{{Short description|Major dialect group and standard form of Armenian}} {{About|the Armenian dialect|the historical region|Western Armenia}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2023}} {{Infobox language | name = Western Armenian | altname = -gë dialects | nativename = {{lang|hyw|Արեւմտահայերէն}} {{transliteration|hyw|Arevmdahayerēn}} | states = Turkey (Armenian Highlands), Georgia (country), Armenia, Cyprus, Iraq, Lebanon, Syria | speakers = {{sigfig|1.576490|2}} million | date = 2019 | ref = e27 | familycolor = Indo-European | fam2 = Armenian | script = Armenian alphabet (virtually always in the Classical Armenian orthography) | iso3 = hyw | glotto = homs1234 | glottorefname = Western Armenian | lingua = [http://www.hortensj-garden.org/index.php?tnc=1&tr=lsr&nid=57-AAA-ac 57-AAA-ac] | map = Armenian dialects, Adjarian 1909.png | mapcaption = Map of the Armenian dialects in early 20th century: -gë dialects, corresponding to Western Armenian, are in yellow. | map2 = Lang Status 80-VU.svg | mapcaption2 = {{center|{{small|Western Armenian is classified as Vulnerable by the UNESCO ''Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger''<ref name=endangerdco />}}}} | notice = IPA | pronunciation = {{IPA|hy|ɑɾɛvmədɑhɑjɛˈɾɛn|}} }} {{History of the Armenian language}} '''Western Armenian''' ({{Langx|hyw|Արեւմտահայերէն|translit=Arevmdahayeren}} {{IPA|hyw|ɑɾɛvmədɑhɑjɛˈɾɛn|}}){{efn|Pronounced {{transliteration|hy|Arevmtahayeren}} {{IPA|hy|ɑɾɛvmətɑhɑjɛˈɾɛn|}} in Eastern Armenian and spelled {{lang|hy|արևմտահայերեն}} in reformed orthography.}} is one of the two standardized<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Chahinian |first1=Talar |last2=Bakalian |first2=Anny |date=2016-01-01 |title=Language in Armenian American communities: Western Armenian and efforts for preservation |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/ijsl-2015-0034/html |journal=International Journal of the Sociology of Language |language=en |issue=237 |pages=37–57 |doi=10.1515/ijsl-2015-0034 |s2cid=147596230 |issn=1613-3668|url-access=subscription }}</ref> forms of Modern Armenian, the other being Eastern Armenian. It is based mainly on the Istanbul Armenian dialect, as opposed to Eastern Armenian, which is mainly based on the Yerevan Armenian dialect.
Until the early 20th century, various Western Armenian dialects were spoken in the Ottoman Empire, predominantly in the historically Armenian populated regions of Western Armenia. The dialectal varieties of Western Armenian currently in use include Homshetsi, spoken by the Hemshin people;<ref>{{cite book|author1=Victor A. Friedman|editor1-last=Ball|editor1-first=Martin J.|title=The Routledge Handbook of Sociolinguistics Around the World: A Handbook|year=2009|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0415422789|page=128|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AtCNAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA128 |chapter=Sociolinguistics in the Caucasus}}</ref> the dialects of Armenians in Kessab, Latakia and Jisr al-Shughur in Syria, Anjar in Lebanon, and Istanbul and Vakıflı, in Turkey (part of the "Sueidia" dialect). The Sasun and Mush dialects are also spoken in modern-day Armenian villages such as Bazmaberd and Sasnashen. The Cilician dialect is also spoken in Cyprus, where it is taught in Armenian schools (Nareg), and is the first language of about 3,000 people of Armenian descent.
Forms of the Karin dialect of Western Armenian are spoken by several hundred thousand people in Northern Armenia, mostly in Gyumri, Artik, Akhuryan, and around 130 villages in the Shirak province,<ref>{{cite journal|last=Baghdassarian-Thapaltsian|first=S. H.|script-title=hy:Շիրակի դաշտավայրի բարբառային նկարագիրը|journal=Bulletin of Social Sciences|year=1970|issue=6|pages=51–60|url=http://lraber.asj-oa.am/1696/|access-date=24 March 2013|language=hy|archive-date=15 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190915004421/http://lraber.asj-oa.am/1696/|url-status=dead}}</ref> and by Armenians in Samtskhe–Javakheti province of Georgia (Akhalkalaki, Akhaltsikhe).<ref name="Hovannisian">{{cite book|editor=Hovannisian, Richard|editor-link=Richard Hovannisian|title=Armenian Karin/Erzerum|year=2003|publisher=Mazda Publ.|location=Costa Mesa, California|isbn=9781568591513|page=48|quote=Thus, even today the Erzerum dialect is widely spoken in the northernmost districts of the Armenian republic as well as in the Akhalkalak (Javakheti; Javakhk) and Akhaltskha (Akhaltsikh) districts of southern Georgia}}</ref>
A mostly diasporic language and one that is not an official language of any state, Western Armenian faces extinction as its native speakers lose fluency in Western Armenian amid pressures to assimilate into their host countries. According to Ethnologue, there are 1.58 million native speakers of Western Armenian, primarily in Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Lebanon, and Iraq. The language is classified as 6b (i.e., threatened, with interruptions in intergenerational transmission).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Armenian, Western {{!}} Ethnologue Free |url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/hyw/ |access-date=2023-12-25 |website=Ethnologue (Free All) |language=en}}</ref>
==Classification== Western Armenian is an Indo-European language belonging to the Armenic branch of the family, alongside Eastern and Classical Armenian. According to ''Glottolog,'' Antioch, Artial, Asia Minor, Bolu, Hamshenic, Kilikien, Mush-Tigranakert, Stanoz, Vanic and Yozgat are the main dialects of Western Armenian.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Glottolog 4.3 – Western Armenian|url=https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/homs1234|access-date=2021-05-11|website=glottolog.org}}</ref>
Eastern Armenian and Western Armenian are, for the most part, mutually intelligible for educated or literate users of the other, while illiterate or semiliterate users of lower registers of each one may have difficulty understanding the other variant.
