=NYTimes>{{cite news |last= Fountain |first= Henry |date= July 22, 2008 |title= On Jupiter, a Battle of the Red Spots, With the Baby Losing |work= The New York Times |url= https://www.nytimes.com/2008/07/22/science/space/22obspot.html |access-date= 2010-06-18}}</ref>
Oval BA is getting stronger according to observations made with the Hubble Space Telescope in 2007. The wind speeds have reached {{val|618|u=km/h}}; about the same as in the Great Red Spot and far stronger than any of the progenitor storms.<ref>{{cite web |last= Buckley |first= M. |date= May 20, 2008 |title= Storm Winds Blow in Jupiter's Little Red Spot |publisher= Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory |url= http://www.jhuapl.edu/newscenter/pressreleases/2008/080520.asp |access-date= 2008-10-16 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120325063447/http://www.jhuapl.edu/newscenter/pressreleases/2008/080520.asp |archive-date= March 25, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last= Steigerwald |first= Bill |date= October 10, 2006 |title= Jupiter's Little Red Spot Growing Stronger |publisher= NASA Goddard Space Center |url= http://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/news/topstory/2006/little_red_spot.html |access-date= 2008-10-16 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20081101075527/http://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/news/topstory/2006/little_red_spot.html |archive-date= 1 November 2008 |url-status= live}}</ref> As of July 2008, its size was about the diameter of Earth—approximately half the size of the Great Red Spot.<ref name=basque/>
Oval BA was seen to lose its red colour towards the end of 2018, a change which was observed by Juno.<ref>{{Cite web |title= Oval BA swirls from Juno |website= The Planetary Society |language= en |url= https://www.planetary.org/space-images/oval-ba-swirls-from-juno |access-date= 2026-01-12 }}</ref>
Oval BA should not be confused with another major storm on Jupiter, the South Tropical Little Red Spot (LRS) (nicknamed "the Baby Red Spot" by NASA),{{sfnp|Rogers|2008b}} which was destroyed by the GRS.<ref name=NYTimes/> The new storm, previously a white spot in Hubble images, turned red in May 2008. The observations were led by Imke de Pater of the University of California, at Berkeley, US.<ref>{{cite news |first= David |last= Shiga |date= May 22, 2008 |title= Third red spot erupts on Jupiter |publisher= New Scientist |url= https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn13963-third-red-spot-erupts-on-jupiter.html |access-date= 2008-05-23 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080705223517/http://space.newscientist.com/article/dn13963-third-red-spot-erupts-on-jupiter.html |archive-date= 5 July 2008 |url-status= live}}</ref> The Baby Red Spot encountered the GRS in late June to early July 2008, and in the course of a collision, the smaller red spot was shredded into pieces. The remnants of the Baby Red Spot first orbited, then were later consumed by the GRS. The last of the remnants with a reddish color to have been identified by astronomers had disappeared by mid-July, and the remaining pieces again collided with the GRS, then finally merged with the bigger storm. The remaining pieces of the Baby Red Spot had completely disappeared by August 2008.{{sfnp|Rogers|2008b}} During this encounter Oval BA was present nearby, but played no apparent role in the destruction of the Baby Red Spot.{{sfnp|Rogers|2008b}}
