Vibrio

{{Short description|Genus of bacteria and the disease it can cause}} {{about|the bacterial genus|the infection|Vibriosis}}

{{Automatic taxobox | image = Vibrio_cholerae_01.jpg | image_caption = Flagellar stain of ''V. cholerae'' | taxon = Vibrio | authority = Pacini 1854 | type_species = ''Vibrio cholerae'' | subdivision_ranks = Species | subdivision = ''V. adaptatus'' ''V. aerogenes'' ''V. aestivus'' ''V. aestuarianus'' ''V. agarivorans'' ''V. albensis'' ''V. alfacsensis'' ''V. alginolyticus'' ''V. anguillarum'' ''V. areninigrae'' ''V. artabrorum'' ''V. atlanticus'' ''V. atypicus'' ''V. azureus'' ''V. brasiliensis'' ''V. bubulus'' ''V. calviensis'' ''V. campbellii'' ''V. casei'' ''V. chagasii'' ''V. cholerae'' ''V. cincinnatiensis'' ''V. coralliilyticus'' ''V. crassostreae'' ''V. cyclitrophicus'' ''V. diabolicus'' ''V. diazotrophicus'' ''V. ezurae''  ''V. fluvialis'' ''V. fortis'' ''V. furnissii'' ''V. gallicus'' ''V. gazogenes'' ''V. gigantis'' ''V. halioticoli'' ''V. harveyi'' ''V. hepatarius'' ''V. hippocampi'' ''V. hispanicus''  ''V. ichthyoenteri'' ''V. indicus'' ''V. kanaloae'' ''V. lentus'' ''V. litoralis'' ''V. logei'' ''V. mediterranei'' ''V. metschnikovii'' ''V. mimicus'' ''V. mytili'' ''V. natriegens'' ''V. navarrensis'' ''V. neonatus'' ''V. neptunius'' ''V. nereis'' ''V. nigripulchritudo'' ''V. ordalii'' ''V. orientalis'' ''V. pacinii'' ''V. parahaemolyticus'' ''V. pectenicida'' ''V. pelagius'' ''V. penaeicida'' ''V. pomeroyi'' ''V. ponticus'' ''V. proteolyticus'' ''V. rotiferianus'' ''V. ruber'' ''V. rumoiensis'' ''V. salmonicida'' ''V. scophthalmi'' ''V. splendidus'' ''V. superstes'' ''V. tapetis'' ''V. tasmaniensis'' ''V. tubiashii'' ''V. vulnificus'' ''V. wodanis'' ''V. xuii'' | synonyms = * ''Allomonas'' Kalina et al. 1984 * ''Beneckea'' Campbell 1957 (Approved Lists 1980) * ''Lucibacterium'' Hendrie et al. 1970 (Approved Lists 1980) }}

