Job's tears

{{Short description|Species of plant}} {{redirect|Adlay|the Australian criminal youth subculture|Eshay}} {{Speciesbox |image = Coix lacryma-jobi1.jpg |image_caption = Inflorescences |genus = Coix |species = lacryma-jobi |authority = L. |synonyms = {{Plainlist | style = margin-left: 1em; text-indent: -1em; | *''Coix agrestis'' Lour. *''Coix arundinacea'' Lam. *''Coix chinensis'' Tod. *''Coix chinensis'' Tod. ex Balansa nom. illeg. *''Coix exaltata'' Jacq. ex Spreng. *''Coix gigantea'' J.Jacq. nom. illeg. *''Coix lacryma'' L. nom. illeg. *''Coix ma-yuen'' Rom.Caill. *''Coix ouwehandii'' Koord. *''Coix ovata'' Stokes nom. illeg. *''Coix palustris'' Koord. *''Coix pendula'' Salisb. nom. illeg. *''Coix pumila'' Roxb. *''Coix stenocarpa'' (Oliv.) Balansa *''Coix stigmatosa'' K.Koch & Bouché *''Coix tubulosa'' Hack. *''Lithagrostis lacryma-jobi'' (L.) Gaertn. *''Sphaerium lacryma'' (L.) Kuntze nom. illeg. *''Sphaerium tubulosum'' (Warb.) Kuntze }} |synonyms_ref = <ref>{{citation |url=http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl1.1/record/kew-405633 |title=The Plant List: A Working List of All Plant Species |access-date=6 August 2017}}</ref> }}

'''Job's tears''' {{IPAc-en|dʒ|oʊ|b|z}} ('''''Coix lacryma-jobi'''''), also known as '''adlay''' or '''adlay millet''', is a tall grain-bearing perennial tropical plant of the family Poaceae (grass family). It is native to Southeast Asia and introduced to Northern China and India in remote antiquity, and elsewhere cultivated in gardens as an annual. It has been naturalized in the southern United States and the New World tropics. In its native environment it is grown at higher elevation areas where rice and corn do not grow well. Job's tears are also commonly sold as '''Chinese pearl barley''', though true barley belongs to a completely different genus.

There are two main varieties of the species, one wild and one cultivated. The wild variety, ''Coix lacryma-jobi'' var. ''lacryma-jobi'', has hard-shelled pseudocarps—very hard, pearly white, oval structures used as beads for making prayer beads or rosaries, necklaces, and other objects. The cultivated variety ''Coix lacryma-jobi'' var. ''ma-yuen'' is harvested as a cereal crop, has a soft shell, and is used in traditional medicine in parts of Asia.

== Nomenclature == Job's tears may also be referred to under different spellings ('''Job's-tears''',<ref name="hitchcock1920" /><ref name="BSBI07">{{BSBI 2007 |access-date=2014-10-17 }}</ref> '''Jobs-tears'''<ref name=hitchcock&chase(rev.)1951/>). The crop is also known by other common names in English, such as adlay or adlay millet.{{sfnp|Lim|2013|p=243}}<ref>{{GRIN}}</ref> Other common names in English include '''coix seed''',{{sfnp|Lim|2013|p=243}}<ref name="li" /> '''gromwell grass''',{{sfnp|Lim|2013|p=243}} and '''tear grass'''.{{sfnp|Lim|2013|p=243}}

The seeds are known in Hindi as ''Vaijanti'' (वैजंती),<ref>Patel, Bhavna & Patel, Gopi & Shah, Samir & Parmar, Shraddha. (2017). A Review: Coix lacryma jobi L.. Research Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry. 9. 248. 10.5958/0975-4385.2017.00046.2.</ref> ''Baijanti'' (बैजंती) or Vaijayanti (वैजयंती), in Chinese as ''yìyǐ rén'' ({{lang|zh|薏苡仁}}),<ref name=coyle&liu/><ref name=li/> where ''rén'' means "kernel", and also described in Latin as '''''semen coicis''''' or '''''semen coicis lachryma-jobi''''' in pharmacopoeic literature.<ref name=li/>{{sfnp|Koyama|1996|p=63}}

==Taxonomy== The species, native to Southeast Asia,<ref>{{cite journal | author=Taylor, G.D. | jstor=3628701|title=Some crop distributions by tribes in upland Southeast Asia | date=Autumn 1953 | publisher=University of New Mexico | pages=296–308 | journal=Southwestern Journal of Anthropology | volume=9 | issue=3 | doi=10.1086/soutjanth.9.3.3628701| s2cid=129989677}}</ref> was named by Carl Linnaeus in 1753 with the epithet as a Latin translation of the metaphorical ''tear of Job''. {{As of|2015|February}}, four varieties are accepted by the World Checklist of Selected Plant Families:<ref name="WCSP_Coix_lacryma-jobi"/>

* ''Coix lacryma-jobi'' var. ''lacryma-jobi'' :Widely distributed throughout the Indian subcontinent to peninsular Malaysia and Taiwan; naturalized elsewhere. The involucres are ovoid, bony and glossy. It has hard shells and is used as beads in crafts. * ''Coix lacryma-jobi'' var. ''ma-yuen'' {{Smallcaps|(Rom.Caill.) Stapf}} :South China to peninsular Malaysia and the Philippines. :The varietal name is eponymous after General Ma Yuen or Ma Yuan ({{lang|zh|馬援}}) who according to legend learned of the plant's use when he was posted in Cochin China (or Tonkin, in what is now Vietnam), and brought the seeds back to China to be cultivated.{{sfnp|Simoons|2014|p=82}}{{sfnp|Watt|1904|p=194}}<ref name=namba/> The involucres are elliptical, striate and soft. * ''Coix lacryma-jobi'' var. ''puellarum'' {{Smallcaps|(Balansa) A.Camus}} :Assam to Yunnan (China) and Indochina. It is the smallest among the Indian species, with only 4mm in diameter of the seeds. It is used for ornament as well. * ''Coix lacryma-jobi'' var. ''stenocarpa'' {{Smallcaps|Oliv.}} :Eastern Himalayas to Indochina.