==Speakers== Western Armenian is spoken by Armenians of most of Southeast Europe and West Asia except for Iran, and Rostov-on-Don in Russia. It is a moribund language spoken by only a small percentage of Armenians in Turkey (especially in Istanbul) as a first language, with 18 percent among the community in general and 8 percent among younger people.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.panorama.am/en/politics/2010/09/29/r-melqonyan-book/|title=Turkologist Ruben Melkonyan publishes book "Review of Istanbul's Armenian community history"|first=Helix Consulting|last=LLC|website=Panorama.am|access-date=30 December 2017|archive-date=24 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924065219/http://www.panorama.am/en/politics/2010/09/29/r-melqonyan-book/|url-status=dead}}</ref> There are notable diaspora L2 Western Armenian speakers in Lebanon (Beirut), Syria (Aleppo, Damascus), California (Fresno, Los Angeles), and France (Marseilles).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seyfarth |first1=Scott |last2=Dolatian |first2=Hossep |last3=Guekguezian |first3=Peter |last4=Kelly |first4=Niamh |last5=Toparlak |first5=Tabita |date=2023-10-09 |title=Armenian (Yerevan Eastern Armenian and Beirut Western Armenian) |journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association |volume=54 |language=en |pages=445–478 |doi=10.1017/S0025100323000130 |issn=0025-1003|doi-access=free }}</ref>
Western Armenian used to be the dominant Armenian variety, but as a result of the Armenian genocide, the speakers of Western Armenian were mostly murdered or exiled. Those who fled to Eastern Armenia now speak either Eastern Armenian or have a diglossic situation between Western Armenian dialects in informal usage and an Eastern Armenian standard. The only Western Armenian dialect still spoken in Western Armenia is the Homshetsi dialect, since the Hemshin peoples, who were Muslim converts, did not fall victim to the Armenian genocide.{{citation needed|date=November 2022}}
Western Armenian isn't just predominant for Armenians in West Asia, the Armenians living in Southeastern Europe/Balkans, mostly Bulgaria, Romania, Greece, and Turkey (Istanbul) are Western Armenian speakers, who immigrated of the Armenian Genocide. Historically there was presence of Western Armenians (Cilicians) in Moldova.
On 21 February 2009, International Mother Language Day, a new edition of the ''Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger'' was released by UNESCO in which the Western Armenian language in Turkey was defined as a definitely endangered language.<ref name=endangerdco>{{Cite book| edition = 3rd ed. entirely revised, enlarged and updated.| isbn = 978-92-3-104095-5| publisher = UNESCO, Intangible Cultural Heritage Section| last1 = Moseley| first1 = Christopher| last2 = Nicolas| first2 = Alexandre| title = Atlas of the world's languages in danger / editor-in-Chief, Christopher Moseley ; cartographer, Alexandre Nicolas.| location = Paris| series = Memory of peoples series| date = 2010 |url= https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000187026}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://bianet.org/haber/reviving-the-armenian-language-136212|title=UNESCO: 15 Languages Endangered in Turkey, by T. Korkut,2009|website=Bianet.org|access-date=14 October 2024}}</ref>
== Modern day speakers == In modern day Armenia, the city of Gyumri took host to large numbers of Armenian refugees fleeing the Ottoman Empire from the Armenian Genocide. Many of these people spoke the Karin dialect of Armenian, which is spoken in Gyumri but overtime many Eastern Armenian and Russian words have been borrowed into the dialect. There was also a wave of Armenians coming from the rest of West Asia who were Western Armenian, who moved to the Soviet Union, mostly in Soviet Armenia. Many have assimilated into the Eastern Armenian dialect.
=== Endangerment and controversy === With Western Armenian being declared an endangered language, there has been recent pushback on reviving the language in Los Angeles,<ref>{{cite web | access-date=2023-05-29 | url=https://laist.com/news/western-armenian-is-an-endangered-language-a-new-generation-in-la-is-learning-it | title=Western Armenian Is An Endangered Language. A New Generation in LA Is Learning It | date=2023-04-20 | last=Ohanesian | language=en | website=laist.com | first=Liz}}</ref> which is home to the largest concentration of Western Armenians.
Shushan Karapetian, in her evaluation of both the Eastern and Western dialects of Armenian, concludes that heritage languages, in the face of an English dominant society, rapidly die out within no more than 2 generations, calling America a "linguistic graveyard."<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Karapetian |first=Shushan |date=2014 |title="How Do I Teach My Kids My Broken Armenian?": A Study of Eastern Armenian Heritage Language Speakers in Los Angeles |url=https://escholarship.org/content/qt7jq085nr/qt7jq085nr.pdf?t=nk2emk}}</ref> In US census data, the percentage of people of Armenian ancestry who speak Western Armenian at home has rapidly declined, down from 25% in 1980 to 16% in 2000.<ref name=":0" />
==Phonology==
===Vowels===
====Monophthongs==== Western Armenian has seven monophthongs.