'''''Vibrio''''' is a genus of Gram-negative bacteria, which have a characteristic curved-rod (comma) shape,<ref name="Thompson2" /><ref name="Sherris" /><ref name="FaruqueNair" /><ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|date=2021-12-15|title=Identification of marine sponge-associated bacteria of the Saint Martin's island of the Bay of Bengal emphasizing on the prevention of motile Aeromonas septicemia in Labeo rohita|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S004484862100819X|journal=Aquaculture|language=en|volume=545|article-number=737156|doi=10.1016/j.aquaculture.2021.737156|issn=0044-8486|last1=Paul|first1=Sulav Indra|last2=Rahman|first2=Md. Mahbubur|last3=Salam|first3=Mohammad Abdus|last4=Khan|first4=Md. Arifur Rahman|last5=Islam|first5=Md. Tofazzal|display-authors=3|bibcode=2021Aquac.54537156P |url-access=subscription}}</ref> several species of which can cause foodborne infection or soft-tissue infection called Vibriosis. Infection is commonly associated with eating undercooked seafood. Being highly salt tolerant, ''Vibrio'' spp. are commonly found in various salt water environments<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Takemura |first=Alison F. |last2=Chien |first2=Diana M. |last3=Polz |first3=Martin F. |date=2014 |title=Associations and dynamics of Vibrionaceae in the environment, from the genus to the population level |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24575082 |journal=Frontiers in Microbiology |volume=5 |pages=38 |doi=10.3389/fmicb.2014.00038 |doi-access=free|issn=1664-302X |pmc=3920100 |pmid=24575082}}</ref>, but some species are found in freshwater<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Venkateswaran |first=K. |last2=Kiiyukia |first2=C. |last3=Takaki |first3=M. |last4=Nakano |first4=H. |last5=Matsuda |first5=H. |last6=Kawakami |first6=H. |last7=Hashimoto |first7=H. |date=October 1989 |title=Characterization of toxigenic vibrios isolated from the freshwater environment of Hiroshima, Japan |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2690736 |journal=Applied and Environmental Microbiology |volume=55 |issue=10 |pages=2613–2618 |doi=10.1128/aem.55.10.2613-2618.1989 |issn=0099-2240 |pmc=203132 |pmid=2690736}}</ref>. ''Vibrio'' spp. are facultative anaerobes that test positive for oxidase and do not form spores.<ref name=":0" /><ref name="Brock" /> All members of the genus are motile. They are able to have polar or lateral flagellum with or without sheaths.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Khan|first1=Fazlurrahman|last2=Tabassum|first2=Nazia|last3=Anand|first3=Raksha|last4=Kim|first4=Young-Mog|date=2020-10-01|title=Motility of Vibrio spp.: regulation and controlling strategies|journal=Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology|language=en|volume=104|issue=19|pages=8187–8208|doi=10.1007/s00253-020-10794-7|pmid=32816086|s2cid=221182959 }}</ref> ''Vibrio'' species typically possess two chromosomes, which is unusual for bacteria.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Trucksis|first1=Michele|last2=Michalski|first2=Jane|last3=Deng|first3=Ying Kang|last4=Kaper|first4=James B.|date=1998-11-24|title=The Vibrio cholerae genome contains two unique circular chromosomes|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|language=en|volume=95|issue=24|pages=14464–9|doi=10.1073/pnas.95.24.14464 |pmid=9826723|pmc=24396|bibcode=1998PNAS...9514464T|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Okada|first1=Kazuhisa|last2=Iida|first2=Tetsuya|last3=Kita-Tsukamoto|first3=Kumiko|last4=Honda|first4=Takeshi|date=2005-01-15|title=Vibrios Commonly Possess Two Chromosomes|journal=Journal of Bacteriology|language=en|volume=187|issue=2|pages=752–7|doi=10.1128/JB.187.2.752-757.2005 |pmc=543535|pmid=15629946 |bibcode=2005JBact.187..752O }}</ref> Each chromosome has a distinct and independent origin of replication,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Rasmussen|first1=Tue|last2=Jensen|first2=Rasmus Bugge|last3=Skovgaard|first3=Ole|date=2007 |title=The two chromosomes of Vibrio cholerae are initiated at different time points in the cell cycle|journal=The EMBO Journal |volume=26|issue=13|pages=3124–3131|doi=10.1038/sj.emboj.7601747 |pmc=1914095|pmid=17557077}}</ref> and are conserved together over time in the genus.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kirkup|first1=Benjamin C.|last2=Chang|first2=LeeAnn|last3=Chang|first3=Sarah|last4=Gevers|first4=Dirk|last5=Polz|first5=Martin F.|display-authors=3|date=2010-01-01|title=Vibrio chromosomes share common history|journal=BMC Microbiology|volume=10|article-number=137|doi=10.1186/1471-2180-10-137 |pmc=2875227|pmid=20459749 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Recent phylogenies have been constructed based on a suite of genes (multilocus sequence analysis).<ref name="Thompson2"/>