Job's tears{{emdash}}along with ''Coix'' in {{emdash}}was formerly placed in the Maydeae, now known to be polyphyletic.<ref group="Sch" name="Maydeae">p.{{spaces}}331, "Maize and ''Tripsacum'' were previously grouped with a number of other grasses that have monoecious flowering patterns {{mdash}} the most widely known being Job's tears (''Coix lacryma-jobi'') {{mdash}} into the Maydeae (74); however, molecular data revealed that this grouping was polyphyletic (61)."</ref> It has cylindrical, longer than broad involucres. It is widely used as beads for ornaments.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jain |first1=S. K. |last2=Banerjee |first2=Deb Kumar |date=January 1974 |title=Preliminary observations on the ethnobotany of the genusCoix |journal=Economic Botany |language=en |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=38–42 |doi=10.1007/BF02861377 |s2cid=32324938 |issn=0013-0001|doi-access=free |bibcode=1974EcBot..28...38J }}</ref>

==Morphology== {{Expand section|date=December 2020}} Job's tear is a monoecious grass which is broad-leaved, loose-growing, branched and robust. It can reach a height between 1.20 m to 1.80 m. Like all members of the genus, their inflorescences develop from a leaf sheath at the end of the stem and consist partly of hard, globular or oval, hollow, bead-like structures. Job's tear seeds differ in color, with the more soft-shelled seeds being light brown and the hard-shelled forms having a dark red pericarp.<ref name=":12">{{cite journal |last1=Schaaffhausen |first1=Reimar v. |title=Adlay or job's tears—A cereal of potentially greater economic importance |url=https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/BF02985062.pdf |journal=Economic Botany |pages=216–227 |language=en |doi=10.1007/BF02985062 |date=1 July 1952|volume=6 |issue=3 |bibcode=1952EcBot...6..216S |s2cid=33268153 }}</ref>

The hardened "shells" covering the seeds are technically the fruit-case or involucre (hardened bract),<ref name=christopher-etal/> with the bract also referred to as "capsule-spathe"{{sfnp|Watt|1904|p=191}} or "sheathing bract" by some past botanical works.<ref name=hitchcock1920/>

These shells cover the bases of the flowers (inflorescences) which are male and female racemes/panicles; the male racemes project upright and consist of overlapping scale-like spikelets, with yellow stamens that pop out in-between, and there are one or two yarn-like stigmas drooping from the base.<ref name=mudaliyar&rangachari/>{{sfnp|Ochiai|2010|p=1}}

==Proteins== Job's tears – as with ''Coix'' in general – produces its own variety of α-zein prolamins. These prolamins have undergone unusually rapid evolutionary divergence from closely related grasses, by way of copy-number changes.<ref group="Sch" name="alpha-zein">p.{{spaces}}335, "Clusters of locally duplicated genes can also expand and contract rapidly, as shown by investigation of the 22-kDa α zein gene families in maize, sorghum, and coix, which appear to have experienced independent copy-number amplifications since the divergence of these three species (107)."</ref>

== History == Job's tears is native to Southeast Asian countries, namely India, Myanmar, China, and Malaysia.<ref name="Corke 2016 184–189">{{Citation |last1=Corke |first1=H. |title=Coix: Overview |date=2016 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-394437-5.00008-5 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Food Grains |pages=184–189 |publisher=Elsevier |access-date=2022-11-13 |last2=Huang |first2=Y. |last3=Li |first3=J.S.|doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-394437-5.00008-5 |isbn=9780123947864 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Residue on pottery from a Neolithic (late Yangshao Culture) site in north-central China{{efn|in Mijaya ({{lang|zh|米家崖}}) village, Shaanxi Province.}} shows that Job's tears, together with non-native barley and other plants were used to brew beer as early as ca. 3000 BC.{{efn|The finds occurred in a Banpo IV type stratum which was dated to 3400–2900 BC, which the scholars place in the late Yangshao period (Yangshao Period defined as 5000–2900 BC).}}<ref name=wang-etal/>

Job's tears were already introduced to Japan (and probably cultivated alongside rice) in the Early Jōmon Period, corroborated by finds in Western Japan (Chūgoku region), e.g., from studies of phytoliths in the {{nihongo|Asanebana Shell Midden|朝寝鼻貝塚}} (ca. 4000 BC) in Okayama Prefecture.{{Refn|name=takahashi_m-asanebana|Takahashi, Mamoru 高橋護 (1999). "Kōkogaku to puranto-opāru bunseki no riyō 考古学とプラント・オパール分析の利用 [Archaeology and the use of phytolith analysis]", ''Sudien ato / hatake ato wo meguru shizen kagaku--sono kenshō to saibai shokubutsu'' 水田跡・畑跡をめぐる自然科学―その検証と栽培植物- [''Natural sciences concerning rice paddy sites/field sites: assessment and planted flora'']. The 9th Congress of the Higashi nihono no suiden ato wo kangaeru kai.年<ref name=chibaken-bunkazai-center/>}}<ref name=takahashi_m-itaya2/> And further east in Japan, the plant has been found at the Toro site, Shizuoka Prefecture dating to the Yayoi Period.<ref name=goto1962/>

Remains of Job's tears have been found in archaeological sites in northeastern India, dating to around 1000 BC. It was introduced to the subtropical area in India from the east Himalayan belt.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal |last=Arora |first=R. K. |date=July 1977 |title=Job's-tears (coix lacryma-jobi)—a minor food and fodder crop of northeastern India |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02866887 |journal=Economic Botany |volume=31 |issue=3 |pages=358–366 |doi=10.1007/bf02866887 |bibcode=1977EcBot..31..358A |s2cid=34319145 |issn=0013-0001|url-access=subscription }}</ref> A number of scholars support the view it has been in cultivation in India in the 2000–1000 BC period.<ref name="nesbitt"/>{{sfnp|Simoons|2014|p=81}} The wild varieties have hard-coated seeds. Job's tear was one of the earliest domesticated crops. Domestication makes the seed coat become softer and easier to cook.