{| class="wikitable" ! ! colspan=2| Front ! rowspan=2| Central ! colspan=2| Back |- !|| Unrounded || Rounded || Unrounded || Rounded |- ! align="left" | Close | class="nounderlines" style="text-align:center" | {{IPA link|i}} {{angbr|ի}} | class="nounderlines" style="text-align:center" | {{IPA link|ʏ}} {{angbr|իւ}} | | | class="nounderlines" style="text-align:center" | {{IPA link|u}} {{angbr|ու}} |- ! align="left" | Mid | class="nounderlines" style="text-align:center" | {{IPA link|ɛ}} {{angbr|է, ե}}<ref name="context_sensitive">The choice of Armenian symbol depends on the vowel's context in the word. See the ''Orthography'' section below for details.</ref> | | class="nounderlines" style="text-align:center" | {{IPA link|ə}} {{angbr|ը}} | | class="nounderlines" style="text-align:center;" | {{IPA link|o}} {{angbr|ո, օ}}<ref name="context_sensitive"/> |- ! align="left" | Open | | | | class="nounderlines" style="text-align:center" | {{IPA link|ɑ}} {{angbr|ա}} | |} ⟨իւ⟩ /ʏ/ is sometimes realized as /ju/ in nonstandard speech. The cluster թիւն /tʏn/ also shows phonetic variation, even in formal speech, with pronunciations ranging from /t͡ʃ(j)un/ and /tjun/ to /t͡ʃʏn/ and /tʏn/. {| class="wikitable" !IPA !Example (IPA) !Example (written) !Meaning |- |class="nounderlines" style="text-align:center;font-size:120%" | {{IPA link|i}} |style="text-align:center;" | {{IPA|[im]}} |style="text-align:center;" | '''ի'''մ |style="text-align:center;" | "my" |- |class="nounderlines" style="text-align:center;font-size:120%" | {{IPA link|ʏ}} |style="text-align:center;" | {{IPA|[hʏɾ]}} |style="text-align:center;" | հ'''իւ'''ր |style="text-align:center;" | "guest" |- |class="nounderlines" style="text-align:center;font-size:120%" | {{IPA link|ɛ}} |style="text-align:center;" | {{IPA|[ɛt͡ʃʰ]}} |style="text-align:center;" | '''է'''ջ |style="text-align:center;" | "page" |- |class="nounderlines" style="text-align:center;font-size:120%" | {{IPA link|ɑ}} |style="text-align:center;" | {{IPA|[ɑɾɛv]}} |style="text-align:center;" | '''ա'''րեւ |style="text-align:center;" | "sun" |- |class="nounderlines" style="text-align:center;font-size:120%" | {{IPA link|ə}} |style="text-align:center;" | {{IPA|[əsɛl]}} |style="text-align:center;" | '''ը'''սել |style="text-align:center;" | "to say" |- |class="nounderlines" style="text-align:center;font-size:120%" | {{IPA link|o}} |style="text-align:center;" | {{IPA|[t͡ʃʰoɾ]}} |style="text-align:center;" | չ'''ո'''ր |style="text-align:center;" | "dry" |- |class="nounderlines" style="text-align:center;font-size:120%" | {{IPA link|u}} |style="text-align:center;" | {{IPA|[uɾ]}} |style="text-align:center;" | '''ու'''ր |style="text-align:center;" | "where" |}
====Diphthongs==== Western Armenian has nine vowel sequences in which two vowels appear together in the orthography but belong to the same syllable, forming diphthongs.
The letter ⟨ե⟩ frequently participates in diphthongs, representing sounds such as /jɑ/ and /jo/. When word-initial, ⟨ե⟩ alone denotes /jɛ/. The letter ⟨յ⟩ functions as a postvocalic glide, marking /j/ following vowels.