O. F. Müller (1773, 1786) described eight species of the genus ''Vibrio'' (included in Infusoria), three of which were spirilliforms.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Pot |first1=B. |last2=Gillis |first2=M. |last3=De Ley |first3=J. |editor-last=Balows |editor-first=A. |editor2-last=Trüper |editor2-first=H.G. |editor3-last=Dworkin |editor3-first=M. |editor4-last=Harder |editor4-first=W. |editor5-last=Schleifer |editor5-first=KH. |chapter=The Genus ''Oceanospirillum'' |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4757-2191-1_10 |title=The Prokaryotes |publisher=Springer |date=1992 |isbn=978-1-4757-2191-1 |pages=3230–6 |doi=10.1007/978-1-4757-2191-1_10 |oclc=1250076632 |edition=2nd }}</ref> Some of the other species are today assigned to eukaryote taxa, e.g., to the euglenoid ''Peranema'' or to the diatom ''Bacillaria''. However, ''Vibrio'' Müller, 1773 became regarded as the name of a zoological genus, and the name of the bacterial genus became ''Vibrio'' Pacini, 1854.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hugh |first=R.|date=1964 |title=The Proposed Conservation of the Generic Name Vibrio Pacini 1854 and Designation of the Neotype Strain of Vibrio Cholerae Pacini 1854 |journal=International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology|volume=14|issue=2|pages=87–101|doi=10.1099/0096266X-14-2-87|s2cid=84020788|doi-access=}}</ref> Filippo Pacini isolated micro-organisms he called "vibrions" from cholera patients in 1854, because of their motility.<ref name="AUTOREF" /> In Latin "vibrio" means "to quiver".<ref>{{cite web | last = Stöppler, MD | first = Melissa | title = Medical Definition of Vibrio cholerae | work = MedTerms Dictionary | publisher = MedicineNet | url = https://www.medicinenet.com/vibrio_cholerae/definition.htm | access-date = 2021-06-03 }}</ref>

== Biochemical characteristics of ''Vibrio'' spp. == The genus ''Vibrio'' contains a large number of species, and these vary somewhat in their biochemical characteristics. Colony, morphological, physiological, and biochemical characteristics of the genus ''Vibrio'' are shown in the Table below.<ref name=":0" /> {| class="wikitable" ! Test type ! Test ! Group-1 ! Group-2 |- | rowspan="4" |Colony characters |Size |Medium |Medium |- |Type |Round |Round |- |Color |Whitish |Whitish |- |Shape |Convex |Convex |- |Morphological characters |Shape |Curved-rod |Curved-rod |- | rowspan="2" |Physiological characters |Motility |<nowiki>+</nowiki> |<nowiki>+</nowiki> |- |Growth at 6.5% NaCl |<nowiki>+</nowiki> |<nowiki>+</nowiki> |- | rowspan="12" |Biochemical characters |Gram's staining |– |– |- |Oxidase |<nowiki>+</nowiki> |<nowiki>+</nowiki> |- |Catalase |<nowiki>+</nowiki> |<nowiki>+</nowiki> |- |Oxidative-Fermentative |Fermentative |Oxidative |- |Motility |<nowiki>+</nowiki> |<nowiki>+</nowiki> |- |Methyl Red |<nowiki>+</nowiki> |– |- |Voges-Proskauer |<nowiki>+</nowiki> |– |- |Indole |– |– |- |H2S Production |– |<nowiki>+</nowiki> |- |Urease |– |<nowiki>+</nowiki> |- |Nitrate reductase |– |<nowiki>+</nowiki> |- |β-Galactosidase |<nowiki>+</nowiki> |<nowiki>+</nowiki> |- | rowspan="6" |Hydrolysis of |Gelatin |<nowiki>+</nowiki> |<nowiki>+</nowiki> |- |Aesculin |– |<nowiki>+</nowiki> |- |Casein |– |<nowiki>+</nowiki> |- |Tween 40 |<nowiki>+</nowiki> |<nowiki>+</nowiki> |- |Tween 60 |<nowiki>+</nowiki> |<nowiki>+</nowiki> |- |Tween 80 |<nowiki>+</nowiki> |<nowiki>+</nowiki> |- | rowspan="13" |Acid production from |Glycerol |<nowiki>+</nowiki> |<nowiki>+</nowiki> |- |Galactose |– |<nowiki>+</nowiki> |- |D-Glucose |<nowiki>+</nowiki> |<nowiki>+</nowiki> |- |D-Fructose |<nowiki>+</nowiki> |V |- |D-Mannose |<nowiki>+</nowiki> |V |- |Mannitol |<nowiki>+</nowiki> |V |- |N-Acetylglucosamine |<nowiki>+</nowiki> |<nowiki>+</nowiki> |- |Amygdalin |<nowiki>+</nowiki> |– |- |Maltose |<nowiki>+</nowiki> |<nowiki>+</nowiki> |- |D-Melibiose |– |– |- |D-Trehalose |<nowiki>+</nowiki> |– |- |Glycogen |<nowiki>+</nowiki> |<nowiki>+</nowiki> |- |D-Turanose |<nowiki>+</nowiki> |<nowiki>+</nowiki> |} Note: Group-1: ''Vibrio alginolyticus''; Group-2: ''Vibrio natriegens, Vibrio pelagius, Vibrio azureus''; + = Positive; – =Negative; V =Variable (+/–)<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Alsina |first=Mercedes |last2=Blanch |first2=Anicet R. |date=January 1994 |title=A set of keys for biochemical identification of environmental Vibrio species |url=https://sfamjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2672.1994.tb04419.x |journal=Journal of Applied Bacteriology |language=en |volume=76 |issue=1 |pages=79–85 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2672.1994.tb04419.x |issn=0021-8847|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

