Voseo

{{Short description|Use in Spanish of the pronoun 'vos' for the second-person familiar singular}} {{Title language|es|i=yes}} {{Distinguish|text={{lang|es|italic=yes|vosotros}}, the second person plural familiar form for Spanish conjugations}} {{distinguish|Vosea}} {{more citations needed|date=June 2015}} {{Spanish language}}

In Spanish grammar, '''{{lang|es|italic=yes|voseo}}''' ({{IPA|es|boˈseo|pron}}) is the use of {{lang|es|vos}} as a second-person singular pronoun, along with its associated verbal forms, in certain regions where the language is spoken. In most of those regions it replaces {{lang|es|tuteo}}, i.e. the use of the pronoun {{lang|es|tú}} and its verbal forms. {{lang|es|Voseo}} can also be found in the context of using verb conjugations for {{lang|es|vos}} with {{lang|es|tú}} as the subject pronoun (verbal voseo).<ref>{{cite book |last=Miranda |first=Stewart |title=The Spanish Language Today |publisher=Routledge |year=1999 |isbn=0-415-14258-X |page=125}}</ref>

In all regions with {{lang|es|voseo}}, the corresponding unstressed object pronoun is {{lang|es|te}} and the corresponding possessive is {{lang|es|tu/tuyo}}.<ref name="DPD">{{Cite web |author=Real Academia Española|author-link=Real Academia Española |title=voseo {{!}} Diccionario panhispánico de dudas |url=https://www.rae.es/dpd/voseo |access-date=2022-04-28 |website={{lang|es|Diccionario panhispánico de dudas}} |language=es}}</ref>

{{lang|es|Vos}} is used extensively as the second-person singular<ref>{{Cite web |title=vos |url=https://dle.rae.es/vos |access-date=30 September 2024 |website=Real Academia Española}}</ref> in Rioplatense Spanish (Argentina and Uruguay), Paraguayan Spanish, Eastern Bolivia, Chilean Spanish, and much of Central America (El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica); in Mexico, in the southern regions of Chiapas and parts of Oaxaca. It is rarely used, if at all, in places such as Cuba and Puerto Rico.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Lipski |first=John M. |title=El español de América |date=2024 |publisher=Cátedra |isbn=978-84-376-1423-6 |edition=Duodécima edición |location=Madrid |translator-last=Iglesias Recuero |translator-first=Silvia|language=es|trans-title=Latin American Spanish}}</ref>

In the Rioplatense dialect, the usage of {{lang|es|vos}} is prevalent, even in mainstream film, media and music. In Argentina, particularly from the second half of the 20th century, it has become very common to see billboards and other advertising campaigns using {{lang|es|voseo}}.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Borrini |first1=Alberto |title=Publicidad & Marketing. ¿Por qué usan el tuteo los avisos? |url=https://www.lanacion.com.ar/economia/por-que-usan-el-tuteo-los-avisos-nid88758/ |access-date=19 July 2020 |publisher=La Nación |date=24 February 1998 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211021113511/https://www.lanacion.com.ar/economia/por-que-usan-el-tuteo-los-avisos-nid88758/ |archive-date=21 October 2021 |url-status=live |df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Gassó |first1=María José |year=2009 |title=El voseo rioplatense en la clase de español |url=https://www.marcoele.com/descargas/enbrape/gasso-voseo.pdf |publisher=Instituto Cervantes Belo Horizonte |access-date=19 July 2020 |pages=11–12}}</ref>

{{lang|es|Vos}} is present in some regions of other countries, for instance in the Maracucho Spanish of Zulia State, Venezuela (see Venezuelan Spanish), the Azuero Peninsula of Panama, in a few departments in Colombia,<ref>Díaz Collazos, Ana María. [https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110404142/html?lang=en ''Desarrollo sociolingüístico del voseo en la región andina de Colombia (1555–1976)''].</ref> and in parts of Ecuador (Sierra down to Esmeraldas). In Peru, {{lang|es|italic=yes|voseo}} is present in certain Andean regions and Cajamarca, but the younger generations have ceased to use it. It is also present in Judaeo-Spanish, spoken by Sephardic Jews, where it is the archaic plural form that {{lang|es|vosotros}} replaced.