The cluster ⟨իյ⟩ /ij/ (e.g. in իյնալ /ijˈnɑl/) has generally merged with ⟨ի⟩ /i/ through glide loss, resulting in a phonemic merger of /ij/ with /i/. {| class="wikitable" !IPA !Example (IPA) !Example (written) !Meaning |- | class="nounderlines" style="text-align:center;font-size:120%" | {{IPA|jɑ}} | style="text-align:center;" | /sɛnˈ'''jɑ'''g/ | style="text-align:center;" | սեն'''եա'''կ | style="text-align:center;" | "room" |- | class="nounderlines" style="text-align:center;font-size:120%" | {{IPA|jɛ}} | style="text-align:center;" | /'''jɛ'''ˈrɑz/ | style="text-align:center;" | '''ե'''րազ | style="text-align:center;" | "dream" |- | class="nounderlines" style="text-align:center;font-size:120%" | {{IPA|ji}} | style="text-align:center;" | /mɑ'''ˈji'''s/ | style="text-align:center;" | Մա'''յի'''ս | style="text-align:center;" | "May" |- | class="nounderlines" style="text-align:center;font-size:120%" | {{IPA|jo}} | style="text-align:center;" | /'''joˈ'''tə/ | style="text-align:center;" | '''եօ'''թը | style="text-align:center;" | "seven" |- | class="nounderlines" style="text-align:center;font-size:120%" | {{IPA|ju}} | style="text-align:center;" | /gɑˈj'''un'''/ | style="text-align:center;" | կա'''յու'''ն | style="text-align:center;" | "firm" |- | class="nounderlines" style="text-align:center;font-size:120%" | {{IPA|ɑj}} | style="text-align:center;" | /ˈm'''ɑj'''r/ | style="text-align:center;" | մ'''այ'''ր | style="text-align:center;" | "mother" |- | class="nounderlines" style="text-align:center;font-size:120%" | ɛj | style="text-align:center;" | /ˈt'''ɛj'''/ | style="text-align:center;" | թ'''էյ''' | style="text-align:center;" | "tea" |- | class="nounderlines" style="text-align:center;font-size:120%" | {{IPA|oj}} | style="text-align:center;" | /ˈχ'''oj'''/ | style="text-align:center;" | խ'''ոյ''' | style="text-align:center;" | "ram" |- | class="nounderlines" style="text-align:center;font-size:120%" | {{IPA|uj}} | style="text-align:center;" | /ˈk'''uj'''r/ | style="text-align:center;" | ք'''ոյ'''ր | style="text-align:center;" | "sister" |} In some cases, vowel sequences span syllable or morpheme boundaries rather than forming true diphthongs; in those environments, glide formation (yod insertion) is expected.
===Consonants=== This is the Western Armenian Consonantal System using letters from the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), followed by the corresponding Armenian letter in brackets.
{| class="wikitable" ! colspan=2 | !Labial !Alveolar !Palato -(alveolar) !Velar !Uvular !Glottal |- ! colspan=2 | Nasal | class="nounderlines" style="text-align:center;"|{{IPA link|m}} {{angbr|մ}} | class="nounderlines" style="text-align:center;" |{{IPA link|n}} {{angbr|ն}} | | | | |- ! rowspan=2 | Stop ! <small>aspirated</small> | class="nounderlines" style="text-align:center;"|{{IPA link|p|pʰ}} {{angbr|բ, փ}}<ref name="same_sound">These letters represent the same consonant due to a sound shift in Western Armenian from Classical Armenian. See the ''Differences in Phonology from Classical and Eastern Armenian'' section below for details.</ref> | class="nounderlines" style="text-align:center;" |{{IPA link|t|tʰ}} {{angbr|դ, թ}}<ref name="same_sound"/> | | class="nounderlines" style="text-align:center;"|{{IPA link|k|kʰ}} {{angbr|գ, ք}}<ref name="same_sound"/> | | |- !<small>voiced</small> | class="nounderlines" style="text-align:center;"|{{IPA link|b}} {{angbr|պ}}<ref name="sound_shift">This letter has undergone a sound shift from Classical Armenian to Western Armenian. See #Differences from Classical Armenian for details.</ref> | class="nounderlines" style="text-align:center;"|{{IPA link|d}} {{angbr|տ}}<ref name="sound_shift"/> | | class="nounderlines" style="text-align:center;"|{{IPA link|ɡ}} {{angbr|կ}}<ref name="sound_shift"/> | | |- ! rowspan=2|Affricate !<small>aspirated</small> | | class="nounderlines" style="text-align:center;"|{{IPA link|ts|tsʰ}} {{angbr|ձ, ց}}<ref name="same_sound"/> | class="nounderlines" style="text-align:center;"|{{IPA link|tʃ|tʃʰ}} {{angbr|չ, ջ}}<ref name="same_sound"/> | | | |- !<small>voiced</small> | | class="nounderlines" style="text-align:center;"|{{IPA link|dz}} {{angbr|ծ}}<ref name="sound_shift"/> | class="nounderlines" style="text-align:center;"|{{IPA link|dʒ}} {{angbr|ճ}}<ref name="sound_shift"/> | | | |- ! rowspan=2|Fricative !<small>unvoiced</small> | class="nounderlines" style="text-align:center;"|{{IPA link|f}} {{angbr|ֆ}} | class="nounderlines" style="text-align:center;"|{{IPA link|s}} {{angbr|ս}} | class="nounderlines" style="text-align:center;"|{{IPA link|ʃ}} {{angbr|շ}} | | class="nounderlines" style="text-align:center;"|{{IPA link|χ}} {{angbr|խ}} | class="nounderlines" style="text-align:center;"|{{IPA link|h}} {{angbr|հ, յ}}<ref name="context_sensitive"/> |- !<small>voiced</small> | class="nounderlines" style="text-align:center;"|{{IPA link|v}} {{angbr|վ, ւ, ու, ո}}<ref name="context_sensitive" /> | class="nounderlines" style="text-align:center;"|{{IPA link|z}} {{angbr|զ}} | class="nounderlines" style="text-align:center;"|{{IPA link|ʒ}} {{angbr|ժ}} | | class="nounderlines" style="text-align:center;"|{{IPA link|ʁ}} {{angbr|ղ}} | |- ! colspan=2|Approximant | | class="nounderlines" style="text-align:center;" |{{IPA link|l}} {{angbr|լ}} | class="nounderlines" style="text-align:center;" |{{IPA link|j}} {{angbr|յ, ե, ի}}<ref name="context_sensitive" /> | | | |- ! colspan=2|Flap | | class="nounderlines" style="text-align:center;" |{{IPA link|ɾ}} {{angbr|ռ, ր}}<ref>Although Western Armenians are taught to pronounce two different rhotics (written {{angbr|ր}} and {{angbr|ռ}}), the two have merged in many dialects into a flap.</ref> | | | | |}
The {{IPA|/f/}} in Armenian is rare and exclusively used in non-native words; the letter "ֆ" was added to the alphabet much later. The {{IPA|/w/}} glide is not used except for foreign proper nouns, like Washington (by utilizing the "u" vowel, Armenian "ու").