==Pathogenic strains== [[File:TCBS agar plate of Vibrio Cholerae and vibrio parahaemolyticus.jpg|thumb|TCBS agar plate of ''Vibrio Cholerae'' (left) and ''Vibrio parahaemolyticus'' (right)]] Several species of ''Vibrio'' are pathogens.<ref>C.Michael Hogan. 2010. [http://www.eoearth.org/article/Bacteria?topic=49480 ''Bacteria''. Encyclopedia of Earth. eds. Sidney Draggan and C.J.Cleveland, National Council for Science and the Environment, Washington, DC] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511132823/http://www.eoearth.org/article/Bacteria?topic=49480 |date=May 11, 2011 }}</ref> Most disease-causing strains are associated with gastroenteritis, but can also infect open wounds and cause sepsis.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=Michelle T.|last2=Dinh|first2=An Q.|last3=Nguyen|first3=Stephanie|last4=Krucke|first4=Gus|last5=Tran|first5=Truc T.|display-authors=3|date=2019-03-28|title=Late-onset Vibrio vulnificus septicemia without cirrhosis|journal=Baylor University Medical Center Proceedings|volume=32|issue=2|pages=286–288|doi=10.1080/08998280.2019.1580661|pmid=31191157 |pmc=6541083}}</ref> They can be carried by numerous marine animals, such as crabs or prawns, and have been known to cause fatal infections in humans after exposure.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Cabanillas-Beltrán|first1=Héctor|last2=LLausás-Magaña|first2=Eduardo|last3=Romero|first3=Ricardo|last4=Espinoza|first4=Abel|last5=García-Gasca|first5=Alejandra|last6=Nishibuchi|first6=Mitsuaki|last7=Ishibashi|first7=Masanori|last8=Gomez-Gil|first8=Bruno|display-authors=3|date=2006-12-01|title=Outbreak of gastroenteritis caused by the pandemic Vibrio parahaemolyticus O3: K6 in Mexico|journal=FEMS Microbiology Letters|volume=265|issue=1|pages=76–80|doi=10.1111/j.1574-6968.2006.00475.x|pmid=17107421 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Risk of clinical disease and death increases with certain factors, such as uncontrolled diabetes, elevated iron levels (cirrhosis, sickle cell disease, hemochromatosis), and cancer or other immunocompromised states. Pathogenic ''Vibrio'' species include ''V. cholerae'' (the causative agent of cholera), ''V. parahaemolyticus'', and ''V. vulnificus.'' ''V. cholerae'' is generally transmitted by contaminated water.<ref name="FaruqueNair" /> Pathogenic ''Vibrio'' species can cause foodborne illness (infection), usually associated with eating undercooked seafood.<ref>{{Cite web |title=NAL FSRIO Vibrio Cholerae food safety topic reference |url=https://www.nal.usda.gov/human-nutrition-and-food-safety/bacterial-pathogens-viruses-and-foodborne-illness |website=NAL FSRIO Vibrio Cholerae food safety topic reference}}</ref> When ingested ''Vibrio'' bacteria can primarily result in watery diarrhea along with other secondary symptoms.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-03-02|title=Symptoms |work=Vibrio Illness (Vibriosis) |publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |url=https://www.cdc.gov/vibrio/symptoms.html|access-date=2021-03-30 }}</ref> The pathogenic features can be linked to quorum sensing, where bacteria are able to express their virulence factor via their signaling molecules.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Tan|first1=Wen-Si|last2=Muhamad Yunos|first2=Nina Yusrina|last3=Tan|first3=Pui-Wan|last4=Mohamad|first4=Nur Izzati|last5=Adrian|first5=Tan-Guan-Sheng|last6=Yin|first6=Wai-Fong|last7=Chan|first7=Kok-Gan|display-authors=3|title=Characterisation of a Marine Bacterium Vibrio Brasiliensis T33 Producing N-acyl Homoserine Lactone Quorum Sensing Molecules|journal=Sensors|date=8 July 2014|volume=14|issue=7|pages=12104–12113|doi=10.3390/s140712104|pmid=25006994|pmc=4168498|bibcode=2014Senso..1412104T|doi-access=free}}</ref> Warmer waters and increased flooding due to climate change promote the growth and spread of Vibrio bacteria.<ref name=":162">Cissé, G., R. McLeman, H. Adams, P. Aldunce, K. Bowen, D. Campbell-Lendrum, S. Clayton, K.L. Ebi, J. Hess, C. Huang, Q. Liu, G. McGregor, J. Semenza, and M.C. Tirado, 2022: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_Chapter07.pdf Chapter 7: Health, Wellbeing, and the Changing Structure of Communities]. In: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/ Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change] [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1041–1170, doi:10.1017/9781009325844.009.</ref>{{rp|1107}}<ref name="(Walker, 2018)22">{{cite journal |vauthors=Walker JT |date=September 2018 |title=The influence of climate change on waterborne disease and Legionella: a review |journal=Perspectives in Public Health |volume=138 |issue=5 |pages=282–286 |doi=10.1177/1757913918791198 |pmid=30156484 |s2cid=52115812}}</ref><ref name=":92">{{Cite journal |last1=Bekele |first1=Bezawit Kassahun |last2=Uwishema |first2=Olivier |last3=Bisetegn |first3=Lydia Daniel |last4=Moubarak |first4=Antonia |last5=Charline |first5=Mugeniwayesu |last6=Sibomana |first6=Pacifique |last7=Onyeaka |first7=Chinyere Vivian Patrick |date=2025-04-30 |title=Cholera in Africa: A Climate Change Crisis |journal=Journal of Epidemiology and Global Health |language=en |volume=15 |issue=1 |doi=10.1007/s44197-025-00386-x |issn=2210-6014 |pmc=12043531 |pmid=40304931 |article-number=68}}</ref>