{{lang|es|Voseo}} is seldom taught to students of Spanish as a second language, and its precise usage varies across different regions.<ref>{{cite book |title=Advanced Spanish |author=Bruquetas, Francisco |publisher=Bruquetas Publishing |year=2015 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=59RHCgAAQBAJ |page=146|isbn=9780578104355 }}</ref> Nevertheless, in recent years, it has become more commonly accepted across the Hispanophone world as a valid part of regional dialects.

==Attitudes== In some countries, the pronoun ''vos'' is used with family and friends (T-form), like ''tú'' in other varieties of Spanish, and contrasts with the respectful ''usted'' (V-form used with third person) which is used with strangers, elderly, and people of higher socioeconomic status; appropriate usage varies by dialect. In Central America, ''vos'' can be used among those considered equals, while ''usted'' maintains its respectful usage.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rey |first=Alberto |date=1997 |title=Social Correlates of the "Voseo" of Managua, Nicaragua Workplace, Street, and Party Domains |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44284508 |journal=Hispanic Journal |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=109–126 |issn=0271-0986}}</ref> In Ladino, the pronoun ''usted'' is completely absent, so the use of ''vos'' with strangers and elders is the standard.

''Voseo'' was long considered a backward or uneducated usage by prescriptivist grammarians. Many Central American intellectuals, themselves from {{lang|es|voseante}} nations, have condemned the usage of {{lang|es|vos}} in the past.<ref name="Lipski-salv"/> With the changing mentalities in the Hispanic world, and with the development of descriptive as opposed to prescriptive linguistics, it has become simply a local variant of Spanish. In some places it has become symbolically important and is pointed to with pride as a local defining characteristic.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rivera-Mills |first=Susana V. |date=2011 |editor-last=Ortiz-López |editor-first=Luis |title=Use of Voseo and Latino Identity: An Intergenerational Study of Hondurans and Salvadorans in the Western Region of the U.S. |journal=Selected Proceedings of the 13th Hispanic Linguistics Symposium}}</ref>

==History== Classical Latin, and the Vulgar Latin from which Romance languages such as Spanish are descended, had only two second-person pronouns{{snd}}the singular {{lang|la|italic=yes|tu}} and the plural {{lang|la|italic=yes|vos}}. Starting in the early Middle Ages, however, languages such as French and Spanish began to attach honorary significance to these pronouns beyond literal number.<ref name=":1" /> Plural pronouns were often used to refer to a person of respect to aggrandize them. {{lang|es|italic=yes|Vos}}, the second-person plural inherited from Latin, came to be used in this manner.

Already by the late 18th century, however, {{lang|es|italic=yes|vos}} itself was restricted to politeness among one's familiar friends. The following extract from a textbook is illustrative of usage at the time:

{{Quote|text=We seldom make use in Spanish of the second Person Singular or Plural, but when through a great familiarity among friends, or speaking to God, or a wife and husband to themselves, or a father and mother to their children, or to servants.

{{Smallcaps|Examples}}. {{lang|es|italic=yes|O Dios, sois vos mi Padre verdadéro}}, O God, thou art my true Father; {{lang|es|italic=yes|Tú eres un buen amígo}}, Thou art a good friend.|author=Raymundo del Pueyo|source=''A New Spanish Grammar, or the Elements of the Spanish Language''<ref>Del Pueyo, Raymundo (1792). [https://books.google.com/books?id=NekRAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA159 ''A New Spanish Grammar, or the Elements of the Spanish Language'']. London: F. Wingrave. 159.</ref>}}

The standard formal way to address a person one was not on familiar terms with was to address such a person as {{lang|es|italic=yes|vuestra merced}} ("your grace", originally abbreviated as {{lang|es|italic=yes|v.m.}}) in the singular and {{lang|es|italic=yes|vuestras mercedes}} in the plural. Because of the literal meaning of these forms, they were accompanied by the corresponding third-person verb forms. Other formal forms of address included {{lang|es|italic=yes|vuestra excelencia}} ("your excellence", contracted phonetically to {{lang|es|italic=yes|ussencia}}) and {{lang|es|italic=yes|vuestra señoría}} ("your lordship/ladyship", contracted to {{lang|es|italic=yes|ussía}}). Today, both {{lang|es|italic=yes|vos}} and {{lang|es|italic=yes|tú}} are considered to be informal pronouns, with {{lang|es|italic=yes|vos}} being somewhat synonymous with {{lang|es|italic=yes|tú}} in regions where both are used.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Michno |first=Jeffrey Alan |date=2017 |title=Nicaragua y ¿vos, tú, o usted? : pronoun use and identity construction in an area of recent linguistic and cultural contact |url=http://hdl.handle.net/2152/63719 |journal=University of Texas at Austin dissertation |language=}}</ref> This was the situation when the Spanish language was brought to the Río de la Plata area (around Buenos Aires and Montevideo) and to Chile.