In China, the current cultivation of Job's tears mainly occurs in Fujian, Jiangsu, Hebei, and Liaoning provinces.<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal |last1=Yu |first1=Fei |last2=Zhang |first2=Jun |last3=Li |first3=Ya-zhuo |last4=Zhao |first4=Zhen-ying |last5=Liu |first5=Chang-xiao |date=April 2017 |title=Research and Application of Adlay in Medicinal Field |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s1674-6384(17)60086-8 |journal=Chinese Herbal Medicines |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=126–133 |doi=10.1016/s1674-6384(17)60086-8 |issn=1674-6384|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The cultivation of Job's tears spreads out to temperate areas in North and Northeast China.{{citation needed|date=December 2022}} The shelled grains exported from China were erroneously declared through customs as "pearl barley",{{sfnp|Bretschneider|1895|p=385}} and "Chinese pearl barley" remains an alternate common name so that the grains are sold under such label in Asian supermarkets, even though ''C. lacryma-jobi'' is not closely related to barley (''Hordeum vulgare'').<ref name=chaudhary-etal/><ref name=xu&zhou/>

The name "Job's tears" is a calque of Arabic {{Lang|ar|دموع أيوب}} (''dumūʿ ʾAyyūb''), the name used by Arab merchants who introduced the plant to Europe in the Middle Ages. They used the pseudocarps for ''misbaha'' (prayer beads) and associated them with the account of the suffering of Job (Ayyub) in the Quran, which is derived from the portrayal of Job in the Hebrew Bible's Book of Job.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.islamreligion.com/articles/2721/story-of-prophet-job|title=The Story of Prophet Job|website=www.islamreligion.com}}</ref><ref>Wiart, C. (2006:668). ''Medicinal Plants Of The Asia-pacific: Drugs For The Future?''. Singapore: World Scientific Publishing Company.</ref>

==Uses== === Crafts === thumb|Job's Tears used for traditional medicine. The hard, white grains of Job's tears have historically been used as beads to make necklaces and other objects. The seeds are naturally bored with holes without the need to artificially puncture them.{{sfnp|Watt|1904|p=191}}

Strands of Job's tears are used as Buddhist prayer beads in parts of India, Myanmar, Laos, Taiwan, and Korea according to Japanese researcher Yukino Ochiai who has specialized on the ethnobotanic usage of the plant.{{sfnp|Ochiai|2010|p=11}} They are also made into rosaries in countries such as the Philippines and Bolivia.{{sfnp|Ochiai|2010|p=11}}

==== East Asia ==== ===== Japan ===== In Japan, the grains growing wild are called {{nihongo||数珠玉|juzudama|extra2=‘Buddhist rosary beads’}}), and children have made playthings out of them by stringing them into necklaces.{{sfnp|Yanagita|1961b|loc=[1953] §3}} However, ''juzu-dama'' was a corruption of ''zuzu-dama'' according to folklorist Kunio Yanagita.{{sfnp|Yanagita|1961b|loc=[1953] §3}} A type of Buddhist rosary called ''irataka no juzu'', which were hand-made by the ''yamabushi'' ascetics practicing ''shugendō'' training, purportedly used a large-grain type known as {{nihongo||鬼数珠玉|oni-juzudama|extra2=‘oni(ogre) rosary beads’}}.<ref name=makino1906/>{{sfnp|Yanagita|1961b|loc=[1953] §5}} Although this was published as a separate variety, ''C. lacryma jobi'' var. ''maxima'' {{Smallcaps|Makino}},<ref name=makino1906/> it is now regarded as synonymous to ''C. lacryma jobi'' var. ''lacryma-jobi'' according to taxonomical databases (World Checklist of Selected Plant Families).<ref name="WCSP_Coix_lacryma-jobi_var_maxima"/>

It was contended by Edo Period scholar Ono Ranzan that the soft-shelled edible type called ''shikoku-mugi'' was not introduced into Japan until the Kyōho era (1716–1736), as opposed to a hard-shelled edible type called ''chōsen-mugi'' (lit. ‘Korean wheat’) which needed to be beaten in order to crack and thresh them.<ref name=ranzan/>{{Refn|group="lower-alpha"|Ranzan actually gave this type under ''tōmugi'' alias ''chōsen-mugi'', but this is confusing, since later writers such as Mizumasa Furukawa  (1928–1977) wrote that ''shikoku-mugi'' and ''tōmugi'' were the same.<ref name=furukawa/>}} This type has been published as a separate species, ''C. agrestis'' in the past,<ref name=matsumura1905/> but this is now recognized also as a synonym of ''C. lacryma jobi'' var. ''lacryma-jobi''.<ref name="WCSP_Coix_agrestis"/>{{Refn|group="lower-alpha"|Researcher Seiji Koyama identifies the ''chōsen-mugi'' (‘Korean wheat’) as ''C. lacryma jobi'' var. ''koreana'',{{sfnp|Koyama|1996|p=63}} but that variety name is not registered at the WCSPF.<ref name="WCSP_Coix_lacryma-jobi"/>}} Thus Japanese consumption of the crop attested in pre-Kyōho literature presumably used this hard-shelled type in the recipe.{{sfnp|Koyama|1996|p=67}}{{Refn|group="lower-alpha"|Koyama gives several examples, including the {{ill|Nōgyō zensho|ja|農業全書}} (Genroku 10 or 1697), which states Job's tears (''yokui'') can be eaten as gruel, or as blended grain in cooked rice, or as dumplings (dango).{{sfnp|Koyama|1996|p=67}} The recipe for the {{ill|okoshi|ja|おこし|lt=okoshi-gome}} snack in the {{ill|Ryōri monogatari|ja|料理物語|lt=''Ryōri monogatari''}} (Kaei 20, 1643) does not use rice but roasted cracked grains of job's tears (''yokuinin'') instead, mixed with sugar and molded into shape.{{sfnp|Koyama|1996|p=67}}}}

