{{Short description|Species of parrot}} {{Speciesbox | image = Cyanoliseus patagonus.jpg | image2 = Парк птиц (11).JPG | status = LC | status_system = IUCN3.1 | status_ref = <ref name="iucn status 11 November 2021">{{cite iucn |author=BirdLife International |date=2018 |title=''Cyanoliseus patagonus'' |volume=2018 |article-number=e.T22685779A132255876 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T22685779A132255876.en |access-date=11 November 2021}}</ref> | genus = Cyanoliseus | parent_authority = | species = patagonus | authority = (Vieillot, 1818) | range_map = Cyanoliseus patagonus range map.png | range_map_caption = yellow is nesting area, orange is area of seasonal food migrations }} The '''burrowing parrot''' ('''''Cyanoliseus patagonus'''''), also known as the '''burrowing parakeet''' or the '''Patagonian conure''', is a species of parrot native to Argentina and Chile. It belongs to the monotypic genus ''Cyanoliseus'', with four subspecies that are currently recognized.
The burrowing parrot is unmistakable with a distinctive white eye ring, white breast marking, olive green body colour, and brightly coloured underparts. Named for their nesting habits, burrowing parrots excavate elaborate burrows in cliff faces and ravines in order to rear their chicks. They inhabit dry, open country up to 2000 m in elevation.<ref name=":04">{{Citation|last1=Collar|first1=Nigel|title=Burrowing Parakeet (Cyanoliseus patagonus)|date=2020-03-04|url=https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/species/burpar/1.0/introduction|journal=Birds of the World|editor-last=Billerman|editor-first=Shawn M.|publisher=Cornell Lab of Ornithology|language=en|doi=10.2173/bow.burpar.01|access-date=2020-10-15|last2=Boesman|first2=Peter F. D.|s2cid=241425121 |editor2-last=Keeney|editor2-first=Brooke K.|editor3-last=Rodewald|editor3-first=Paul G.|editor4-last=Schulenberg|editor4-first=Thomas S.|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Once abundant across Argentina and Chile, burrowing parrot populations have been in decline due to exploitation and persecution.<ref name=":04"/>
==Taxonomy, phylogeny and systematics== [[File:Cyanoliseus patagonus -Psittacara patagonica Patagonian Parrakeet-Maccaw -by Edward Lear 1812-1888.jpg|alt=|thumb|Burrowing parrot by Edward Lear]] The burrowing parrot was first described in 1818 by Louis Pierre Vieillot as ''Psittacus patagonus''.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/60121|title=Nouveau dictionnaire d'histoire naturelle, appliquée aux arts, à l'agriculture, à l'économie rurale et domestique, à la médecine, etc.|date=1817|publisher=Chez Deterville|edition=Nouv. éd. presqu' entièrement refondue et considérablement angmentée.|volume=t.25 (1817)|location=Paris|doi=10.5962/bhl.title.20211 }}</ref> The genus was later renamed ''Cyanoliseus'' by Charles Lucien Bonaparte in 1854.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Bonaparte|first=Charles Lucien|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/103299|title=Opera ornithologica.|date=1857|volume=2|location=Paris?}}</ref>
The burrowing parrot is the only member of the genus ''Cyanoliseus'', making it monotypic. Together with other genera of long-tailed New World parrots, ''Cyanoliseus'' is a part of the Tribe Arini, which in turn is a part of the subfamily Arinae, or Neotropical parrots, in the family of true parrots, Psittacidae. The closest relative of the burrowing parrot is thought to be the Nanday parakeet.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Tavares|first1=Erika Sendra|last2=Baker|first2=Allan J.|last3=Pereira|first3=Sérgio Luiz|last4=Miyaki|first4=Cristina Yumi|date=2006-06-01|title=Phylogenetic Relationships and Historical Biogeography of Neotropical Parrots (Psittaciformes: Psittacidae: Arini) Inferred from Mitochondrial and Nuclear DNA Sequences|journal=Systematic Biology|volume=55|issue=3|pages=454–470|doi=10.1080/10635150600697390|pmid=16861209|issn=1076-836X|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wright|first1=Timothy F.|last2=Schirtzinger|first2=Erin E.|last3=Matsumoto|first3=Tania|last4=Eberhard|first4=Jessica R.|last5=Graves|first5=Gary R.|last6=Sanchez|first6=Juan J.|last7=Capelli|first7=Sara|last8=Müller|first8=Heinrich|last9=Scharpegge|first9=Julia|last10=Chambers|first10=Geoffrey K.|last11=Fleischer|first11=Robert C.|date=2008-07-24|title=A Multilocus Molecular Phylogeny of the Parrots (Psittaciformes): Support for a Gondwanan Origin during the Cretaceous|journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution|volume=25|issue=10|pages=2141–2156|doi=10.1093/molbev/msn160|pmid=18653733|pmc=2727385|issn=1537-1719|doi-access=free}}</ref>