''V. vulnificus'' outbreaks commonly occur in warm climates and small, generally lethal, outbreaks occur regularly. An outbreak occurred in New Orleans after Hurricane Katrina,<ref name="Jablecki_2005" /> and several lethal cases occur most years in Florida.<ref name="Florida" /> As of 2013 in the United States, ''Vibrio'' infections as a whole were up 43% when compared with the rates observed in 2006–2008. ''V. vulnificus'', the most severe strain, has not increased. Foodborne ''Vibrio'' infections are most often associated with eating raw shellfish.<ref>{{cite news|title=Infections from some foodborne germs increased, while others remained unchanged in 2012|url=https://www.cdc.gov/media/releases/2013/p0418-foodborne-germs.html|access-date=April 19, 2013|newspaper=Centers for Disease Control|date=April 18, 2013}}</ref>

''V. parahaemolyticus'' is also associated with the Kanagawa phenomenon, in which strains isolated from human hosts (clinical isolates) are hemolytic on blood agar plates, while those isolated from nonhuman sources are not hemolytic.<ref name="Joseph_1982" />

Many ''Vibrio'' species are also zoonotic. They cause disease in fish and shellfish, and are common causes of mortality among domestic marine life.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hernández-Cabanyero |first=Carla |last2=Sanjuán |first2=Eva |last3=Reyes-López |first3=Felipe E. |last4=Vallejos-Vidal |first4=Eva |last5=Tort |first5=Lluis |last6=Amaro |first6=Carmen |date=2022-04-01 |title=A Transcriptomic Study Reveals That Fish Vibriosis Due to the Zoonotic Pathogen Vibrio vulnificus Is an Acute Inflammatory Disease in Which Erythrocytes May Play an Important Role |url=https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/microbiology/articles/10.3389/fmicb.2022.852677/full |journal=Frontiers in Microbiology |language=English |volume=13 |doi=10.3389/fmicb.2022.852677 |doi-access=free|issn=1664-302X|pmc=9011161 }}</ref>