=== Storms and lightning === thumb|left|Lightning on Jupiter's night side, imaged by the Galileo orbiter in 1997 [[File:PIA21641-Jupiter-SouthernStorms-JunoCam-20170525.jpg|thumb|right|Jupiter's southern storms, from JunoCam. False color image.<ref name="NYT-20170525">{{cite news |last= Chang |first= Kenneth |date= May 25, 2017 |title= NASA's Jupiter Mission Reveals the "Brand-New and Unexpected" |url= https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/25/science/nasa-juno-spacecraft-jupiter-storms.html |work= The New York Times |access-date= May 27, 2017 }}</ref>]] The storms on Jupiter are similar to thunderstorms on Earth. They reveal themselves via bright clumpy clouds about {{val|1000|u=km}} in size, which appear from time to time in the belts' cyclonic regions, especially within the strong westward (retrograde) jets.<ref name=1982Vasavada>{{harvp|Vasavada|Showman|2005|pp=1982, 1985–1987}}.</ref> In contrast to vortices, storms are short-lived phenomena; the strongest of them may exist for several months, while the average lifetime is only 3–4 days.<ref name=1982Vasavada/> They are believed to be due mainly to moist convection within Jupiter's troposphere. Storms are actually tall convective columns (plumes), which bring the wet air from the depths to the upper part of the troposphere, where it condenses in clouds. A typical vertical extent of Jovian storms is about {{val|100|u=km}}; as they extend from a pressure level of about {{val|5|–|7|u=bar}}, where the base of a hypothetical water cloud layer is located, to as high as {{val|0.2|–|0.5|u=bar}}.{{sfnp|Sanchez-Lavega et al.|2008|pp=437–438}}
Storms on Jupiter are always associated with lightning. The imaging of the night–side hemisphere of Jupiter by ''Galileo'' and ''Cassini'' spacecraft revealed regular light flashes in Jovian belts and near the locations of the westward jets, particularly at 51°N, 56°S and 14°S latitudes.<ref name=1983Vasavada>{{harvp|Vasavada|Showman|2005|pp=1983–1985}}.</ref> On Jupiter lightning strikes are on average a few times more powerful than those on Earth. However, they are less frequent; the light power emitted from a given area is similar to that on Earth.<ref name=1983Vasavada/> A few flashes have been detected in polar regions, making Jupiter the second known planet after Earth to exhibit polar lightning.{{sfnp|Baines et al.|2007|p=226}} A Microwave Radiometer (''Juno'') detected many more in 2018.
Every 15–17 years Jupiter is marked by especially powerful storms. They appear at 23°N latitude, where the strongest eastward jet, that can reach {{val|150|u=m/s}}, is located. The last time such an event was observed was in March–June 2007.{{sfnp|Sanchez-Lavega et al.|2008|pp=437–438}} Two storms appeared in the northern temperate belt 55° apart in longitude. They significantly disturbed the belt. The dark material that was shed by the storms mixed with clouds and changed the belt's color. The storms moved with a speed as high as {{val|170|u=m/s}}, slightly faster than the jet itself, hinting at the existence of strong winds deep in the atmosphere.{{sfnp|Sanchez-Lavega et al.|2008|pp=437–438}}{{ref label|D|d|none}}
=== Circumpolar cyclones === [[File:JIRAM Image Southern CPCs.jpg|thumb|False colored JIRAM image of southern CPCs]] Other notable features of Jupiter are its cyclones near the northern and southern poles of the planet. These are called circumpolar cyclones (CPCs) and they have been observed by the Juno Spacecraft using JunoCam and JIRAM. The cyclones have now been observed for about 5 years, as Juno completed 39 orbits around Jupiter.{{sfnp|Mura et al.|2022}} The northern pole has eight cyclones moving around a central cyclone (NPC) while the southern pole only has five cyclones around a central cyclone (SPC), with a gap between the first and second cyclones.{{sfnp|Tabataba-Vakili et al.|2020}} The cyclones look like the hurricanes on Earth with trailing spiral arms and a denser center, although there are differences between the centers depending on the individual cyclone. Northern CPCs generally maintain their shape and position compared to the southern CPCs and this could be due to the faster wind speeds that are experienced in the south, where the maximum wind velocities are around {{val|80|to|90|u=m/s}}.