In time, {{lang|es|italic=yes|vos}} lost currency in Spain but survived in a number of areas in Spanish-speaking America: Argentina, Paraguay, Bolivia (east), Uruguay, El Salvador, Honduras, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Nicaragua, and some smaller areas. The use of ''tú'' rather than ''vos'' is most associated with areas that were in regular contact with the Iberian Peninsula: Mexico, Panama, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Venezuela, Colombia, Peru and Equatorial Guinea.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Lara Bermejo |first=Víctor |date=2023-10-30 |title=The emergence and history of tuteo , voseo and ustedeo |url=http://www.jbe-platform.com/content/journals/10.1075/lv.21016.lar |journal=Linguistic Variation |language=en |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=281–317 |doi=10.1075/lv.21016.lar |issn=2211-6834|hdl=10498/29464 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> {{lang|es|italic=yes|Vuestra merced}} was used as a noun phrase until the late 17th century, when it pronomialized into {{lang|es|italic=yes|usted}} ({{lang|es|italic=yes|vuestra merced > usarced > usted}}).<ref name=":0" /> Note that the second person plural pronoun {{lang|es|italic=yes|vosotros}} is a combined form of {{lang|es|italic=yes|vos otros}} (meaning literally 'ye/you others'), while the first person plural {{lang|es|italic=yes|nosotros}} comes from {{lang|es|italic=yes|nos otros}} ("we/us others").<ref name=":0" />

In the first half of the 19th century, the use of {{lang|es|italic=yes|vos}} was as prevalent in Chile as it was in Argentina. The current limitation of the use of {{lang|es|italic=yes|vos}} in Chile is attributed to a campaign to eradicate it by the Chilean education system. The campaign was initiated by Andrés Bello who considered the use of {{lang|es|italic=yes|vos}} a manifestation of lack of education.<ref name=Liuzete>Luizete Guimarães Barros. 1990. [http://www.mec.es/sgci/br/es/publicaciones/anuario/abeh2000.pdf#page=47 ''Lengua y nación en la Gramática de Bello'']. ''Anuario brasileño de estudios hispánicos''.</ref>

==Usage==

===''Vos'' in relation to other forms of ''tú''=== The independent disjunctive pronoun {{lang|es|italic=yes|vos}} also replaces {{lang|es|italic=yes|ti}}, from the {{lang|es|italic=yes|tuteo}} set of forms. That is, {{lang|es|italic=yes|vos}} is both nominative and the form to use after prepositions. Therefore, {{lang|es|italic=yes|para vos}} ("for you") corresponds to the {{lang|es|italic=yes|tuteo}} form {{lang|es|italic=yes|para ti}}, etc.

The preposition-pronoun combination {{lang|es|italic=yes|con vos}} ("with you") is used for the {{lang|es|italic=yes|tuteo}} form {{lang|es|italic=yes|contigo}}. The direct and indirect object form {{lang|es|italic=yes|te}} is used in both {{lang|es|italic=yes|voseo}} and {{lang|es|italic=yes|tuteo}}.<ref name="DPD" />