Yanagita contended that the use of the beads predated the introduction of Buddhism into Japan (552/538 CE).{{efn|§3: "後に東北のイタコの数珠や、アイヌの頸飾くびかざりなどを見るようになって、ジュズとは呼びながらも我々の真似ていたのは、もっと古風な、また国風なものだったことに心づいたことである。 Later [as an adult] I saw the bead-necklaces of the ''itako'' shamanesses and the Ainu necklaces, and realized that what we were pretend-playing with [as children] were, even though we called them ''juzu'' [like Buddhist rosaries], much older and more native to the land."}}{{sfnp|Yanagita|1961b|loc=[1953] §3}} And the plant has not only been found at sites dating to approximately this period at the Kuroimine Site,<ref>{{harvp|Ochiai|2010|p=14}}, citing Ishii & Umezawa (1994) {{isbn|978-4643940824}}.</ref> but in Jomon period sites dating to several millennia BC.{{Refn|name=takahashi_m-asanebana}}

===== Ocean Road hypothesis ===== Yanagita in his Ocean Road hypothesis argues that the pearly glistening seeds were regarded as simulating or substituting for cowrie shells, which were used as ornaments and currency throughout Southern China and Southeast Asia in antiquity, and he argued both items to be part of cultural transmission into Japan from these areas.<ref name=yanagita-cowrie-sect01&02>{{harvp|Yanagita|1961a}} [1950] §2</ref>{{efn|He posited that the name of the seeds (variant name ''tsushi-dama'' or ''tsushi-tama'') was rooted in the ancient word ''tsushiya'' whose precise meaning he deduced to be 'cowries'. However this was guesswork "founded on really the faintest clue 誠に幽な暗示の上に築かれている", and he admitted there is no attestation to ''tsushiya'' or words similar used in the sense of ‘jewel shells’in any ancient texts.}}

Later scholars have pursued the validity of the thesis. Yanagita had reproduced a distribution map of the usage of ornamental cowries throughout Asia (compiled by J. Wilfrid Jackson),<ref>{{harvp|Yanagita|1961a}} [1950] §3. Map taken from Jackson (1917) ''Shells as Evidence of the Migrations of Early Culture''.</ref> and Japanese ethnologist {{ill|Keiji Iwata|ja|岩田慶治}} alluded to a need for a distribution map of ornamental Job's tears, for making comparison therewith.{{sfnp|Iwata|1991|pp=17–18}}<ref>Cf. {{harvp|Ochiai|2010|pp=4–5}}, visual map of necklaces, and references to Yanagita elsewhere in the ''Newsletter''.</ref>

==== Mainland Southeast Asia ====

===== Thailand and Myanmar ===== The Akha people and the Karen people who live in the mountainous regions around the Thai-Myanmar border grow several varieties of the plant and use the beads to ornament various handicraft.{{efn|The Akha people are also found in Yunnan Province in China, but Ochiai (2010) only speaks of usage in "the south side of China" (p. 6), and exhibits a photo of Yunnan Province bead necklace on the map (pp. 4–5) without identifying the ethnic group.}}<ref>{{harvp|Ochiai|2002|p=61}}; {{harvp|Ochiai|2010|pp=8–9}}</ref> The beads are used strictly only on women's apparel among the Akha, sewn onto headwear, jackets, handbags, etc.; also, a variety of shapes of beads are used.{{sfnp|Ochiai|2010|pp=8–9}}{{Refn|group="lower-alpha"|It has been noted that the Akha use cowries shells as ornaments also, even though they are a mountainous people. The shells from Bangkok were being obtained through Overseas Chinese middlemen.{{sfnp|Iwata|1991|p=16}}}} The beads are used only on the jackets of married women among the Karen, and the oblong seeds are exclusively selected,{{sfnp|Ochiai|2010|p=6}} some example has been shown from the Karen in Chiang Rai Province of Thailand.{{sfnp|Ochiai|2010|pp=8–9}}

Strands of job's tears necklaces have also been collected from Chiang Rai Province, Thailand<ref name=ochiai-map>{{harvp|Ochiai|2010|pp=4–5}}</ref> and it is known the Karen people string the beads into necklaces,{{sfnp|Iwata|1991|p=16}} such necklaces in use also in the former Karenni States (current Kayah State of Burma), with the crop being known by the name ''cheik'' (var. ''kyeik'', ''kayeik'', ''kyeit'') in Burmese.{{sfnp|Watt|1904|pp=192, 202, 212}}{{sfnp|Ochiai|2010|p=6}} Job's tears necklace has been collected also from Yunnan Province, China,<ref name=ochiai-map/> which has a population of Akha-Hani people and other minorities, but the Wa people of Yunnan also used the plant seeds (''tɛ kao''; lit. ‘fruit-Coix’) sewn onto fabrics and bags, etc.<ref name=formoso/>

The Wa people and other minorities like the Taungyo ethnic group use the beads in apparel in Shan State, Myanmar.{{sfnp|Ochiai|2010|pp=6–7}}

==== Insular Southeast Asia ==== ===== Borneo ===== Various indigenous Bornean tribes such as the Kelabit people of Sarawak state (and North Kalimantan, Indonesia), the Kadazandusun people and Murut people of Sabah state all use the plant beads as ornament.{{sfnp|Iwata|1991|p=16}} In the Kadazandusun language, the plant is called ''dalai''.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.mysabah.com/wordpress/jobs-tears-dalai/ | title=Dalai, the Pearls of the Borneo Jungle | date=12 January 2024 }}</ref> The Kayan of Borneo also use job's tears to decorate clothing and war dress.<ref name=beccari/>

===== Philippines ===== Job's tears ({{langx|tl|tigbí}}) are otherwise known by many local names in the Philippines (e.g. {{langx|bik|adlái}} in Visaya Islands).<ref name=brown_wh/><ref name=guerrero/> The beads strung together have sometimes been used as rosaries,<ref name=brown_wh/>{{sfnp|Ochiai|2010|p=11}} or made into bead curtains<ref name=brown_wh/> (e.g. the Tboli people on Mindanao{{sfnp|Ochiai|2010|p=10}}), or woven into baskets and other vessels.<ref name=brown_wh/>