{{sfnp|Grassi et al.|2018}} Although there is more movement among the southern CPCs they tend to retain the pentagonal structure relative to the pole. It has also been observed that the angular wind velocity increases as the center is approached and radius becomes smaller, except for one cyclone in the north, which may have rotation in the opposite direction. The difference in the number of cyclones in the north compared to the south is probably due to the size of the cyclones.{{sfnp|Gavriel|Kaspi|2021}} The southern CPCs tend to be bigger with radii ranging from {{val|5,600|to|7,000|u=km|fmt=commas}} while northern CPCs range from {{val|4,000|to|4,600|u=km|fmt=commas}}.{{sfnp|Adriani et al.|2018}}
The mechanism for the stability of these two symmetric structures of cyclones is an outcome of Beta-drift, a known effect causing cyclones to move poleward and anti-cyclones to move equatorward due to the conservation of momentum along streamlines in a vortex, under the change of the Coriolis parameter.{{sfnp|Adem|1956}} Thus, cyclones forming in the polar regions may congregate at the pole and form a polar cyclone such as those observed on Saturn's poles.{{sfnp|Scott|2010}}{{sfnp|O'Neill et al.|2015}} The polar cyclone (the central cyclone in the polygons) also emit a vorticity field which can repel other cyclones (see Fujiwhara effect) similar to the beta-effect. The latitude where the circumpolar cyclones are positioned (~84°) fits, in calculations, the hypothesis that the poleward beta-drift force balances the equatorward rejection of the polar cyclone on the circumpolar cyclones,{{sfnp|Gavriel|Kaspi|2021}} assuming they have an anticyclonic ring around them, consistent with model simulations{{sfnp|Li et al.|2020}} and observations.{{sfnp|Gavriel|Kaspi|2021}}
The northern cyclones tend to maintain an octagonal structure with the NPC as a center point. Northern cyclones have less data than southern cyclones because of limited illumination in the north-polar winter, making it difficult for JunoCam to obtain accurate measurements of northern CPC positions at each perijove (53 days), but JIRAM is able to collect enough data to understand the northern CPCs. The limited illumination makes it difficult to see the northern central cyclone, but by making four orbits, the NPC can be partially seen and the octagonal structure of the cyclones can be identified. Limited illumination also makes it difficult to view the motion of the cyclones, but early observations show that the NPC is offset from the pole by about 0.5° and the CPCs generally maintained their position around the center. Despite data being harder to obtain, it has been observed that the northern CPCs have a drift rate of about 1° to 2.5° per perijove to the west. The seventh cyclone in the north (n7) drifts a little more than the others and this is due to an anticyclonic white oval (AWO) that pulls it farther from the NPC, which causes the octagonal shape to be slightly distorted.
The instantaneous locations of the south polar cyclones have been tracked for 5 years by the JIRAM instrument and by JunoCam.{{sfnmp|1a1=Mura et al.|1y=2022|2a1=Rogers et al.|2y=2021}} The locations over time were revealed to form an oscillatory motion of each of the 6 cyclones, with periods of approximately one (Earth) year and radii of about {{val|400|u=km}}.{{sfnp|Gavriel|Kaspi|2022}} These oscillations around the CPCs' mean positions were explained to be a result of imbalances between the beta-drift, pulling the CPCs toward the pole and the rejection forces that develop due to the interactions between the cyclones, similar to a 6-body spring system.{{sfnp|Gavriel|Kaspi|2022}} In addition to this periodic motion, the south polar cyclones were observed to drift westward by {{val|7.5|±0.7|u=°|up=year}}.{{sfnp|Mura et al.|2021}} The reason for this drift is still unknown.