{| cellpadding="3" rules="all" style="border:1px solid #fff; border-collapse:collapse; margin:auto;" |- | style="background:#a0c0a0; text-align:center;"| Nominative | colspan="4" style="background:#c0b0a0; text-align:center;"| Oblique | colspan="3" style="background:#b0b0c0; text-align:center;"| Reflexive |- | style="background:#a0c0a0;"|subject | style="background:#c0b0a0;"|direct object | style="background:#c0b0a0;"|indirect object | style="background:#c0b0a0;"|prepositional object | style="background:#c0b0a0;"|fused with {{lang|es|italic=yes|con}} | style="background:#b0b0c0;"|direct/indirect object | style="background:#b0b0c0;"|prepositional object | style="background:#b0b0c0;"|fused with {{lang|es|italic=yes|con}} |- | style="background:#e0f0e0;"|{{lang|es|vos}} | style="background:#f0e0e0;"|{{lang|es|te}} | style="background:#f0e0e0;"|{{lang|es|te}} | style="background:#f0e0e0;"|{{lang|es|vos}} | style="background:#f0e0e0;"|{{lang|es|con vos}} | style="background:#e0e0f0;"|{{lang|es|te}} | style="background:#e0e0f0;"|{{lang|es|vos}} | style="background:#e0e0f0;"|{{lang|es|con vos}} |- | style="background:#e0f0e0;"|{{lang|es|usted}} | style="background:#f0e0e0;"|{{lang|es|lo/la}} | style="background:#f0e0e0;"|{{lang|es|le}} | style="background:#f0e0e0;"|{{lang|es|usted}} | style="background:#f0e0e0;"|{{lang|es|con usted}} | style="background:#e0e0f0;"|{{lang|es|se}} | style="background:#e0e0f0;"|{{lang|es|sí}} | style="background:#e0e0f0;"|{{lang|es|consigo}} |- | style="background:#e0f0e0;"|{{lang|es|tú}} | style="background:#f0e0e0;"|{{lang|es|te}} | style="background:#f0e0e0;"|{{lang|es|te}} | style="background:#f0e0e0;"|{{lang|es|ti}} | style="background:#f0e0e0;"|{{lang|es|contigo}} | style="background:#e0e0f0;"|{{lang|es|te}} | style="background:#e0e0f0;"|{{lang|es|ti}} | style="background:#e0e0f0;"|{{lang|es|contigo}} |- | style="background:#e0f0e0;"|{{lang|es|vosotros}} | style="background:#f0e0e0;"|{{lang|es|os}} | style="background:#f0e0e0;"|{{lang|es|os}} | style="background:#f0e0e0;"|{{lang|es|vosotros}} | style="background:#f0e0e0;"|{{lang|es|con vosotros}} | style="background:#e0e0f0;"|{{lang|es|os}} | style="background:#e0e0f0;"|{{lang|es|vosotros}} | style="background:#e0e0f0;"|{{lang|es|con vosotros}} |}

The possessive pronouns of {{lang|es|italic=yes|vos}} also coincide with {{lang|es|italic=yes|tú}} <{{lang|es|italic=yes|tu(s)}}, {{lang|es|italic=yes|tuyo(s)}}, {{lang|es|italic=yes|tuya(s)}}> rather than with {{lang|es|italic=yes|vosotros}} <{{lang|es|italic=yes|vuestro(s)}}, {{lang|es|italic=yes|vuestra(s)}}>.<ref name="DPD" />

===''Voseo'' in Chavacano=== Chavacano, a Spanish-based creole spoken in the Philippines, employs {{lang|es|italic=yes|voseo}},<ref name="chavacano">{{Cite journal | last=De Castro | first=Gefilloyd L. | title=The role of second person pronouns in expressing social behavior: An undocumented case in Zamboanga Chavacano | url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330467058 | journal=Philippine Journal of Linguistics | pages=26–40 | volume=49 | year=2018 | access-date=April 4, 2023 | issn=0048-3796 | via=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref name="chavacano2">{{Cite news | last=Herrera | first=Jerome | title=Differences and Similarities Among the Chavacano Languages in the Philippines | url=https://lajornadafilipina.com/culture/chavacano-language-differences/ | work=La Jornada Filipina | date=December 17, 2021 | access-date=April 4, 2023}}</ref> while the standard Spanish spoken in the country does not.<ref name="es-ph">{{cite book | last1=Quilis | first1=Antonio | last2=Casado-Fresnillo | first2=Celia | title=La lengua española en Filipinas: historia, situación actual, el chabacano, antología de textos | trans-title=The Spanish Language in the Philippines: History, Current Situation, Chavacano, Anthology of Texts | page=117 | year=2008 | publication-place=Madrid | publisher=Spanish National Research Council | isbn=978-84-00-08635-0}}</ref> The Chavacano language below in comparison of other Chavacano dialects and level of formality with {{lang|es|italic=yes|Voseo}} in both subject and possessive pronouns. Note the mixed and co-existing usages of {{lang|es|vos, tú, usted}}, and {{lang|es|vosotros}}.