== Diagnosis ==

=== Cholera === A common sign of ''Vibrio'' infection is cholera. Cholera primarily presents with rapid water loss by watery diarrhea. Other symptoms include vomiting and muscle cramps.<ref name=":02">{{cite journal |vauthors=Clemens JD, Nair GB, Ahmed T, Qadri F, Holmgren J |title=Cholera |journal=Lancet |volume=390 |issue=10101 |pages=1539–1549 |date=September 2017 |pmid=28302312 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(17)30559-7 }}</ref> Water loss can lead to dehydration which can be mild to moderate to severe. Moderate to severe dehydration requires immediate treatment. ''V. cholerae'' is the most common pathogen that causes cholera. The gold standard for detecting cholera is through cultures of stool samples or rectal swabs. Identification is then done through microscopy or by agglutination of antibodies.<ref name=":02" /> Cultures are done in thiosulfate citrate bile-salts sucrose agar. ''V cholerae'' will form yellow colonies.<ref name=":13">{{cite journal |vauthors=Baker-Austin C, Martinez-Urtaza J, Qadri F, et al |title=Vibrio spp. infections |journal=Nat Rev Dis Primers |volume=4 |issue=1 |article-number=7 |date=July 2018 |pmid=30002373 |doi=10.1038/s41572-018-0010-y }}</ref>

=== Vibriosis === Vibriosis is a sign of a more severe ''Vibrio'' infection. Common causes of vibriosis include consumption of raw or undercooked seafood, primarily oysters, or wound exposure to sea water. The majority of ''V. parahaemolyticus'' infections can be self-limiting and symptoms include diarrhea, nausea, headaches, fever and chills. ''V. vulnificus'' can lead to a more serious disease, particularly in wound infection which can turn into necrotizing fasciitis. ''V. parahaemolyticu''s is the most common pathogen in vibriosis, however ''V. vulnificus'' is more common in people who have certain risk factors like older age, liver disease or diabetes mellitus. Like all vibrio diagnosis, vibriosis can also be determined in stool cultures. ''V. parahaemolyticus'' and ''V. vulnificus'' will form green colonies.<ref name=":13"/>

== Treatment == {{Unreferenced section|date=March 2016}} Medical care depends on the clinical presentation and the presence of underlying medical conditions.

=== ''Vibrio'' gastroenteritis === Because ''Vibrio'' gastroenteritis is self-limited in most patients, no specific medical therapy is required.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=Noncholera Vibrio Infections - Infectious Diseases |url=https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/infectious-diseases/gram-negative-bacilli/noncholera-vibrio-infections |access-date=2021-03-30 |website=Merck Manuals Professional Edition |language=en-US}}</ref> Patients who cannot tolerate oral fluid replacement may require intravenous fluid therapy.

Although most ''Vibrio'' species are sensitive to antibiotics, such as doxycycline or ciprofloxacin, antibiotic therapy does not shorten the course of the illness or the duration of pathogen excretion. However, if the patient is ill and has a high fever or an underlying medical condition, oral antibiotic therapy with doxycycline or ciprofloxacin can be initiated.<ref name=":3" />

=== Non-cholera'' Vibrio'' infections === Patients with non-cholera ''Vibrio'' wound infection or sepsis are much more ill and frequently have other medical conditions. Medical therapy consists of:<ref>{{Citation |last=Haftel |first=Anthony |title=Vibrio vulnificus Infection |date=2026 |work=StatPearls |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK554404/ |access-date=2026-03-07 |place=Treasure Island (FL) |publisher=StatPearls Publishing |pmid=32119291 |last2=Marietta |first2=Mia |last3=Sharman |first3=Tariq}}</ref> * Prompt initiation of effective antibiotic therapy (doxycycline or a quinolone) * Intensive medical therapy with aggressive fluid replacement and vasopressors for hypotension and septic shock to correct acid-base and electrolytes abnormalities that may be associated with severe sepsis * Early fasciotomy within 24 hours after development of clinical symptoms can be life-saving in patients with necrotizing fasciitis. * Early debridement of the infected wound has an important role in successful therapy and is especially indicated to avoid amputation of fingers, toes, or limbs. * Expeditious and serial surgical evaluation and intervention are required because patients may deteriorate rapidly, especially those with necrotizing fasciitis or compartment syndrome. * Reconstructive surgery, such as skin grafts, are used in the recovery phase.