The circumpolar cyclones have different morphologies, especially in the north, where cyclones have a "filled" or "chaotic" structure. The inner part of the "chaotic" cyclones have small-scale cloud streaks and flecks. The "filled" cyclones have a sharply-bound, lobate area that is bright white near the edge with a dark inner portion. There are four "filled" cyclones and four "chaotic" cyclones in the north. The southern cyclones all have an extensive fine-scale spiral structure on their outside but they all differ in size and shape. There is very little observation of the cyclones due to low sun angles and a haze that is typically over the atmosphere but what little has been observed shows the cyclones to be a reddish color. thumb|right|True color (top) and false color image (bottom) of an equatorial hot spot on Jupiter
=== Disturbances === The normal pattern of bands and zones is sometimes disrupted for periods of time. One particular class of disruption are long-lived darkenings of the South Tropical Zone, normally referred to as "South Tropical Disturbances" (STD). The longest lived STD in recorded history was followed from 1901 until 1939, having been first seen by Percy B. Molesworth on February 28, 1901. It took the form of darkening over part of the normally bright South Tropical zone. Several similar disturbances in the South Tropical Zone have been recorded since then.{{sfnp|McKim|1997}}
=== Hot spots === Some of the most mysterious features in the atmosphere of Jupiter are hot spots. In them, the air is relatively free of clouds and heat can escape from the depths without much absorption. The spots look like bright spots in the infrared images obtained at the wavelength of about 5 μm.<ref name=1987Vasavada/> They are preferentially located in the belts, although there is a train of prominent hot spots at the northern edge of the Equatorial Zone. The ''Galileo'' Probe descended into one of those equatorial spots. Each equatorial spot is associated with a bright cloudy plume located to the west of it and reaching up to {{val|10,000|u=km|fmt=commas}} in size.{{sfnp|Ingersoll et al.|2004|pp=2–5}} Hot spots generally have round shapes, although they do not resemble vortices.<ref name=1987Vasavada/>
The origin of hot spots is not clear. They can be either downdrafts, where the descending air is adiabatically heated and dried or, alternatively, they can be a manifestation of planetary scale waves. The latter hypotheses explains the periodical pattern of the equatorial spots.{{sfnp|Ingersoll et al.|2004|pp=2–5}}<ref name=1987Vasavada/>
=== The possibility of life === In 1953, the Miller–Urey experiment proved that the combination of lightning and compounds existing in the primitive Earth's atmosphere can form organic matter (including amino acids), which can be used as the cornerstone of life. The simulated atmosphere consists of water, methane, ammonia and hydrogen molecules; all of these substances are found in today's Jupiter atmosphere. Jupiter's atmosphere has a strong vertical air flow that carries these compounds into lower regions. But there are higher temperatures inside Jupiter, which will decompose these chemicals and hinder the formation of life similar to Earth.{{sfnp|Miller|1953}} This was speculated by Carl Sagan and Edwin E. Salpeter.
== Observational history == {{Main|Exploration of Jupiter}}
[[File:790106-0203 Voyager 58M to 31M reduced.gif|thumb|Time-lapse sequence from the approach of ''Voyager 1'' to Jupiter, 1979.]] Early modern astronomers, using small telescopes, recorded the changing appearance of Jupiter's atmosphere.{{sfnp|Ingersoll et al.|2004|p=8}} Their descriptive terms—belts and zones, brown spots and red spots, plumes, barges, festoons, and streamers—are still used.{{sfnp|Ingersoll et al.|2004|pp=2}} Other terms such as vorticity, vertical motion, cloud heights have entered in use later, in the 20th century.{{sfnp|Ingersoll et al.|2004|p=8}}