{| class="wikitable" !  !{{lang|cbk|Zamboangueño}} !{{lang|cbk|Caviteño}} !{{lang|cbk|Bahra}} !{{lang|cbk|Davaoeño (Castellano Abakay)}} |- |'''2nd person singular''' |{{lang|cbk|vos/vo/evo/evos}} (common/informal) {{lang|cbk|tú}} (familiar) {{lang|cbk|usted}} (formal) |{{lang|cbk|vo/bo}} (common) {{lang|cbk|tu}} (familiar) {{lang|cbk|usté}} (formal) |{{lang|cbk|vo/bo}} (common/informal) {{lang|cbk|usté}} (formal) |{{lang|cbk|usted}} (formal) {{lang|cbk|vos}} (informal) |- |'''2nd person plural''' |{{lang|cbk|kamó}} (common) {{lang|cbk|vosotros}} (familiar) {{lang|cbk|ustedes}} (formal) |{{lang|cbk|vusos}} {{lang|cbk|busos}} |{{lang|cbk|buhotro}} {{lang|cbk|bujotro}} {{lang|cbk|ustedi}} {{lang|cbk|tedi}} |{{lang|cbk|ustedes}} {{lang|cbk|vosotros}} |- |}

{| class="wikitable" !  !{{lang|cbk|Zamboangueño}} !{{lang|cbk|Davaoeño (Castellano Abakay)}} |- |'''2nd person singular''' |{{lang|cbk|de vos}} (''common'') {{lang|cbk|de tu}} (''familiar'') {{lang|cbk|tuyo}} (''familiar'') {{lang|cbk|de tuyo/di tuyo}} (''familiar'') {{lang|cbk|de usted}} (''formal'') |{{lang|cbk|de tu}} |- |'''2nd person plural''' |{{lang|cbk|de iño/di inyo}} (''common'') {{lang|cbk|de vosotros}} (''familiar'') {{lang|cbk|de ustedes}} (''formal'') |{{lang|cbk|(de) vos}} |- |}