There are four recognized subspecies, however the subspecies ''C. p. conlara'' is considered doubtfully distinct:<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Forshaw, Joseph Michael|title=Parrots of the world|date=2010|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-3620-8|location=Princeton, N.J.|oclc=705945316}}</ref>
* ''C. p. patagonus'' (Vieillot) is the nominate subspecies found in central to southeast Argentina, with some migrants reaching southern Uruguay<ref name=":04"/> * ''C. p. andinus'' (Dabbene and Lillo) is found in northwest Argentina, from Salta to San Juan.<ref name=":04"/> Plumage is duller than the nominate ''C. p. patagonus'', with much fainter markings.<ref name=":23">{{Cite book|last=Forshaw|first=Joseph M.|title=Parrots of the World|publisher=Lansdowne Editions|year=1989|isbn=0-7018-2800-5|edition=3rd|location=Willoughby, NSW, Australia|pages=470–472}}</ref> This population is estimated to be approximately 2000 individuals.<ref name=":52">{{Cite journal|last1=Masello|first1=Juan F.|last2=Quillfeldt|first2=Petra|last3=Munimanda|first3=Gopi K.|last4=Klauke|first4=Nadine|last5=Segelbacher|first5=Gernot|last6=Schaefer|first6=H. Martin|last7=Failla|first7=Mauricio|last8=Cortes|first8=Maritza|last9=Moodely|first9=Yoshan|date=15 June 2011|title=The high Andes, gene flow and a stable hybrid zone shape the genetic structure of a wide-ranging South American parrot|journal=Frontiers in Zoology|volume=8|page=16|doi=10.1186/1742-9994-8-16|pmid=21672266|pmc=3142489 |doi-access=free }}</ref> * ''C. p. conlara'' (Nores and Yzurieta) can be found in San Luis, between the ranges of ''C. p. patagonus'' and ''C. p. andinus'', and is visually similar to ''C. p. patagonus'' except for a darker breast, suggesting that ''C. p. conlara'' may be a hybrid instead of a distinct subspecies<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":52"/> * ''C. p. bloxami'' (Olson), formerly ''C. p. byroni'', also known as the Greater Patagonian Conure,<ref name="worldparrottrust">{{cite web |title=Patagonian Conure |url=https://www.parrots.org/encyclopedia/patagonian-conure |publisher=World Parrot Trust |access-date=22 December 2020}}</ref> is the Chilean sub-population. Formerly occurring from Atacama to Valdivia, this subspecies is now restricted to isolated populations in central Chile in the O'Higgins, Maule and Atacama regions.<ref name=":04"/> Unlike the nominate subspecies, the white breast markings of this subspecies are prominent and extend across the whole breast, and the yellow underparts and red abdomen are much brighter.<ref name=":23"/> It is larger in size than ''C. p. patagonus'' at 315-390g.<ref name="worldparrottrust" /> Populations are currently estimated at 5000-6000 individuals.<ref name=":52"/>
Another subspecies, ''C. p. whitleyi'' (Kinnear), was described but has since been determined to be an aviary hybrid between a burrowing parrot and a species from the genus ''Aratinga'' or possibly ''Primolius''.<ref name=":04"/><ref name=":23"/>
A study on mitochondrial DNA in burrowing parrots suggests that the species originated in Chile, the Argentinian populations arising during the Late Pleistocene from "a single migration event across the Andes, which gave rise to all extant Argentinean mitochondrial lineages".<ref name=":52"/> The Andes represent a strong geographical barrier, thus isolating the Chilean population, which were found to be genetically and phenotypically distinct from the Argentinian populations.<ref name=":52"/> This study found no support for ''C. p. conlara'' as a subspecies, and instead suggests a hybrid zone between the ''C. p. patagonus'' and ''C. p. andinus'' ranges where ''C. p. conlara'' represents the hybrid phenotype.