The first observations of the Jovian atmosphere at higher resolution than possible with Earth-based telescopes were taken by the ''Pioneer 10'' and ''Pioneer 11'' spacecraft. The first truly detailed images of Jupiter's atmosphere were provided by the ''Voyagers''.{{sfnp|Ingersoll et al.|2004|p=8}} The two spacecraft were able to image details at a resolution as low as {{val|5|u=km}} in size in various spectra, and also able to create "approach movies" of the atmosphere in motion.{{sfnp|Ingersoll et al.|2004|p=8}} The Galileo Probe, which suffered an antenna problem, saw less of Jupiter's atmosphere but at a better average resolution and a wider spectral bandwidth.{{sfnp|Ingersoll et al.|2004|p=8}}
Today, astronomers have access to a continuous record of Jupiter's atmospheric activity thanks to telescopes such as Hubble Space Telescope. These show that the atmosphere is occasionally wracked by massive disturbances, but that, overall, it is remarkably stable.{{sfnp|Ingersoll et al.|2004|p=8}} The vertical motion of Jupiter's atmosphere was largely determined by the identification of trace gases by ground-based telescopes.{{sfnp|Ingersoll et al.|2004|p=8}} Spectroscopic studies after the collision of Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 gave a glimpse of Jupiter's composition beneath the cloud tops. The presence of diatomic sulfur ({{chem2|S2}}) and carbon disulfide ({{chem2|CS2}}) was recorded—the first detection of either in Jupiter, and only the second detection of {{chem2|S2}} in any astronomical object—together with other molecules such as ammonia ({{chem2|NH3}}) and hydrogen sulfide ({{chem2|H2S}}), while oxygen-bearing molecules such as sulfur dioxide were not detected, to the surprise of astronomers.{{sfnp|Noll et al.|1995|p=1307}}
The ''Galileo'' atmospheric probe, as it plunged into Jupiter, measured the wind, temperature, composition, clouds, and radiation levels down to {{val|22|u=bar}}. However, below {{val|1|u=bar}} elsewhere on Jupiter there is uncertainty in the quantities.{{sfnp|Ingersoll et al.|2004|p=8}}
=== Great Red Spot studies === [[File:Great Red Spot From Voyager 1.jpg|thumb|A narrower view of Jupiter and the Great Red Spot, as seen from ''Voyager 1'' in 1979.]] The first sighting of the GRS is often credited to Robert Hooke, who described a spot on the planet in May 1664; however, it is likely that Hooke's spot was in the wrong belt altogether (the North Equatorial Belt, versus the current location in the South Equatorial Belt). Much more convincing is Giovanni Cassini's description of a "permanent spot" in the following year.{{sfnp|Rogers|1995|p=6}} With fluctuations in visibility, Cassini's spot was observed from 1665 to 1713.{{sfnp|Rogers|2008a|pp=111–112}}
A minor mystery concerns a Jovian spot depicted around 1700 on a canvas by Donato Creti, which is exhibited in the Vatican.{{sfnp|Rogers|1995|p=188}}{{sfnp|Hockey|1999|pp=40–41}} It is a part of a series of panels in which different (magnified) heavenly bodies serve as backdrops for various Italian scenes, the creation of all of them overseen by the astronomer Eustachio Manfredi for accuracy. Creti's painting is the first known to depict the GRS as red. No Jovian feature was officially described as red before the late 19th century.{{sfnp|Hockey|1999|pp=40–41}}
The present GRS was first seen only after 1830 and well-studied only after a prominent apparition in 1879. A 118-year gap separates the observations made after 1830 from its 17th-century discovery; whether the original spot dissipated and re-formed, whether it faded, or even if the observational record was simply poor are unknown.{{sfnp|Beebe|1997|pp=38–41}} The older spots had a short observational history and slower motion than that of the modern spot, which make their identity unlikely.{{sfnp|Rogers|1995|p=188}}
[[File:Jupiter and its shrunken Great Red Spot.jpg|thumb|left|Hubble's Wide Field Camera 3 took the GRS region at its smallest size ever. Color and contrast are highly exaggerated.]]
On February 25, 1979, when the ''Voyager 1'' spacecraft was 9.2 million kilometers from Jupiter it transmitted the first detailed image of the Great Red Spot back to Earth. Cloud details as small as {{val|160|u=km}} across were visible. The colorful, wavy cloud pattern seen to the west (left) of the GRS is the spot's wake region, where extraordinarily complex and variable cloud motions are observed.{{sfnp|Smith et al.|1979|pp=951–972}}