====Americas ====

The plant was known as ''calandula'' in Spanish, and the hards seeds were strung together as beads or into rosaries in parts of New Spain, e.g., Puerto Rico.<ref name=guzman-rivas/><ref name=cook&collins/>

In both the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians and the Cherokee Nation in Oklahoma, the beads of Job's tears are called "corn beads" or "Cherokee corn beads" and have been used for personal adornment.{{citation needed|date=December 2020}}

=== Food === Throughout East Asia, Job's tears are available in dried form and cooked as a grain. Job's tears grains are widely eaten as a cereal.<ref name=hill/> The cultivated varieties are soft-shelled, and can be easily cooked into gruels, etc.{{sfnp|Corke|Huang|Li|2015|p=186}} Among the Zomi in Southeast Asia, miim festival (Job's tears festival) was held annually to pay tribute to the departed souls.<ref>{{citation |last1=Neihsial |last2=Tualchin |title=History and Culture of the Zoumis |date=1993 |pages=195–196}}</ref>

Some of the soft-shelled types are easily threshed, producing sweet kernels.{{sfnp|Corke|Huang|Li|2015|p=186}} The threshed (and polished<ref name=kubo/>{{sfnp|Koishi|Sugawa-Katayama|Tsujino|1980|pp=42–43}}) "kernels" or ''ren'' ({{lang-zh|pinyin|p=yiyi ren |w=i i jen|t=薏苡仁}}) are used in traditional Chinese Medicine{{sfnp|Bretschneider|1895|p=383}} (see ''infra'').{{Refn|group="lower-alpha"|Although this stringent distinction may not be followed in literature, for example, ''yi yi ren'' may be used as the term for the fruit overall rather than the polished endosperm.<ref name=coyle&liu/>}}

The threshed grains are generally spherical, with a groove on one end, and polished white in color.{{sfnp|Lim|2013|p=245}} In Japan unpolished grains are also sold, and marketed as ''yūki hatomugi'' (‘organic job's tears’).{{sfnp|Lim|2013|p=245}}

In Cambodia, where it is known as ''skuay'' (ស្គួយ), the seeds are not much used as a grain,<ref name=tichit/> but used as part of herbal medicine and as an ingredient in desserts. In Thailand, it is often consumed in teas and other drinks, such as soy milk.{{Citation needed|date=June 2021}}

It is also a minor cereal crop and fodder in Northeastern India.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Arora, R.K. |date=1977 |title=Job's tears (''Coix lacryma-jobi'') - a minor food and fodder crop of northeastern India |journal=Economic Botany |volume=31 |issue=3 |pages=358–366 |doi=10.1007/bf02866887|bibcode=1977EcBot..31..358A |s2cid=34319145 }}</ref>

The grains of Job's tear can be used the same way as rice. It can be eaten cooked or even raw, as it has a slightly sweet taste. Further, the grains can be used for the production of flour. Job's tear grains can be processed in the same machine as rice. For the soft hulls, it is enough to press them over a sieve. The advantage of Job's tear over rice is that the grains do not need to be polished, as is the case with rice. Through this process, the rice loses its vitamins. This makes Job's tear a valuable food for undernourished populations in rural areas.<ref name=":12" />

=== Beverages and soups === In Korean cuisine, a thick drink called ''yulmu cha'' (율무차, literally "Job's tears tea") is made from powdered Job's tears.{{sfnp|Lim|2013|p=245}} A similar drink, called ''yi ren jiang '' (薏仁漿), also appears in Chinese cuisine, and is made by simmering whole polished Job's tears in water and sweetening the resulting thin, cloudy liquid with sugar. The grains are usually strained from the liquid but may also be consumed separately or together.{{Citation needed|date=June 2021}}

In Japan, the roasted kernels are brewed into {{nihongo||ハトムギ茶|hatomugi cha|}}, literally a "tea".{{sfnp|Koishi|Sugawa-Katayama|Tsujino|1980|pp=43–44}} This is drunk for medicinal value and not for enjoyment, as it does not suit the average consumer's taste, but a more palatable brew is obtained by roasting seeds that have been germinated, which reduces the distinctive strong odor.{{sfnp|Koishi|Sugawa-Katayama|Tsujino|1980|pp=43–44}}{{Refn|group="lower-alpha"|It is unclear what is meant by the coffee-like drink brewed from roasted seeds that is distinguished from the "tea" which some sources describe but do not specify by any name.<ref>{{harvp|Lim|2013|p=245}} and {{harvp|Corke|Huang|Li|2015|p=187}}</ref> The ''hatomugi kōhī'' ("jobs tears coffee") apparently refers to coffee dripped with hatomugi tea instead of plain hot water.}}

In southern China, Job's tears are often used in ''tong sui'' (糖水), a sweet dessert soup. One variety is called ''ching bo leung'' in Cantonese ({{lang-zh|t=清補涼|p=qing bu liang}}), and is also known as ''sâm bổ lượng'' in Vietnamese cuisine.{{sfnp|Lim|2013|p=245}}{{sfnp|Koishi|Sugawa-Katayama|Tsujino|1980|pp=43–44}} There is also a braised chicken dish ''yimidunji'' ({{lang-zh|s=薏米炖鸡=薏米燉鷄}}).{{sfnp|Koishi|Sugawa-Katayama|Tsujino|1980|p=44}}

=== Alcoholic beverages === In both Korea and China, distilled liquors are also made from the grain. One Korean liquor is called ''okroju'' (옥로주; hanja: 玉露酒), which is made from rice and Job's tears. The grains are also brewed into beers in northeast India and other parts of southeast Asia.<ref name="nesbitt"/>