===Conjugation with ''vos''=== All modern {{lang|es|italic=yes|voseo}} conjugations derive from Old Spanish second person plural {{lang|es|italic=yes|-ades}}, {{lang|es|italic=yes|-edes}}, {{lang|es|italic=yes|-ides}}, and {{lang|es|italic=yes|-odes}} (as in {{lang|es|italic=yes|sodes}}, 'you are').<ref name=lapesa>{{in lang|es}} Lapesa Melgar, Rafael. 1970. "[http://www.cvc.cervantes.es/obref/aih/pdf/03/aih_03_1_060.pdf Las formas verbales de segunda persona y los orígenes del voseo]", in: Carlos H. Magis (ed.), ''Actas del III Congreso de la Asociación Internacional de Hispanistas'' (México, D.F., 26–31 Aug 1968). México: Colegio de México, 519–531.</ref> The 14th and 15th centuries saw an evolution of these conjugations, with {{lang|es|italic=yes|-ades}} originally giving {{lang|es|italic=yes|-áis}}, {{lang|es|italic=yes|-edes}} giving {{lang|es|italic=yes|-és}} (or {{lang|es|italic=yes|-ís}}),<ref name=lapesa/><ref name=garcia>{{in lang|es}} García de Diego, Vicente. [1951] 1981. ''Gramática histórica española''. (3rd edition; 1st edition 1951, 2nd edition 1961, 3rd edition 1970, 1st reprint 1981.) Madrid: Gredos, 227–229.</ref> {{lang|es|italic=yes|-ides}} giving {{lang|es|italic=yes|-ís}},<ref>{{lang|es|italic=yes|-ides}} did not produce {{lang|es|italic=yes|-íes}} because {{lang|es|italic=yes|-iés}} and {{lang|es|italic=yes|íes}} were already in use as Imperfect forms, cf. García de Diego ([1951] 1981: 228) and Lapesa (1970: 526).</ref> and {{lang|es|italic=yes|-odes}} giving {{lang|es|italic=yes|-óis}}.<ref name=lapesa/> Soon analogous forms {{lang|es|italic=yes|-ás}} and {{lang|es|italic=yes|-éis}} appeared.<ref name=lapesa/> Hence the variety of forms the contemporary American {{lang|es|italic=yes|voseo}} adopts, some varieties featuring a generalized monophthong (most of them), some a generalized diphthong (e.g. Venezuela), and some combining monophthongs and diphthongs, depending on the conjugation (e.g. Chile). In the most general, monophthongized, conjugation paradigm, a difference between {{lang|es|italic=yes|voseo}} forms and respective {{lang|es|italic=yes|tuteo}} forms is visible exclusively in the present indicative, imperative and subjunctive, and, most of the time, in the ''preterite''.<ref name=garcia/> Below is a comparison table of the conjugation of several verbs for {{lang|es|italic=yes|tú}} and for {{lang|es|italic=yes|vos}}, and next to them the one for {{lang|es|italic=yes|vosotros}}, the informal second person plural currently used orally only in Spain; in oratory or legal language (highly formal forms of Spanish) it is used outside of Spain. Verb forms that agree with {{lang|es|italic=yes|vos}} are stressed on the last syllable, causing the loss of the stem diphthong in those verbs, such as {{lang|es|italic=yes|poder}} and {{lang|es|italic=yes|venir}}, which are stem-changing. {| class="wikitable" style="margin:auto;text-align:center" |- style="background:#e0e0ff;" ! Verb || '''{{lang|es|Tú}}''' 2. Sg. || '''{{lang|es|Vos}}''' General || '''{{lang|es|Tú/Vos}}''' Chile1 || '''{{lang|es|Vos}}''' Southeastern Cuba, Northeastern Colombia1, 2, Venezuela3 and Panama4 || '''{{lang|es|Vosotros}}''' 2. Pl. in Spain || '''{{lang|lad|Vosotros – בֿוֹזוֹטרוֹז}}''' general 2.Pl And '''{{lang|lad|Vos – בֿוֹז}}''' formal 2.Sg Ladino || '''{{lang|es|Ustedes}}''' 2. Pl || ''Meaning'' |- ! ser | '''eres''' || s'''os''' || '''erís'''/s'''ois''' || colspan=2 | s'''ois''' || s'''osh''' סוֹש /soʃ/ || s'''on''' || ''you are'' |- ! comer | comes || comés || comís || colspan=2 | coméis || komesh קוֹמֵיש /koˈmeʃ/ || comen || ''you eat'' |- ! poder | p'''ue'''des || podés || podís || colspan=2 | podéis || podesh פּוֹדֵיש /poˈdeʃ/ || p'''ue'''den || ''you can/may'' |- ! hablar | hablas || hablás ||hablái | colspan="2" |habláis | favlash פֿאבֿלאשׁ /faˈvlaʃ/ || hablan || ''you speak'' |- ! recordar | rec'''ue'''rdas || recordás ||recordái | colspan="2" |recordáis | recordash רֵיקוֹרדאשׁ /rekorˈdaʃ/ || rec'''ue'''rdan || ''you remember'' |- ! vivir | vives || colspan=4 | vivís || bivish בִּיבִֿיש /biˈviʃ/ || viven || ''you live'' |- ! venir | v'''ie'''nes || colspan=4 | venís || venish בֵֿינִיש /veˈniʃ/ || v'''ie'''nen || ''you come'' |- | colspan=10 | 1 Because of the general aspiration of syllable-final [s], the ''-s'' of this ending is usually heard as [h] or not pronounced. 2 In Colombia, the rest of the country that uses '''''vos''''' follows the General Conjugation. 3 In the state of Zulia 4 in Azuero |}

General conjugation is the one that is most widely accepted and used in various countries such as Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay, parts of Bolivia, Ecuador, and Colombia, as well as Central American countries.<ref name="DPD" />

Some Uruguayan speakers combine the pronoun ''tú'' with the ''vos'' conjugation (for example, ''tú sabés'').<ref name="DPD" /> Conversely, speakers in some other places where both ''tú'' and ''vos'' are used combine ''vos'' with the ''tú'' conjugation (for example, ''vos sabes'').<ref name="DPD" /> This is a frequent occurrence in the Argentine province of Santiago del Estero.