=== White ovals in the South Temperate Zone === [[File:whiteovals.jpg|thumb|The white ovals that later formed Oval BA, imaged by the Galileo orbiter in 1997]]
A trio of long-lived white ovals formed around 1940 in the South Temperate Zone. In 1939 three small dark segments developed in the STZ, dividing it into three long lighter-colored bands. The dark segments quickly expanded, and over the 1940s the white regions shrunk to ovals. Elmer J. Reese named the dark segments AB, CD, and EF, and the white segments between them BC, DE, and FA.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Rogers |first1=J. H. |last2=Herbert |first2=D. |title=1991JBAA..101..351R Page 351 |url=https://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1991JBAA..101..351R |access-date=2026-02-11 |journal=Journal of the British Astronomical Association |date=1991 |volume=101 |page=351 |bibcode=1991JBAA..101..351R }}</ref> In the early 1940s, the white segments shrank to ovals which spanned a region of roughly 90 degrees of longitude, and were referred to as 'white ovals'. The ovals contracted rapidly during their first decade, then more slowly, finally settling to a stable region 10 degrees wide by 1965.{{sfnp|Rogers|1995|pp=244–245}} As they shrank, they migrated north and became embedded in the South Temperate Belt, "digging" a niche in the STB.{{sfnp|Rogers|1995|pp=226–227}} Indeed, much like the GRS, their circulations were confined by two opposing jet streams on their northern and southern boundaries, with an eastward jet to their north and a retrograde westward one to the south.{{sfnp|Rogers|1995|pp=244–245}}
The longitudinal movement of the ovals seemed to be influenced by two factors: Jupiter's position in its orbit (they became faster at aphelion), and their proximity to the GRS (they accelerated when within 50 degrees of the Spot).{{sfnp|Rogers|1995|p=226}} The overall trend of the white oval drift rate was deceleration, with a decrease by half between 1940 and 1990.{{sfnp|Rogers|1995|p=225}}
During the ''Voyager'' fly-bys, the ovals extended roughly {{val|9000|u=km|fmt=commas}} from east to west, {{val|5000|u=km|fmt=commas}} from north to south, and rotated every five days (compared to six for the GRS at the time).{{sfnp|Beebe|1997|p=43}}
Starting in 1998, the three ovals began to merge together. First ovals DE and FA merged into oval DA, and then in 2000 ovals BC and DA merged into oval BA.<ref name=":0" /> Oval BA started to redden in 2005, was red from 2006 to 2008, then gradually faded back to white by 2019.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gallamore |first1=H. |last2=Chanover |first2=N. |last3=Dahl |first3=E. |last4=Voelz |first4=D. |last5=Hull |first5=R. |date=October 2020 |title=Temporal evolution of the color of Jupiter's storm Oval BA |url=https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020DPS....5210005G/abstract |journal=AAS/Division for Planetary Sciences Meeting Abstracts #52 |language=en |volume=52 |issue=6 |pages=100.05 |bibcode=2020DPS....5210005G }}</ref>
== See also == {{Portal|Solar System}} * Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 * Extrasolar planet (many larger than Jupiter) * Galileo Spacecraft (a mission that included both an orbiter and an atmospheric-entry probe) * Juno probe * 2009 Jupiter impact event * 2010 Jupiter impact event * Ulysses (spacecraft) * Voyager 1, Voyager 2 {{clear}}
== Notes == {{refbegin}} <ol type="a"> <li>{{note label|A|a|none}} The scale height {{nowrap|''h''{{sub|s}}}} is defined as {{nowrap|1=''h''{{sub|s}} = (''R''⋅''T'')/(''M''⋅''g''<sub>j</sub>)}}, where: {{physconst|R|symbol=yes|round=3}} is the gas constant; {{nowrap|1=''M'' ≈ {{val|0.0023|ul=kg.mol-1}}}} is the average molar mass in the Jovian atmosphere;<ref name=Seiff1998/> ''T'' is temperature; and {{nowrap|1= ''g''<sub>j</sub> ≈ {{val|25|u=m/s2}}}} is the gravitational acceleration at the surface of Jupiter. As the temperature varies from {{val|110|u=K}} in the tropopause up to {{val|1000|u=K}} in the thermosphere,<ref name=Seiff1998/> the scale height can assume values from {{val|15|to|150|u=km}}. <li>{{note label|B|b|none}} The ''Galileo'' atmospheric probe failed to measure the deep abundance of oxygen, because the water concentration continued to increase down to the pressure level of {{val|22|u=bar}}, when it ceased operating. While the actually measured oxygen abundances are much lower than the solar value, the observed rapid increase of water content of the atmosphere with depth makes it likely that the deep abundance of oxygen exceeds the solar value by a factor of about 3, similar to the relative abundance of C, N, and S.