== Prevention ==

=== Cholera === The most effective method to prevent cholera is the improvement of water and food safety. This includes the sanitation of water, proper preparation of food and community awareness of outbreaks. Prevention has been most effective in countries where cholera is endemic.

Another method is cholera vaccines. Examples of cholera vaccines include Dukoral and Vaxchora.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Hsueh BY, Waters CM |title=Combating Cholera |journal=F1000Res |volume=8 |date=2019 |page=589 |pmid=31069064 |pmc=6492228 |doi=10.12688/f1000research.18093.1 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Vibriosis === Prevention of vibriosis is mostly effective in food processing. Food items, mostly seafood, that commonly contain ''vibrio'' organisms are regularly controlled. The water that seafood is fished or farmed from is analyzed to determine microorganism content. Food processing methods like pasteurization and high pressure are used to eliminate microorganisms and pathogens.<ref name=":13"/>

== Other species ==  ''V. harveyi'' is a pathogen of several aquatic animals, and is notable as a cause of luminous vibriosis in shrimp (prawns).<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Austin B, Zhang XH|title=''Vibrio harveyi'': a significant pathogen of marine vertebrates and invertebrates |journal=Letters in Applied Microbiology |volume=43 |issue=2 |pages=119–214 |year=2006 |doi=10.1111/j.1472-765X.2006.01989.x | pmid=16869892|doi-access= }}</ref> ''Aliivibrio fischeri'' (or ''V. fischeri'') is known for its mutualistic symbiosis with the Hawaiian bobtail squid, which is dependent on microbial luminescence.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Gimme shelter: how ''Vibrio fischeri'' successfully navigates an animal's multiple environments |journal=Frontiers in Microbiology |volume=4 |page=356 |date=November 2013 |doi=10.3389/fmicb.2013.00356 |pmid=24348467 |pmc=3843225 |vauthors=Norsworthy AN, Visick KL|doi-access=free }}</ref>

==Flagella== The "typical", early-discovered ''Vibrio'' species, such as ''V. cholerae'', have a single polar flagellum (monotrichous) with sheath. Some species, such as ''V. parahaemolyticus'' and ''V. alginolyticus'', have both a single polar flagellum with sheath and thin flagella projecting in all directions (peritrichous), and the other species, such as ''V. fischeri'', have tufts of polar flagella with sheath (lophotrichous).<ref name="AUTOREF1" />

=== Structure === Typical bacterial flagellum structure contains three components: the basal body, the hook and the filament. Like typical bacteria, ''Vibrio'' spp, have these three components, but with increased complexity in the basal body. In addition, ''Vibrio'' spp. use five or six distinct flagellum subunits to construct the flagellar filament, rather than the single flagellin found in many other bacteria. In ''Vibrio'' spp, most have a single flagellum located on one pole of the bacterium, although some species have additional flagella in peritrichous or lophotrichous arrangements. Another difference is that the gradient used to power the flagellar motor is sodium driven rather than proton driven; this creates greater torque, and ''Vibrio'' flagella have been shown to rotate over five times faster than the {{H+|nolink}}-driven flagella of ''E. coli''. The flagellum is also surrounded by a sheath extending from the membrane. The purpose of this sheath has yet to be determined.<ref name=":2">{{cite journal |vauthors=Echazarreta MA, Klose KE |title=Vibrio Flagellar Synthesis |journal=Front Cell Infect Microbiol |volume=9 |issue= |article-number=131 |date=2019 |pmid=31119103 |pmc=6504787 |doi=10.3389/fcimb.2019.00131 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Effect on Virulence === Motility is very important for ''Vibrio'' spp for infection. Research has shown that a variety of ''Vibrios'' mutants that are defective in flagella synthesis or non-motile are defective in infection. Loss of motility in ''Vibrio'' has shown impaired colonization and adherence to host's intestines.<ref name=":2" />