== Phonological differences with Classical Armenian == {{Further|Classical Armenian orthography}}
=== Stop and Affricate System === The primary phonological difference between Western Armenian and Classical Armenian lies in the stop and affricate system.
Classical Armenian distinguished three series of stops and affricates: voiced, voiceless unaspirated (plain), and voiceless aspirated. Western Armenian reduced this to a two-way contrast: voiced vs. aspirated. As a result, Classical Armenian's voiced series became aspirated in Western Armenian, while its plain voiceless series became voiced.
In comparison, Eastern Armenian fully preserves this contrast. {| class="wikitable" !Place !Classical Armenian !Western Armenian |- |Bilabial stops |/b/ ⟨բ⟩, /p/ ⟨պ⟩, /pʰ/ ⟨փ⟩ |/b/ (from ⟨պ⟩), /pʰ/ (from ⟨բ⟩, ⟨փ⟩) |- |Alveolar stops |/d/ ⟨դ⟩, /t/ ⟨տ⟩, /tʰ/ ⟨թ⟩ |/d/ (from ⟨տ⟩), /tʰ/ (from ⟨դ⟩, ⟨թ⟩) |- |Velar stops |/ɡ/ ⟨գ⟩, /k/ ⟨կ⟩, /kʰ/ ⟨ք⟩ |/ɡ/ (from ⟨կ⟩), /kʰ/ (from ⟨գ⟩, ⟨ք⟩) |- |Alveolar affricates |/dz/ ⟨ձ⟩, /ts/ ⟨ծ⟩, /tsʰ/ ⟨ց⟩ |/dz/ (from ⟨ծ⟩), /tsʰ/ (from ⟨ձ⟩, ⟨ց⟩) |- |Post-alveolar affricates |/dʒ/ ⟨ջ⟩, /tʃ/ ⟨ճ⟩, /tʃʰ/ ⟨չ⟩ |/dʒ/ (from ⟨ճ⟩), /tʃʰ/ (from ⟨ջ⟩, ⟨չ⟩) |} '''Example:'''
Classical Armenian /d͡ʒur/ "water" (⟨ջուր⟩) became Western Armenian /t͡ʃur/ (⟨ջուր⟩). Words such as [kʰaɾ] "stone" (⟨քար⟩) remain phonetically similar in both stages.
=== Other phonological differences === {| class="wikitable" !Feature !Western Armenian !Classical Armenian |- |Initial ⟨ե⟩ |[jɛ] |/ɛ/ |- |Initial ⟨ո⟩ |generally [vo] |/o/ |- |⟨ղ⟩ |[ʁ] |/ɫ/-like sound |- |⟨ւ⟩ |[v] |/w/ |- |⟨եւ⟩ |[jɛv] |/ɛw/ |- |⟨իւ⟩ |[ʏ] |/iw/ |- |⟨ռ⟩ vs. ⟨ր⟩ |merged to [ɾ] |/ɹ/ and /r/ respectively |- |⟨ե⟩ vs. ⟨է⟩ |merged as [ɛ] |/ɛ/ and /e/ respectively |- |Word-initial ⟨յ⟩ |[h] |/j/ |- |Word-final ⟨յ⟩ |lost |/j/ |- |Digraph ⟨իյ⟩ |simplified to [i] |(?) |}
==Orthography== {{main|Classical Armenian orthography}}
Western Armenian uses Classical Armenian orthography, also known as Mashdotsian orthography. The Armenian orthography reform (commonly called Abeghian orthography), first introduced in the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic and used by most Eastern Armenian speakers from Armenia, has not been adopted by Eastern Armenian speakers of Iran and their diaspora or by speakers of Western Armenian, with the exception of periodicals published in Romania and Bulgaria under Communist regimes.
==Morphology== ===Nouns=== Armenian lacks grammatical gender, including in pronouns. A feminine suffix -ուհի /uhi/ exists but carries no grammatical effect.
Western Armenian nouns have four grammatical cases: nominative-accusative (subject / direct object), genitive-dative (possession / indirect object), ablative (origin) and instrumental (means). Except for personal pronouns, the nominative and accusative are the same, and the genitive and dative are the same, meaning that nouns have four distinct forms for case.
Nouns in Armenian also decline for number (singular and plural). They are pluralized with the suffixes -եր /ɛr/ or -ներ /nɛr/, which are generally not interchangeable and follow predictable attachment patterns. Two other plural suffixes, -ք /k/ and -ց /t͡s/, inherited from Classical Armenian, both survive in a small set of nouns. For example, տղայ /dəˈʁɑ/ "boy" forms the plural տղաք /dəˈʁɑk/ "boys," and տիկին /diˈgin/ "madam" forms տիկնա(ն)ց /diˈgna(n)t͡s/ "madams." Such nouns may follow regular pluralization.