=== Traditional medicine === Job's tears are used with other herbs in traditional Chinese medicine{{sfnp|Corke|Huang|Li|2015|p=187}} or folk medicine.<ref>{{cite web|last=Duke |first=J.A. |date=1983 |title=''Coix lacryma-jobi'' L., Poaceae: Job's-tears, Adlay, Millet (updated 8 July 1996)|url=http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Coix_lacryma-jobi.html |publisher=Source: James A. Duke, Handbook of Energy Crops (unpublished) by Purdue University Center for New Crops & Plants Products}}</ref>

The plant is noted in an ancient medical text ''Huangdi Neijing'' (5th–2nd centuries BCE) attributed to the legendary Huangdi (Yellow Emperor), but fails to be noticed in the standard traditional materia medica reference ''Bencao Gangmu'' (本草綱目)(16c.).{{sfnp|Koyama|1996|p=63}}

== Cultivation requirements ==

=== Soil and climate requirement === It is generally grown in sunny, fertile, well-drained fields with sandy loam soil.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Cuixia |last2=Zhang |first2=Xingchang |year=2015 |title=Cultivation technology of Adlay |journal=Shanghai Agricultural Science and Technology |pages=(2):95,71}}</ref> Adlay likes mild, cool and humid climate. It does not adapt to hot and muggy climate, has low cold tolerance, and is very intolerant of drought. Black-shelled adlay is suitable for planting in areas with altitudes of 800 to 1,000 m; dwarf adlay varieties are suitable for planting in low altitude areas.<ref name=":1" />

=== Seedbed requirements and sowing === Soaking seeds with disinfectant has a positive influence on germination rate.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Chang |first1=Seog-Won |last2=Jeon |first2=Dae-Hoon |last3=Kim |first3=Hee-Dong |last4=Yi |first4=Eun-Sup |last5=Park |first5=Ki-Jun |date=2000 |title=Effects of Seed Disinfectant and Soaking Time on Germination and Disease Occurrence of Adlay, Coix lacryma-jobi L. var. ma-yuen Stapf |url=https://koreascience.kr/article/JAKO200003042336138.page |journal=Korean Journal of Medicinal Crop Science |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=259–265 |issn=1225-9306}}</ref>

Planting can be done when the ground temperature is above 12 °C. And if it is not frost, sowing should be done as early as possible to lengthen the required days to emergence and days to anthesis.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Yi |first1=Eun-Sub |last2=Lee |first2=Jun-Seok |last3=Lee |first3=Hyo-Sung |date=1997 |title=Effects of Sowing Times and Spacing on Growth and Yield of Coix lachryma-jobi L. var. ma-yuen STAPF |url=https://koreascience.kr/article/JAKO199703042320555.page |journal=Korean Journal of Medicinal Crop Science |volume=5 |issue=3 |pages=225–231 |issn=1225-9306}}</ref> Adlay sowing is divided into strip sowing and hole sowing. The strip sowing refers to the uniform sowing of seeds in trenches with a spacing of about 50 cm and a depth of 4–5 cm. Hole sowing refers to sowing seeds in holes 3–5 cm deep, with 3-4 seeds per hole.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Li |first=Tao |year=2014 |title=Exploration on the cultivation Technology of Adlay |journal=Rural Science and Technology |pages=(14):83–84}}</ref>

=== Cultivation management === Control the number of seedlings per hole when the seedlings have 3–4 true leaves, and leave 2–3 well-grown plants in each hole.

Tillage at least 3 times during the whole crop growth. The 1st tillage is to be done when the seedlings are 5–10 cm high and needs to be cleaned of weeds to promote tillering. The second tillage is done when the seedlings are 15–20 cm high. The third plowing is done when the seedlings are 30 cm high, combined with fertilizer and soil cultivation to promote root growth and prevent collapse.<ref name=":2" />

== Production ==

=== Growth and development === It is an annual crop but it can be a perennial when allowed to develop ratoon. Adlay is propagated by seeds at the start of rain. The germination occurs as early as 7 days after sowing. It takes 5 to 5.5 months to flower and mature. The average height can reach over 90 cm at harvest.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gorne |first=Nello |date=2020-06-23 |title=Growth, yield and forage quality influence of intecropping and fertilization schemes on adlay (Coix lacryma-jobi L.) ratoon |url=https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/ijafls/issue/51802/728951 |journal=International Journal of Agriculture Forestry and Life Sciences |language=en |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=124–130}}</ref> The application of N fertilizer can significantly improve the yield of adlay.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Planas |first1=J. Y. |last2=Minoza |first2=M. M. R. |date=2019 |title=Growth, yield and nutrient requirement of adlay (Coix lacryma-jobi L.) applied with different levels of nitrogen |url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Growth%2C+yield+and+nutrient+requirement+of+adlay+%28Coix+lacryma-jobi+L.%29+applied+with+different+levels+of+nitrogen&author=Planas%2C+J.Y.&publication_year=2019 |journal=Philippine Journal of Crop Science (Philippines) |language=English}}</ref>

Drought is a major stress for adlay growth and development. The lack of moisture will cause impaired germination and poor establishment. During the growth and maturation stage, water deficits will reduce the leaf area index and lead to barrenness,<ref>{{Cite journal |title=.: SophiA Biblioteca - Terminal Web :. |url=https://acervus.unicamp.br/index.asp?codigo_sophia=48605 |access-date=2022-12-03 |website=acervus.unicamp.br | year=1987 |doi=10.47749/t/unicamp.1987.48605| last1=Luis Ramirez Ascheri | first1=José |doi-access=free }}</ref> which negatively affects photosynthesis and dry matter production.