{{sfnp|Atreya et al.|2003}} <li>{{note label|C|c|none}} Various explanations of the overabundance of carbon, oxygen, nitrogen and other elements have been proposed. The leading one is that Jupiter captured a large number of icy planetesimals during the later stages of its accretion. The volatiles like noble gases are thought to have been trapped as clathrate hydrates in water ice.{{sfnp|Atreya et al.|2003}} <li>{{note label|D|d|none}}NASA's Hubble Space Telescope recorded on 25 August 2020, a storm traveling around the planet at {{convert|350|mph}}.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/a-new-view-of-jupiters-storms |title=A New View of Jupiter's Storms |website=NASA |date=17 September 2020 |access-date=25 September 2020 |archive-date=29 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230329014357/http://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/a-new-view-of-jupiters-storms/ }} </ref> In addition, researches from the California Institute of Technology reported that storms on Jupiter are similar to those on Earth, which form close to the equator, then move towards the poles. However, Jupiter's storms do not experience any friction from the land or oceans; hence, they drift until they reach the poles, which generate the so-called polygon storms.{{sfnp|Li et al.|2020}} </li> </ol> {{refend}}
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== Further reading == * {{cite book |editor1-last= Beatty |editor1-first= Kelly J. |editor2-last= Peterson |editor2-first= Carolyn Collins |editor3-last= Chaiki |editor3-first= Andrew |date= 1999 |title= The New Solar System |edition= 4th |publisher= Sky Publishing Corporation |location= Massachusetts |isbn= 978-0-933346-86-4 |oclc= 39464951 }} * {{cite book |last= Peek |first= Bertrand M. |author-link= Bertrand Meigh Peek |date= 1981 |title= The Planet Jupiter: The Observer's Handbook |edition= Revised |publisher= Faber and Faber Limited |location= London |isbn= 978-0-571-18026-4 |oclc= 8318939 |url= https://archive.org/details/planetjupiter00peek |url-access= registration }} * {{cite journal |last= Williams |first= Gareth P. |date= 1975 |title= Jupiter's atmospheric circulation |journal= Nature |volume= 257 |issue= 5529 |page= 778 |url= http://www.gfdl.noaa.gov/bibliography/related_files/gw7501.pdf |doi= 10.1038/257778a0 |bibcode= 1975Natur.257..778W |s2cid= 43539227 }} * {{cite journal |last= Williams |first= Gareth P. |date= 1978 |title= Planetary Circulations: 1. Barotropic Representation of Jovian and Terrestrial Turbulence |journal= Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences |volume= 35 |issue= 8 |pages= 1399–1426 |url= http://www.gfdl.noaa.gov/bibliography/related_files/gw7801.pdf |doi= 10.1175/1520-0469(1978)035<1399:PCBROJ>2.0.CO;2 |bibcode= 1978JAtS...35.1399W }} * {{cite book |last= Williams |first= Gareth P. |date= 1985 |chapter= Jovian and Comparative Atmospheric Modeling |editor1-last= Saltzman |editor1-first= Barry |editor2-last= Manabe |editor2-first= Syukuro |title= Issues in Atmospheric and Oceanic Modeling. Part A: Climate Dynamics |series= Advances in Geophysics |volume= 28A |publisher= Academic Press |location= Orlando, Florida |pages= 381–429 |url= https://archive.org/details/issuesinatmosphe0028unse/ |url-access= registration |chapter-url= http://www.gfdl.noaa.gov/bibliography/related_files/gw8502.pdf |isbn= 0-12-018828-7 |doi= 10.1016/S0065-2687(08)60231-9 |bibcode= 1985AdGeo..28..381W }} * {{cite journal |last= Williams |first= Gareth P. |date= 1996 |title= Jovian Dynamics. Part I: Vortex stability, structure, and genesis |journal= Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences |volume= 53 |issue= 18 |pages= 2685–2734 |url= http://www.gfdl.noaa.gov/bibliography/related_files/gw9601.pdf |doi= 10.1175/1520-0469(1996)053<2685:JDPVSS>2.0.CO;2 |bibcode= 1996JAtS...53.2685W }} * {{cite journal |last= Williams |first= Gareth P. |date= 1997 |title= Planetary vortices and Jupiter's vertical structure |journal= Journal of Geophysical Research |volume= 102 |issue= E4 |pages= 9303–9308 |url= http://www.gfdl.noaa.gov/bibliography/related_files/gw9701.pdf |doi= 10.1029/97JE00520 |doi-access= free |bibcode= 1997JGR...102.9303W }} * {{cite journal |last= Williams |first= Gareth P. |date= 2002 |title= Jovian Dynamics. Part II: The genesis and equilibration of vortex sets |journal= Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences |volume= 59 |issue= 8 |pages= 1356–1370 |url= http://www.gfdl.noaa.gov/bibliography/related_files/gpw0201.pdf |doi= 10.1175/1520-0469(2002)059<1356:JDPITG>2.0.CO;2 |bibcode= 2002JAtS...59.1356W }} * {{cite journal |last= Williams |first= Gareth P. |date= 2003 |title= Jovian Dynamics, Part III: Multiple, migrating, and equatorial jets |journal= Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences |volume= 60 |issue= 10 |pages= 1270–1296 |url= http://www.gfdl.noaa.gov/bibliography/related_files/gw0301.pdf |doi= 10.1175/1520-0469(2003)60<1270:JDPIMM>2.0.CO;2 |bibcode= 2003JAtS...60.1270W }} * {{cite journal |last= Williams |first= Gareth P. |date= 2003 |title= Barotropic instability and equatorial superrotation |journal= Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences |volume= 60 |issue= 17 |pages= 2136–2152 |url= http://www.gfdl.noaa.gov/bibliography/related_files/gw0303.pdf |doi= 10.1175/1520-0469(2003)060<2136:BIAES>2.0.CO;2 |bibcode= 2003JAtS...60.2136W |citeseerx= 10.1.1.144.5975 }} * {{cite journal |last= Williams |first= Gareth P. |date= 2003 |title= Super Circulations |journal= Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society |volume= 84 |issue= 9 |page= 1190 |url= http://www.gfdl.noaa.gov/bibliography/related_files/gw0304.pdf }} * {{cite journal |last= Williams |first= Gareth P. |date= 2003 |title= Jet sets |journal= Journal of the Meteorological Society of Japan |volume= 81 |issue= 3 |pages= 439–476 |url= http://www.gfdl.noaa.gov/bibliography/related_files/gw0302.pdf |doi= 10.2151/jmsj.81.439 |bibcode= 2003JMeSJ..81..439W |doi-access= free }} * {{cite journal |last= Williams |first= Gareth P. |date= 2006 |title= Equatorial Superrotation and Barotropic Instability: Static Stability Variants |journal= Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences |volume= 63 |issue= 5 |pages= 1548–1557 |url= http://www.gfdl.noaa.gov/bibliography/related_files/gw0601.pdf |doi= 10.1175/JAS3711.1 |bibcode= 2006JAtS...63.1548W }} * {{cite news |last= Yang |first= Sarah |date= April 21, 2004 |title= Researcher predicts global climate change on Jupiter as giant planet's spots disappear |publisher= UC Berkeley News |url= http://www.berkeley.edu/news/media/releases/2004/04/21_jupiter.shtml |access-date= 2007-06-14 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070609214744/http://www.berkeley.edu/news/media/releases/2004/04/21_jupiter.shtml |archive-date= 9 June 2007 |url-status= live }} * {{cite journal |last1= Youssef |first1= Ashraf |last2= Marcus |first2= Philip S. |date= 2003 |title= The dynamics of jovian white ovals from formation to merger |journal= Icarus |volume= 162 |issue= 1 |pages= 74–93 |bibcode= 2003Icar..162...74Y |doi= 10.1016/S0019-1035(02)00060-X }}
== External links == {{Commons category}} * Planetary Society [http://www.planetary.org/blogs/guest-blogs/2017/201170509-journey-to-jupiter.html blog post] (2017-05-09) by Peter Rosén describing assembly of a [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YZc1Y662jtk video] of Jupiter's atmospheric activity from 19 December 2014 to 31 March 2015 from amateur astronomer images * [https://www.britannica.com/place/Jupiter-planet/Basic-astronomical-data#toc54253 Jupiter's Atmosphere] {{Portal bar|Astronomy|Spaceflight|Solar System|Weather|Science|Outer space|}} {{Jupiter}} {{atmospheres}} {{Authority control}} {{Featured article}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Atmosphere Of Jupiter}} Category:Jupiter Jupiter