Declension in Armenian is based on how the genitive is formed. There are several declensions, the first three (genitive in ''i, u,'' and ''a'' respectively) being the most common. The genitive in ''i'', however, is the most common, while other forms are in gradual decline and are being replaced by the ''i''-form, which has virtually attained the status of a regular form. The plural is consistent across almost all declensions. {| class="wikitable" ! rowspan="2" | ! colspan="2" | '''դաշտ''' (field) ! colspan="2" | '''կով''' (cow) ! colspan="2" |'''գարուն''' (Spring) ! colspan="2" |'''օր''' (day) |- ! singular ! plural ! singular ! plural !singular !plural !singular !plural |- | Nom-Acc (Ուղղական-Հայցական) | դաշտ | դաշտեր | կով | կովեր |գարուն |գարուններ |օր |օրեր |- | Gen-Dat (Սեռական-Տրական) | դաշտ'''ի''' | դաշտեր'''ու''' | կով'''ու''' | կովեր'''ու''' |գարն'''ա'''ն |գարուններ'''ու''' |օր'''ուայ''' |օրեր'''ու''' |- | Abl (Բացառական) | դաշտ'''է''' | դաշտեր'''է''' | կով'''է''' | կովեր'''է''' |գարուն'''է''' |գարուններ'''է''' |օր'''է/'''օր'''ուընէ''' |օրեր'''է''' |- | Instr (Գործիական) | դաշտ'''ով''' | դաշտեր'''ով''' | կով'''ով''' | կովեր'''ով''' |գարուն'''ով''' |գարուններ'''ով''' |օր'''ով''' |օրեր'''ով''' |- ! rowspan="2" | ! colspan="2" |'''քոյր''' (sister) ! colspan="2" |'''մայր''' (mother) ! colspan="2" |'''Աստուած''' (God) ! colspan="2" |'''գիտութիւն''' (science) |- !singular !plural !singular !plural !singular !plural !singular !plural |- |Nom-Acc (Ուղղական-Հայցական) |քոյր |քոյրեր |մայր |մայրեր |Աստուած |աստուածներ |գիտութիւն |գիտութիւններ |- |Gen-Dat (Սեռական-Տրական) |քր'''ոջ''' |քոյրեր'''ու''' |մ'''օ'''ր |մայրեր'''ու''' |Աստուծ'''ոյ''' |աստուածներ'''ու''' |գիտութ'''եան''' |գիտութիւններ'''ու'''/ գիտութ'''եանց'''* |- |Abl (Բացառական) |քր'''ոջմէ''' |քոյրեր'''է''' |մ'''օ'''ր'''մէ''' |մայրեր'''է''' |Աստուծ'''մէ''' |աստուածներ'''է''' |գիտութիւ'''նէ/'''գիտութ'''ենէ''' |գիտութիւններ'''է''' |- |Instr (Գործիական) |քր'''ոջմով''' |քոյրեր'''ով''' |մ'''օ'''ր'''մով''' |մայրեր'''ով''' |Աստուծ'''մով''' |աստուածներ'''ով''' |գիտութ'''եամբ/''' գիտութիւն'''ով''' |գիտութիւններ'''ով''' |} <nowiki>*</nowiki> Extremely rare.
Which case the direct object takes is split based on animacy (a phenomenon more generally known as differential object marking). Inanimate nouns generally take the nominative-accusative, while animate nouns generally take the genetive-dative.
* Ես խնձորը կերայ /ˈjɛs χənˈt͡sorə gɛˈrɑ/ – "I ate the apple (Nom-Acc)." * Ես մարդուն տեսայ /ˈjɛs mɑrˈtun dɛˈsɑ/ – "I saw the man (Gen-Dat)." Other rare declensional forms are also found, though they have almost completely fallen out of use.
=== Articles ===
==== Indefinite Article ==== The indefinite article in Western Armenian is մը /mə/, and it follows the noun:
* Աթոռ մը /ɑˈtor mə/ – "a chair" (Nom. sg.) * Աթոռի մը /ɑˈtori mə/ – "of a chair" (Gen. sg.)
When followed by ալ ("also, too") or by the present/imperfect forms of ''եմ'' ("to be"), the article takes the form մըն /mən/:
* Գիրք մը /ˈkirk mə/ – "a book" * Ասիկա գիրք մըն է /ɑsiga ˈkirk mən ɛ/ – "This is a book." * Գիրք մըն ալ /ˈkirk mən ˈɑl/– "A book as well."
==== Definite Article ==== The definite article is a suffix attached directly to the noun.
It appears either as -ն /n/ after vowels or -ը /ə/ after consonants:
* Գիրքը /ˈkirkə/ – "the book" (Nom. sg.) * Գարին /kɑˈrin/ – "the barley" (Nom. sg.)
When the noun is immediately followed by ալ, ու ("and"), or by a form of ''եմ'' ("to be"), the -ն form is used regardless of final sound:
* Աս գիրքն է /ɑs ˈkirk(ə)n ɛ/ – "This is the book." * Բարին ու չարը /pɑˈrin u ˈt͡ʃɑrə/ – "The good and the bad." * Ինքն ալ /ˈiŋk(ə)n ɑl/– "He/She too."
=== Adjectives === Adjectives in Western Armenian are invariable: they do not decline for case or number and always precede the noun:
* լաւ մարդը /lɑv ˈmartə/ – "the good man" (Nom. sg.) * լաւ մարդուն /lɑv marˈtun/ – "to the good man" (Gen. sg.)