The verb forms employed with ''vos'' are also different in Chilean Spanish: Chileans use {{Lang|es|-ái}} and {{Lang|es|soi}} 'you are' instead of {{Lang|es|-áis}} or {{Lang|es|-ás}} and {{Lang|es|sois}} or {{Lang|es|sos}}. Chileans never pronounce these conjugations with a final ''-s''. The forms {{Lang|es|erís}} for 'you are', and {{Lang|es|habís}} and {{Lang|es|hai}} for 'you have' are also found in Chilean Spanish.<ref name="baquerochilearg">{{cite journal |last1=Baquero Velásquez |first1=Julia M. |last2=Westphal Montt |first2=Germán F. |title=Un análisis sincrónico del voseo verbal chileno y rioplatense |journal=Forma y Función |date=16 July 2014 |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=11–40 |doi=10.15446/fyf.v27n2.47558 |language=es |url=https://www.redalyc.org/pdf/219/21935715001.pdf|doi-access=free }}</ref>

In the case of the ending ''-ís'' (such as in ''comís, podís, vivís, erís, venís''), the final ''-s'' is pronounced like any other final {{IPA|/s/}} in Chilean Spanish. It is most often pronounced as an aspiration similar to the 'h' sound in English. It can also be pronounced as a fricative {{IPA|[s]}}, or be dropped completely. Its variable pronunciation is a phonological rather than a morphological phenomenon.<ref name="baquerochilearg" />

Venezuelan Maracucho Spanish is notable in that they preserve the diphthongized plural verb forms in all tenses, as still used with ''vosotros'' in Spain.<ref name="DPD" /> Chilean Spanish also notably uses the diphthong {{Lang|es|-ái}}.

In Ladino, the ''-áis'', ''-éis'', ''-ís'', & ''-ois'' endings are pronounced {{IPA|/aʃ/}}, {{IPA|/eʃ/}}, {{IPA|/iʃ/}}, & {{IPA|/oʃ/}}.

In Chile, it is much more usual to use ''tú'' + ''vos'' verb conjugation ('''''tú''' sabís''). The use of ''pronominal vos'' ('''''vos''' sabís'') is reserved for very informal situations and may even be considered vulgar in some cases.<ref name="DPD" />

==== Present indicative ==== # General conjugation: the final '''-r''' of the infinitive is replaced by '''-s'''; in writing, an acute accent is added to the last vowel (i.e. the one preceding the final '''-s''') to indicate stress position. # Chilean: ## the '''-ar''' ending of the infinitive is replaced by '''-ái''' ## both '''-er''' and '''-ir''' are replaced by '''-ís''', which sounds more like ''-íh''. # Venezuelan (Zulian): practically the same ending as modern Spanish ''vosotros'', yet with the final -s being aspirated so that: ''-áis'', ''-éis'', ''-ís'' sound like ''-áih'', ''-éih'', ''-íh'' (phonetically resembling Chilean).

{| class="wikitable" style="margin:1em auto 1em auto;text-align:center" |+ VOSEO ! rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;"|Infinitive ! colspan="3" style="text-align:center;"|Present Indicative |- ! style="text-align:center;"|General ! style="text-align:center;"|Venezuelan1 ! style="text-align:center;"|Chilean |- ! o'''ír''' | colspan=3 style="text-align:center;"| o'''ís''' |- ! ven'''ir''' | colspan=3 style="text-align:center;"| ven'''ís''' |- ! dec'''ir''' | colspan=3 style="text-align:center;"| dec'''ís''' |- ! dorm'''ir''' | colspan=3 style="text-align:center;"| dorm'''ís''' |- ! sent'''ir''' | colspan=3 | sent'''ís''' |- ! escrib'''ir''' | colspan=3 | escrib'''ís''' |- ! conclu'''ir''' | colspan=3 | conclu'''ís''' |- ! '''ir''' | ''vas'' | ''vais'' | ''vai(s)'' |- ! pens'''ar''' | pens'''ás''' | pens'''áis''' | pens'''ái''' |- ! cont'''ar''' | cont'''ás''' | cont'''áis''' | cont'''ái''' |- ! jug'''ar''' | jug'''ás''' | jug'''áis''' | jug'''ái''' |- ! err'''ar''' | err'''ás''' | err'''áis''' | err'''ái''' |- ! pod'''er''' | pod'''és''' | pod'''éis''' | pod'''ís''' |- ! quer'''er''' | quer'''és''' | quer'''éis''' | quer'''ís''' |- ! mov'''er''' | mov'''és''' | mov'''éis''' | mov'''ís''' |- ! sab'''er''' | sab'''és''' | sab'''éis''' | sab'''ís''' |- ! s'''er''' | ''sos'' | ''sois'' | ''soi''/''erís'' |- ! hab'''er''' | ''has'' | hab'''éis''' | hab'''ís'''/''hai'' |- | colspan=4 | 1 in Zulia; identical ending to modern ''vosotros'' |}