=== Harvest and post-harvest operations === When nearly 80% of adlay grains turn brown, the panicle will be harvested by cutting the stems and leaving three nodes above the ground. The harvest period varies with the different varieties and local environment.<ref name=":0">Mendoza, A. J. A., Sabellano Jr, F. M., Baco, L. T., Nabua, W. C., & Pantallano, E. S. (2015). "VARIETAL PERFORMANCE OF ADLAI (Coix lacryma-jobi L.)". ''NMSCST Research Journal'', ''3''(1).</ref> Because of the uneven height and grain distribution, the use of machines for harvesting is limited and harvesting has been done by hand in many regions in Southeastern Asia.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Schaaffhausen |first=Reimar v. |date=1952 |title=Adlay or Job's Tears: A Cereal of Potentially Greater Economic Importance |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4252082 |journal=Economic Botany |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=216–227 |doi=10.1007/BF02985062 |jstor=4252082 |bibcode=1952EcBot...6..216S |s2cid=33268153 |issn=0013-0001|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Then the harvested panicles are threshed by hand or using a treadle thresher. For manual threshing, it is normally used when the harvested grains are at lower moisture content and easily shatter. Threshed grains are sun dried or placed in drying facilities where they utilize forced warm air to gradually reduce the moisture content to 14%<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gorne |first1=Nello |last2=Aradilla |first2=Agripina |date=2020-05-04 |title=Adlay (Coix Iacryma-jobi L.) and Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum Schum.) intercropping and fertilization schemes as climate smart strategy for food and feed production |journal=Annals of Tropical Research |language=en-US |pages=56–71 |doi=10.32945/atr4215.2020 |s2cid=218918929 |issn=0116-0710|doi-access=free }}</ref> suited to storage before the adlay moves to the milling process. The adlay can be consumed as grains and flour after being milled through corn and rice mill. The milling recovery is about 60%<ref name=":0" /> depending on the cultivars.

The yield is harvested in early October and is easily influenced by the weather. If there is dry and hot wind in the initial phase, the pollen loses its vitality, therefore can't be pollinated. This leads to hollow seeds, which results in yield reduction in light cultivars and zero yield in heavy cultivars.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Arora |first1=R. K. |date=1 July 1977 |title=Job's-tears (coix lacryma-jobi)—a minor food and fodder crop of northeastern India |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02866887#:~:text=Job's%2Dtears%E2%80%94a%20cultigen%20of,variability%20for%20the%20genus%20Coix. |journal=Economic Botany |language=en |volume=31 |issue=3 |pages=358–366 |doi=10.1007/BF02866887 |bibcode=1977EcBot..31..358A |issn=1874-9364 |s2cid=34319145|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Early maturing varieties are sown in early March, middle maturing varieties are sown from late March to early April, and late maturing varieties are sown from late April to early May. Sowing should be early rather than late. If sowing is too late, it will affect the yield and even the seeds can not mature after autumn.<ref name=":12" />

== Nutritional value == The seeds of Job's tears are protein-rich and nutrient-dense. High in dietary fibre, zinc and calcium.'''<ref name="Corke 2016 184–189"/>''' They contain micronutrients like thiamine, riboflavin, vitamin E, and niacin.{{Citation needed|date=December 2022}} They cover 8 types of amino acids for human consumption. {| class="wikitable" ! Nutrients ! Percentage by mass |- |Carbohydrates |65% |- |Protein |14% |- |Fat |5% |- |Crude fiber |3% |- |Calcium |0.07% |- |Phosphorus |0.242% |- |Iron |0.001% |} '''Starch and protein'''

Job's tears contain high amount of starch (58%).<ref name=":32">{{Cite journal |last1=Igbokwe |first1=Chidimma Juliet |last2=Wei |first2=Ming |last3=Feng |first3=Yuqin |last4=Duan |first4=Yuqing |last5=Ma |first5=Haile |last6=Zhang |first6=Haihui |date=2021-03-17 |title=Coix Seed: A Review of Its Physicochemical Composition, Bioactivity, Processing, Application, Functionality, and Safety Aspects |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/87559129.2021.1892129 |journal=Food Reviews International |volume=38 |pages=921–939 |doi=10.1080/87559129.2021.1892129 |s2cid=233668492 |issn=8755-9129|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The seeds are used as ingredients to make soup, porridge, flour and pastries. It is common to grind seeds into powder form to make pastries. Two major methods are used to isolate starch: alkaline steeping method and steeping with sodium metabisulfite ({{chem2|Na2S2O5}}), an antioxidant and antimicrobial agent. Job's tears also contain edible protein (14.8%), which can be extracted through an alkaline extraction method and a salt extraction method.<ref name=":32"/>

'''Fatty acids'''

Job's tears contain mostly unsaturated fatty acids.<ref name=":13"/> The four main fatty acids, (oleic acid, linoleic acid, palmitic acid, and stearic acid) are extracted via three methods: solvent processes, supercritical fluid extraction and ultrasonic-assisted extraction.<ref name=":32"/>

==Pests== Job's tear is less subject to attacks of locusts than rice and corn.<ref name=":12" /> Insect pests include:<ref name="Kalaisekar">{{cite book|last=Kalaisekar|first=A|title=Insect pests of millets: systematics, bionomics, and management|publisher=Elsevier|publication-place=London|year=2017|isbn=978-0-12-804243-4|oclc=967265246}}</ref>

*stem borers ''Sesamia inferens'' and ''Ostrinia furnacalis'' *rice skipper ''Pelopidas mathias'' (leaf feeder) *thrip ''Chaetanaphothrips orchidii'' *aphid ''Rhopalosiphum maidis'' *woolly aphid ''Ceratovacuna lanigera''

It is susceptible to leaf blight.<ref>{{cite book |title=Encyclopedia of Food Grains - 2nd Edition |website=www.elsevier.com |date=17 December 2015 |isbn=978-0-12-394437-5 |url=https://www.elsevier.com/books/encyclopedia-of-food-grains/wrigley/978-0-12-394437-5 |last1=Wrigley |first1=Colin W. |last2=Corke |first2=Harold |last3=Seetharaman |first3=Koushik |last4=Faubion |first4=Jonathan |publisher=Elsevier Science }}</ref>