===Personal pronouns=== {| class="wikitable" ! Nominative ! Accusative ! Genitive ! Dative ! Ablative ! Instrumental |- | ես 'I' || զիս || իմ || ինծի || ինձմէ / ինծմէ || ինձմով / ինծմով |- | դուն 'you' || քեզ ||քու|| քեզի || քեզմէ || քեզմով |- | ինք 'she/he/it' || զինք ||իր|| իրեն || իրմէ || իրմով |- | ան 'she/he/it' || զայն ||անոր|| անոր || անկէ || անով |- | մենք 'we' || մեզ ||մեր|| մեզի || մեզմէ || մեզմով |- | դուք 'you' || ձեզ ||ձեր|| ձեզի || ձեզմէ || ձեզմով |- | իրենք 'they' || զիրենք ||իրենց|| իրենց || իրենցմէ || իրենցմով |- | անոնք 'they' || զանոնք ||անոնց|| անոնց || անոնցմէ || անոնցմով |} In informal Western Armenian, the accusative case occasionally merges with the dative, so the same form is used for both. Speech that preserves the distinct accusative forms is considered more formal or prestigious.
The genitive case also sometimes merges with the dative. For instance, '''ինծի է''' (literally "to me it is") is used to mean "it's mine." This is often seen as a mistake in formal Armenian, despite how common it is.
===Demonstrative pronouns=== {| class="wikitable" ! rowspan="2" | ! colspan="2" |Proximal ! colspan="2" |Medial ! colspan="2" |Distal |- !Singular !Plural !Singular !Plural !Singular !Plural |- |'''Nominative-Accusative''' | ասիկա || ասոնք || ատիկա || ատոնք || անիկա || անոնք |- |'''Genitive-Dative''' |ասոր||ասոնց||ատոր||ատոնց||անոր||անոնց |- |'''Ablative''' |ասկէ||ասոնցմէ||ատկէ||ատոնցմէ||անկէ||անոնցմէ |- |'''Instrumental''' |ասով||ասոնցմով||ատով||ատոնցմով||անով||անոնցմով |} The primary distinction among proximal, medial, and distal demonstrative pronouns lies in the initial consonants ս (s), տ (d), and ն (n).
===Relative pronouns=== {| class="wikitable" ! !Singular !Plural |- |'''Nominative''' | որ ||որոնք |- |'''Accusative''' |զոր||զորոնք / զորս |- |'''Genitive''' |որու(ն)||որոնց |- |'''Dative''' |որուն||որոնց |- |'''Ablative''' |որմէ||որոնցմէ |- |'''Instrumental''' |որ(մ)ով||որոնցմով |} The accusative case is hardly seen in both formal and informal speech; similar to the personal pronouns, it has merged with the genitive/dative.
== Verbs == {{Main|Armenian verbs}}
Armenian verbs are fully conjugated for all pronouns, making the language pro-drop. Verbs in Armenian are based on two basic series of forms, a "present" form and an "imperfect" form. From this, all other tenses and moods are formed with various particles and constructions. There is a third form, the preterite, which in Armenian is a tense in its own right, and takes no other particles or constructions.
The present tense in Western Armenian is based on three conjugations ('''a, e, i'''):
{| class="wikitable" | | սիրել<br/>(to love) | խօսիլ<br/>(to speak) | կարդալ<br/>(to read) |- | ես (I) | սիր'''եմ''' | խօս'''իմ''' | կարդ'''ամ''' |- | դուն (thou) | սիր'''ես''' | խօս'''իս''' | կարդ'''աս''' |- valign=top | ան (he/she/it) | սիր'''է''' | խօս'''ի''' | կարդ'''ա''' |- | մենք (we) | սիր'''ենք''' | խօս'''ինք''' | կարդ'''անք''' |- | դուք (you.pl) | սիր'''էք''' | խօս'''իք''' | կարդ'''աք''' |- | անոնք (they) | սիր'''են''' | խօս'''ին''' | կարդ'''ան''' |}
The present tense is made by adding the particle կը (''gə'') before the "present" form, except for five defective verbs: եմ (''em'': I am), կամ (''gam'': I exist, I'm there), ունիմ (''unim'': I have), գիտեմ (''kidem'': I know), կրնամ (''gərnam'': I can).
The future tense is formed by adding պիտի (bidi), often shortened to պիտ (bid) in rapid speech.
* Ես գիրքը կը կարդամ /ˈjɛs kirˈkə gə gɑrˈtɑm/ – "I am reading the book" or "I read the book." * Ես գիրքը պիտի կարդամ /ˈjɛs kirˈkə biˈdi gɑrˈtɑm/ – "I will read the book."
For defective verbs, the future tense is formed as follows: ըլլամ (used for both եմ and կամ), ունենամ, գիտնամ, and կարենամ/կրնամ, respectively.
In the vernacular language, the particle կոր /gor/ ''(< Turkish -iyor)'' is added after the verb to indicate present progressive tense. This distinction is not made in literary Armenian.