== Description == Adults measure 39–52 cm in length, with a wingspan of 23–25 cm and a long, graduated tail that can range from 21 to 26 cm. Burrowing parrots are slightly sexually dimorphic, with males being slightly larger and weighing approximately 253-340 g, while females weigh 227-304 g,<ref name=":04"/><ref name=":23"/> making it the largest member of the group of New World parakeet species commonly known as conures.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.psittacology.com/types-of-conures/#Patagonian_conure_Cyanoliseus_patagonus|title = Types of conures | with pictures! - Psittacology|newspaper = Psittacology|date = 13 April 2020}}</ref>
The burrowing parrot is a distinctive parrot; it has a bare, white eye ring and post-ocular patch, its head and upper back are olive-brown, and its throat and breast are grey-brown with a whitish pectoral marking, which is variable and rarely extends across the whole breast.<ref name=":04"/><ref name=":23"/> The lower thighs and the center of the abdomen are orange-red, and it is thought that the extent and hue of the red plumage indicates the quality of the individual as a breeding partner and parent.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=MASELLO|first1=Juan F.|last2=PAGNOSSIN|first2=María Luján|last3=LUBJUHN|first3=Thomas|last4=QUILLFELDT|first4=Petra|date=2004-06-18|title=Ornamental non-carotenoid red feathers of wild burrowing parrots|journal=Ecological Research|volume=19|issue=4|pages=421–432|doi=10.1111/j.1440-1703.2004.00653.x|s2cid=6123165|issn=0912-3814}}</ref> The lower back, upper thighs, rump, vent and flanks are yellow, and the wing coverts olive green.<ref name=":04"/> The tail is olive green with a blue caste when viewed from above and brown from below.<ref name=":23"/> The burrowing parrot has a grey bill and yellow-white iris with pink legs.<ref name=":23"/> Immature birds look like adults but with a horn coloured upper mandible patch and a pale grey iris.<ref name=":04"/><ref name=":23"/>
While both sexes look visually similar to the human eye, the burrowing parrot is sexually dichromatic. Males tend to have significantly redder and larger abdominal red patches,<ref name=":1" /> and both sexes look different under UV light, with males have brighter green feathers and females having brighter blue feathers.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Masello|first1=Juan F.|last2=Lubjuhn|first2=T.|last3=Quillfeldt|first3=Petra|date=August 2009|title=Hidden dichromatism in Burrowing Parrots Cyanoliseus patagonus as revealed by spectrometric colour analysis|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/215519886|journal=Hornero|volume=24|page=47|doi=10.56178/eh.v24i1.729 |s2cid=55392503 |via=Research Gate|doi-access=free|hdl=20.500.12110/hornero_v024_n01_p047|hdl-access=free}}</ref>
== Distribution and habitat == The burrowing parrot can be found in much of Argentina, and there are isolated populations in central Chile.<ref name=":04"/> In the winter, birds in central and southern Argentina may migrate north as far as southern Uruguay, making them austral migrants, while Chilean birds migrate vertically down slope to avoid colder altitudes.<ref name=":23"/> Movements in the populations of northwestern Argentina are also known to occur according to food availability.<ref name=":23" />
The burrowing parrot prefers dry, open country, particularly in the vicinity of water courses, up to 2000 m in elevation.<ref name=":04" /> Habitats include montane grassy shrubland, Patagonian steppes, arid lowland, woodland savanna, and the plains of the Gran Chaco.<ref name=":04" /><ref name=":23" /> They may also inhabit farmland and the edges of urban areas.<ref name=":04" />
== Behaviour and ecology ==
=== Diet === The diet of the burrowing parrot comprises seeds, berries, fruits, and possibly vegetable matter,<ref name=":23" /> and they can be seen feeding on the ground or in trees and shrubs.<ref name=":04" /> Their diet varies seasonally, with fruit consumption peaking during Argentina's summer (December–February), where one study found that fruit makes up 2% of their crop contents in November–December, 74% in January, 25% in February, 35%,in March and 8% in April.<ref name=":23" /> Specifically, burrowing parrots have been observed feeding on the fruit from various species such as the red crowberry (''Empetrum rubrum''), Chilean palo verde (''Geoffroea decorticans''), ''Lycium salsum'', pepper trees (''Schinus sp.'')'', Prosopis sp.'', ''Discaria sp.'', as well as cacti.<ref name=":04" /> In the winter, the burrowing parrot feeds predominantly on seeds from cultivated crops and wild plants such as thistles, as well as the Patagonian oak (''Nothofagus obliqua'') and the Carboncillo (''Cordia decandra'') in the Chilean foothills.<ref name=":04" /> thumb|Nesting burrows|244x244px