== Gallery == <gallery widths=180> An unripened head of Job's Tears.jpg|An unripened head of Job's Tears Bhirgaudi Nepali.JPG|''C. lacryma-jobi'' plant with flowers and fruit in Nepal Yulmu (Coix lacryma-jobi var. ma-yuen).jpg|Job's tears grains Yulmucha (Job's tears tea).jpg|''Yulmu-cha'' (Job's tears tea) from Korea Yulmu-bap.jpg|''Yulmu-bap'' (Job's tears rice) from Korea Leiden University Library - Seikei Zusetsu vol. 20, page 011 - 薏苡 - Coix lacryma-jobi L., 1804.jpg|Illustration of ''Coix lacryma-jobi'' from the Japanese encyclopedia ''Seikei Zusetsu'' (1804) Coix lacryma-jobi.jpg|''C. lacryma-jobi'' seeds in a necklace prepared in the Zulu tradition Coix lacryma-jobi MHNT.BOT.2016.12.1.jpg|''Coix lacryma-jobi'' - MHNT </gallery>

==Explanatory notes== {{notelist}} {{reflist|group=Sch}}

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<ref name=guerrero>{{cite book|last1=Guerrero |first1=León María |author-link=León María Guerrero (botanist) |others=Josefina Ramos (tr.) |title=Notes on Philippine Medicinal Plants |publisher= |date=1989 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GeQkAQAAMAAJ&q=adlay |page=191}}</ref>

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<ref name=namba>{{cite book|last1=Namba |first1=Tsuneo |author-link=:ja:難波恒雄 |last2=Fukuda |title=Genshoku wakanyaku zukan |script-title=ja:原色和漢薬図鑑 |volume=1 |publisher=Hoikusha |year=1980 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2I8oAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Ma+Yuen%22 |page=132 |isbn=978-4-586-30056-3 |language=ja}}</ref>

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<ref name=takahashi_m-itaya2>{{citation|last1=Takahashi |first1=Mamoru |author-link= |chapter=dai-2 setsu:Itaya III iseki ni okeru puranto opāu bunseki ni yoru saibai shokubutsu no kenshutsu kekka to sono kōsatsu |script-chapter=ja:第2節：板屋III遺跡におけるプラント・オパール分析による栽培植物の検出結果とその考察 |trans-chapter=2: Itaya III site phytolith analysis and identification of cultivated flora, and observations theron |editor=Shimane Board of Education Bureied Cultural Properties Center |title=Itaya III iseki 2 Jōmon jidai~kinsei no fukugō iseki no chōsa |script-title=ja:板屋III遺跡 2 縄文時代～近世の複合遺跡の調査 |series= |year=2003 |chapter-url=https://sitereports.nabunken.go.jp/files/attach_mobile/3/3054/2383_3_%E6%9D%BF%E5%B1%8BIII%E9%81%BA%E8%B7%A12%E7%B8%84%E6%96%87%E6%99%82%E4%BB%A3%EF%BD%9E%E8%BF%91%E4%B8%96%E3%81%AE%E8%A4%87%E5%90%88%E9%81%BA%E8%B7%A1%E3%81%AE%E8%AA%BF%E6%9F%BB.pdf |url=https://sitereports.nabunken.go.jp/ja/2383 |page=227|language=ja}}</ref>

<ref name=tichit>{{cite book|last=Tichit |first=Lucien |author-link= |title=L'agriculture au Cambodge |location=Paris |publisher=Agence de Coopération Culturelle et Technique |year=1981 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c_kyAAAAIAAJ&q=%22skuay%22 |page=129 |isbn=9789290280316 |language=fr}}</ref>

<ref name=wang-etal>{{cite journal|last1=Wang |first1=Jiajing |author1-link= |last2=Liu |first2=Li |author2-link=Liu Li (archaeologist) |last3=Ball |first3=Terry |author3-link=Terry B. Ball |last4=Yu |first4=Linjie |author4-link= |last5=Li |first5=Yuanqing |author5-link= |last6=Xing |first6=Fulai |author6-link=|title=Revealing a 5,000-y-old beer recipe in China|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=113 |issue=23 |date=2016 |pages=6444–6448 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1601465113 |pmc=4988576 |pmid=27217567|bibcode=2016PNAS..113.6444W |doi-access=free }}</ref>

<ref name="WCSP_Coix_agrestis">{{cite web |title=Search for ''Coix agrestis''|work=World Checklist of Selected Plant Families |publisher=Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew |url=http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/qsearch.do?plantName=Coix_agrestis |access-date=2020-12-23 }}</ref>

<ref name="WCSP_Coix_lacryma-jobi">{{cite web |title=Search for ''Coix lacryma-jobi''|work=World Checklist of Selected Plant Families |publisher=Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew |url=http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/qsearch.do?plantName=Coix_lacryma-jobi |access-date=2015-02-01 }}</ref>

<ref name="WCSP_Coix_lacryma-jobi_var_maxima">{{cite web |title=Coix lacryma-jobi var. maxima Makino, Bot. Mag. (Tokyo) 20: 10 (1906) |work=World Checklist of Selected Plant Families |publisher=Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew |url=https://wcsp.science.kew.org/namedetail.do?name_id=405639 |access-date=2020-12-22 }}</ref>

<ref name=xu&zhou>{{cite book|last1=Xu |first1=Zhenghao |author1-link= |last2=Zhou |first2=Guoning |author2-link=|title=Identification and Control of Common Weeds |volume=1 |publisher=Springer |date=2017 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UR4-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA353 |page=353 |isbn=9789402409543}}</ref> }}

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==External links== {{Commons category|position=right|Coix lacryma-jobi}} {{Wikispecies|position=right|Coix lacryma-jobi}} * [https://www2.palomar.edu/users/warmstrong/plapr99.htm Job's Tears on Wayne's Word] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190920081350/https://www2.palomar.edu/users/warmstrong/plapr99.htm |date=2019-09-20 }} * [http://www.plantnames.unimelb.edu.au/Sorting/Coix.html Sorting Coix names] * [https://books.google.com/books?id=_ZZEAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA243 Edible Medicinal and Non-Medicinal Plants: Volume 5, Fruits, TK Lim, 2013] {{Cereals}} {{Taxonbar|from=Q827098}}

lacryma-jobi Category:Cereals Category:Decorative fruits and seeds Category:Plants described in 1753 Category:Plants used in traditional Chinese medicine Category:Job (biblical figure) Category:Austronesian agriculture