* Ես գիրքը կը կարդամ կոր /ˈjɛs kirˈkə gə gɑrˈtɑm ˈgor/ – "I am reading the book." <ref>In vernacular language, the particle {{transliteration|hyw|italic=no|gor}} is added after the verb to indicate present progressive tense. The distinction is not made in literary Armenian.</ref>
==Notes== {{notelist}}
==References== {{Reflist}}
==Bibliography== * {{cite book | last = Melkonian | first = Zareh | script-title=hy:Գործնական Քերականութիւն – Արդի Հայերէն Լեզուի (Միջին եւ Բարձրագոյն Դասընթացք) |trans-title=Practical Grammar – For Modern Armenian (Intermediate and Advanced Course) | edition = Fourth | year = 1990 | location = Los Angeles | language = hy}} * {{cite book | last = Sakayan | author-link = Dora Sakayan | first = Dora | title = Modern Western Armenian For the English-speaking World: A Contrastive Approach | publisher = Arod Books | year = 2000 | location = Montreal | isbn = 0-9699879-2-7 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/modernwesternarm00saka_0 }} * {{cite book | last = Samuelian | first = Thomas J. | title = A Course in Modern Western Armenian: Dictionary and Linguistic Notes | publisher = Armenian National Education Committee | year = 1989 | location = New York City, New York |isbn = 0-9617933-2-5}} * {{cite journal|author=Chahinian, Talar|author2=Anny Balakian|url=https://www.degruyter.com/dg/viewarticle/j$002fijsl.2016.2016.issue-237$002fijsl-2015-0034$002fijsl-2015-0034.xml|title=Language in Armenian American communities: Western Armenian and efforts for preservation|journal=International Journal of the Sociology of Language|date=2015-12-16|issue=237|doi=10.1515/ijsl-2015-0034|s2cid=147596230|access-date=9 June 2019|archive-date=8 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200208205628/https://www.degruyter.com/dg/viewarticle/j$002fijsl.2016.2016.issue-237$002fijsl-2015-0034$002fijsl-2015-0034.xml|url-status=dead|url-access=subscription}} * {{cite book | last = Vaux | author-link = Bert Vaux | first = Bert | title = The Phonology of Armenian | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 1998 | location = Oxford | isbn = 978-0-19-823661-0 | url-access = registration | url = https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-phonology-of-armenian-9780198236610?cc=gr&lang=en& }}
==External links== * [http://www.birthrightarmenia.org/depihayk/login.php Arak29 Eastern Armenian] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191226082853/http://www.birthrightarmenia.org/depihayk/login.php |date=26 December 2019 }} * [http://www.discoverarmenian.com/ Arak29 Western Armenian] * [http://www.envisionarmenia.com/moodle2/ Arak29 A Course in Modern Western Armenia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190917195022/http://www.envisionarmenia.com/moodle2/ |date=17 September 2019 }} * [http://www.arak29.am/templates/diction.php Arak29 On-Line Dictionaries] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170510205819/http://www.arak29.am/templates/diction.php |date=10 May 2017 }} * [http://www.envisionarmenia.com/etymology/ Arak29 Etymology] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170926014945/http://www.envisionarmenia.com/etymology/ |date=26 September 2017 }} * {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20120222134159/http://www.wigiwigi.com/index.php?title=People_speaking_Armenian Videos of people speaking Armenian]}} {{InterWiki|code=hyw}}
'''Western Armenian Online Dictionaries''' * [http://www.nayiri.com/ Nayiri.com] (Library of Armenian dictionaries): ** [http://www.nayiri.com/search?l=en&dt=HY_HY Բառգիրք հայերէն լեզուի] by Rev. Antranig Granian (about 18,000 terms; published in 1998 in Beirut). Great dictionary for students. ** [http://www.nayiri.com/imagedDictionaryBrowser.jsp?dictionaryId=8 ՀԱՅՈՑ ԼԵԶՈՒԻ ՆՈՐ ԲԱՌԱՐԱՆ] published in two volumes in Beirut in 1992 (about 56,000 headwords). Arguably the best Western Armenian dictionary currently available. ** [http://www.nayiri.com/imagedDictionaryBrowser.jsp?dictionaryId=6 ՀԱՅԵՐԷՆ ԲԱՑԱՏՐԱԿԱՆ ԲԱՌԱՐԱՆ] by Stepan Malkhasiants (about 130,000 entries). One of the definitive Armenian dictionaries. (Definitions are in Eastern Armenian, but include Western Armenian meanings of headwords.) ** [http://www.nayiri.com/imagedDictionaryBrowser.jsp?dictionaryId=7 ՀԱՅԵՐԷՆ ԱՐՄԱՏԱԿԱՆ ԲԱՌԱՐԱՆ] by Hrachia Acharian (5,062 word roots). The definitive study of the history and origins of word roots in Armenian. Also includes explanations of each word root as it is used today. (Explanations are in Eastern Armenian, but root words span the entire Armenian language, including Western Armenian.) ** [http://www.nayiri.com/search?l=en&dt=HY_EN Armenian-English dictionary] (about 70,000 entries). ** [http://www.nayiri.com/search?l=en&dt=EN_HY English-Armenian dictionary] (about 96,000 entries). ** [http://www.nayiri.com/search?l=en&dt=HY_FR Armenian-French dictionary] (about 18,000 entries). ** [http://www.nayiri.com/search?l=en&dt=FR_HY French-Armenian dictionary] (about 20,000 entries).
{{Armenian language}} {{Languages of Armenia}} {{Languages of Turkey}} {{Languages of Azerbaijan}} {{Authority control}}
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