=== Reproduction === Best known for its nesting habits, the burrowing parrot excavates industrious burrows in limestone or sandstone cliff faces, often in ravines. These burrows can be as much as 3 m deep into a cliff-face, connecting with other tunnels to create a labyrinth, ending in a nesting chamber.<ref name=":23" /> Breeding pairs will reuse burrows from previous years but may enlarge them.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last1=Ramirez-Herranz|first1=Myriam|last2=Rios|first2=Rodrigo S.|last3=Vargas-Rodriguez|first3=Renzo|last4=Novoa-Jerez|first4=Jose-Enrique|last5=Squeo|first5=Francisco A.|date=2017-04-26|title=The importance of scale-dependent ravine characteristics on breeding-site selection by the Burrowing Parrot, Cyanoliseus patagonus|journal=PeerJ|volume=5|article-number=e3182|doi=10.7717/peerj.3182|pmid=28462019|pmc=5408729|issn=2167-8359|doi-access=free}}</ref> They nest in large colonies, some of the largest ever recorded for parrots, which is thought to reduce predation.<ref name=":6" /> The parrots tend to select larger, taller ravines, allowing for larger colonies and higher burrows and resulting in higher breeding success.<ref name=":6" />
In the absence of acceptable ravines or cliffs to use as nesting sites, burrowing parrots will use anthropogenic substrates such as quarries, wells and pits.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Tella|first1=José L.|last2=Canale|first2=Antonela|last3=Carrete|first3=Martina|last4=Petracci|first4=Pablo|last5=Zalba|first5=Sergio M.|date=2014|title=Anthropogenic Nesting Sites Allow Urban Breeding in Burrowing ParrotsCyanoliseus patagonus|journal=Ardeola|volume=61|issue=2|pages=311–321|doi=10.13157/arla.61.2.2014.311|s2cid=84131010|issn=0570-7358|hdl=11336/21787|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Rarely, they have been known to nest in tree cavities.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Zungu|first1=Manqoba M.|last2=Brown|first2=Mark|last3=Downs|first3=Colleen T.|date=2018|title=Seasonal thermoregulation in the burrowing parrot (Cyanoliseus patagonus)|journal=Journal of Thermal Biology|volume=38|issue=1|pages=47–54|doi=10.1016/j.jtherbio.2012.10.001|pmid=24229804|issn=0306-4565}}</ref>
Studies have shown that burrowing parrots are both socially and genetically monogamous.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Masello|first1=Juan F.|last2=Sramkova|first2=Anna|last3=Quillfeldt|first3=Petra|last4=Epplen|first4=Jörg Thomas|last5=Lubjuhn|first5=Thomas|date=24 July 2002|title=Genetic monogamy in burrowing parrots Cyanoliseus patagonus?|journal=Journal of Avian Biology|volume=33|issue=1|pages=99–103|doi=10.1034/j.1600-048x.2002.330116.x|issn=0908-8857}}</ref> The breeding season begins in September, and eggs are laid up to December, with two up to five eggs laid per clutch.<ref name=":04" /> The incubation period is 24–25 days, where the female is the sole incubator while the male provides for her.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last1=Masello|first1=Juan F.|last2=Quillfeldt|first2=Petra|title=Chick Growth and Breeding Success of the Burrowing Parrot|date=2002|journal=The Condor|volume=104|issue=3|page=574|doi=10.1650/0010-5422(2002)104[0574:cgabso]2.0.co;2|issn=0010-5422|doi-access=free}}</ref> Eggs hatch asynchronously, and mortality is higher for fourth and fifth chicks in a clutch.<ref name=":3" /> Both parents care for the chicks. Chicks begin to fledge in late December until February, approximately eight weeks after hatching,<ref name=":23" /> and the fledglings depend on their parents for up to four months.<ref name=":3" />
=== Thermoregulation === In order to cope with an unpredictable climate, burrowing parrots increase their body mass and decrease their basal metabolic rate (BMR) in the winter in order to conserve energy, insulate against cold ambient temperatures and to survive reductions in food availability, in concurrence with other birds found in the southern hemisphere.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Zungu|first1=Manqoba M.|last2=Brown|first2=Mark|last3=Downs|first3=Colleen T.|date=January 2013|title=Seasonal thermoregulation in the burrowing parrot (Cyanoliseus patagonus)|journal=Journal of Thermal Biology|volume=38|issue=1|pages=47–54|doi=10.1016/j.jtherbio.2012.10.001|pmid=24229804|issn=0306-4565}}</ref>