==Natural transformation==

Natural transformation is a common bacterial adaptation for DNA transfer that employs numerous bacterial gene products.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Chen I, Dubnau D |title=DNA uptake during bacterial transformation |journal=Nat. Rev. Microbiol. |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=241–9 |year=2004 |pmid=15083159 |doi=10.1038/nrmicro844 |s2cid=205499369 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Bernstein H, Bernstein C, Michod RE |title=Sex in microbial pathogens |journal=Infect Genet Evol |volume=57 |issue= |pages=8–25 |date=January 2018 |pmid=29111273 |doi=10.1016/j.meegid.2017.10.024 |bibcode=2018InfGE..57....8B |doi-access=free }}</ref> For a recipient bacterium to bind, take up, and recombine exogenous DNA into its chromosome, it must become competent, that is, enter a special physiologic state. The DNA-uptake process of naturally competent ''V. cholerae'' involves an extended competence-induced pilus and a DNA-binding protein that acts as a ratchet and reels DNA into the periplasm.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Matthey N, Blokesch M |title=The DNA-Uptake Process of Naturally Competent ''Vibrio cholerae'' |journal=Trends Microbiol. |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=98–110 |year=2016 |pmid=26614677 |doi=10.1016/j.tim.2015.10.008 |url=http://infoscience.epfl.ch/record/213808 }}</ref> Natural transformation has also been described for ''V. fischeri'',<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Pollack-Berti A, Wollenberg MS, Ruby EG |title=Natural transformation of Vibrio fischeri requires tfoX and tfoY |journal=Environ. Microbiol. |volume=12 |issue=8 |pages=2302–11 |year=2010 |pmid=21966921 |pmc=3034104 |doi=10.1111/j.1462-2920.2010.02250.x |bibcode=2010EnvMi..12.2302P }}</ref> ''V. vulnificus''<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Gulig PA, Tucker MS, Thiaville PC, Joseph JL, Brown RN |display-authors=3|title=USER friendly cloning coupled with chitin-based natural transformation enables rapid mutagenesis of Vibrio vulnificus |journal=Appl. Environ. Microbiol. |volume=75 |issue=15 |pages=4936–49 |year=2009 |pmid=19502446 |pmc=2725515 |doi=10.1128/AEM.02564-08 |bibcode=2009ApEnM..75.4936G }}</ref> and ''V. parahaemolyticus''.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Chen Y, Dai J, Morris JG, Johnson JA |title=Genetic analysis of the capsule polysaccharide (K antigen) and exopolysaccharide genes in pandemic Vibrio parahaemolyticus O3:K6 |journal=BMC Microbiol. |volume=10 |article-number=274 |year=2010 |pmid=21044320 |pmc=2987987 |doi=10.1186/1471-2180-10-274 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

== Small RNA == ''V. cholerae'' has been used in discoveries of many bacterial small RNAs. Using sRNA-Seq and Northern blot candidate sRNAs were identified and characterised as IGR-sRNA (intragenic region), AS-sRNAs (transcribed from the antisense strand of the open reading frame (ORF) and ORF-derived.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Liu|first1=Jane M.|last2=Livny|first2=Jonathan|last3=Lawrence|first3=Michael S.|last4=Kimball|first4=Marc D.|last5=Waldor|first5=Matthew K.|last6=Camilli|first6=Andrew|display-authors=3|date=April 2009|title=Experimental discovery of sRNAs in Vibrio cholerae by direct cloning, 5S/tRNA depletion and parallel sequencing|journal=Nucleic Acids Research|volume=37|issue=6|pages=e46|doi=10.1093/nar/gkp080 |pmc=2665243|pmid=19223322}}</ref> One of the candidates from this study, IGR 7, was shown to be involved in carbon metabolism and later renamed MtlS RNA. Other sRNAs identified in ''V. cholerae'' through genetic screens and computational methods include Qrr RNA, Vibrio regulatory RNA of OmpA, MiX sRNA, Vibrio cholerae ToxT activated RNAs, foR RNA, and VqmR sRNA.

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==External links== * [https://patricbrc.org/view/Taxonomy/662#view_tab=overview Vibrio] genomes and related information at [http://patricbrc.org/ PATRIC], a Bioinformatics Resource Center funded by [https://www.niaid.nih.gov/ NIAID] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070408160403/http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~ebam/bam-9.html Bacteriological Analytical Manual Online]

Category:Bacteria genera Category:Food microbiology Category:Vibrio