== Status and relationship to humans == thumb|251x251px|Burrowing parrot in captivity The burrowing parrot currently has an overall conservation status of least concern according to the IUCN Red List, but populations are currently declining, due to exploitation for the wildlife trade and persecution as a crop pest.<ref>{{Cite web|last=International)|first=BirdLife International (BirdLife|date=2018-08-07|title=IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Cyanoliseus patagonus|url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/en|access-date=2020-10-15|website=IUCN Red List of Threatened Species}}</ref> Their nesting habits make them particularly vulnerable to human disturbances and habitat degradation.<ref name=":04" /> It is nonetheless currently listed under Appendix II of CITES, allowing for international trade,<ref name=":04" /> but the endangered ''C. p. bloxami'' Chilean subspecies is on the Chilean national vertebrate red list.<ref name=":52"/>
The burrowing parrot was officially named as a crop pest in Argentina in 1984, leading to increased persecution.<ref name=":04" /> Their status as a crop pest has excluded them protection under Argentina's ban on wildlife trade,<ref name=":04" /> however the province of Río Negro has deemed population reductions sufficient and banned hunting and trade of the burrowing parrot as of 2004.<ref name=":52" /> Studies have shown that the effects of crop predation by burrowing parrots is economically insignificant.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Sánchez|first1=Rocío|last2=Ballari|first2=Sebastián A.|last3=Bucher|first3=Enrique H.|last4=Masello|first4=Juan F.|date=2016-06-27|title=Foraging by burrowing parrots has little impact on agricultural crops in northeastern Patagonia, Argentina|journal=International Journal of Pest Management|volume=62|issue=4|pages=326–335|doi=10.1080/09670874.2016.1198061|s2cid=89257448|issn=0967-0874|hdl=11336/129774|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Additionally, birds of the Chilean subspecies (''C. p. bloxami'') have been hunted for feast-day in Chile.<ref name=":04" />
The Mapuche people of the province of Neuquén in the Patagonian Andes celebrate the annual fledging of burrowing parrots with a festival.<ref>{{Cite news|last1=Masello|first1=Juan F.|last2=Quillfeldt|first2=Petra|date=2004|title=News from El Cóndor, Patagonia,Argentina|work=PsittaScene}}</ref>
=== Aviculture === The burrowing parrot, commonly called the Patagonian conure in aviculture, is a popular companion parrot. It is known for being playful, gentle and affectionate with humans, even cuddly when tame - it can also learn to talk and mimic sounds from its environment. As a large parakeet, it requires plenty of living space and the opportunity to fly on a regular basis in order to thrive.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.petguide.com/breeds/bird/patagonian-conure/|title = Patagonian Conure Health, Personality, Colors and Sounds|date = 11 December 2018}}</ref> The maximum verified lifespan for this species in captivity is 19.5 years, however plausible claims of burrowing parrots living up to 34.1 years have also been reported.<ref name="anage">{{cite web |title=Patagonian conure (Cyanoliseus patagonus) longevity, ageing, and life history |url=https://genomics.senescence.info/species/entry.php?species=Cyanoliseus_patagonus |website=The Animal Ageing and Longevity Database |access-date=22 December 2020}}</ref>
The subspecies typically found in aviculture is the nominate ssp., ''Cyanoliseus patagonus patagonus'' - also known as the lesser Patagonian conure. Tens of thousands of burrowing parakeets were previously removed from the wild and exported for the pet trade, but most birds available for purchase as pets are nowadays captive-bred.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.northernparrots.com/patagonian-conure-fact-sheet-blog123/|title=Patagonian Conure Fact Sheet|date=2 January 2013 }}</ref>
==References==<!-- BulletinOfTheBritishOrnithologistsClub115:235,128:38. ZoologicalJournalOfTheLinneanSociety149:117. --> {{Commons-inline}} {{Reflist}}
==External links== {{Commons category}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20071021001213/http://orn.mpg.de/masello/ Burrowing Parrot Project]
{{Taxonbar|from=Q211253}}
burrowing parrot Category:Birds of Argentina burrowing parrot Category:Taxa named by Louis Pierre Vieillot Category:Taxonomy articles created by Polbot