Unlike ''tú'', which has many irregular forms, the only ''voseo'' verbs that are conjugated irregularly in the indicative present are ''ser'', ''ir'' and ''haber''. However, ''haber'' is seldom used in the indicative present, since there is a strong tendency to use preterite instead of present perfect.

==== Affirmative imperative ==== ''Vos'' also differs in its affirmative imperative conjugation from both ''tú'' and ''vosotros''. Specifically, the ''vos'' imperative is formed by dropping the final ''-r'' from the infinitive, but keeping the stress on the last syllable.<ref name=lapesa/> The only verb that is irregular in this regard is ''ir''; its ''vos'' imperative is not usually used, with ''andá'' (the ''vos'' imperative of ''andar'', which is denoted by '''*''') being generally used instead; except for the Argentine province of Tucumán, where the imperative ''ite'' is used. For most regular verbs ending in ''-ir'', the ''vos'' imperatives use the same conjugations as the ''yo'' form in the preterite; almost all verbs that are irregular in the preterite (which are denoted by '''‡''') retain the regular ''vos'' imperative forms.

{| class="wikitable" style="margin:auto;text-align:center" |- ! style="background:#e0e0ff;"| '''Verb''' || '''Meaning''' || '''Tú''' || '''Vos''' || '''Vosotros''' (written) |- ! ''ser'' | to be || ''sé'' || ''sé'' || ''sed'' |- ! ''estar'' | to be || ''está/estate'' || ''está/estate'' || ''estad'' |- ! ''ir'' | to go || ''ve'' || ''i/ite''<ref>{{Cite web |title=ir, irse {{!}} Diccionario panhispánico de dudas {{!}} RAE - ASALE |date=22 July 2024 |url=https://www.rae.es/dpd/ir}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=voseo {{!}} Diccionario panhispánico de dudas {{!}} RAE - ASALE |date=22 July 2024 |url=https://www.rae.es/dpd/voseo}}</ref> '''*'''(''andá/andate'') || ''id'' |- ! ''hablar'' | to speak || ''habla'' || ''hablá'' || ''hablad'' |- ! ''callar'' | to become silent || ''calla'' || ''callá'' || ''callad'' |- ! ''soltar'' | to release/let go || ''suelta'' || ''soltá'' || ''soltad'' |- ! ''comer'' | to eat || ''come'' || ''comé'' || ''comed'' |- ! ''mover'' | to move || ''mueve'' || ''mové'' || ''moved'' |- ! ''venir'' | to come || ''ven'' || ''vení'' '''‡'''||''venid'' |- ! ''poner'' | to put || ''pon'' || ''poné'' || ''poned'' |- ! ''salir'' | to leave || ''sal'' || ''salí'' || ''salid'' |- ! ''tener'' | to have || ''ten'' || ''tené'' || ''tened'' |- ! ''decir'' | to say || ''di'' || ''decí'' '''‡''' || ''decid'' |- ! ''pedir'' | to ask/order || ''pide'' || ''pedí'' || ''pedid'' |}

Again, the conjugation of ''tú'' has far more irregularities, whereas ''vos'' has only one irregular verb in the affirmative imperative.

In Chile, the general ''vos'' conjugation is not used in the affirmative imperative.

==== Subjunctive ==== In most places where ''voseo'' is used, it is applied also in the subjunctive. In the Río de la Plata region, both the ''tú''-conjugation and the ''voseo'' conjugation are found, the ''tú-''form being more common. In this variety, some studies have shown a pragmatic difference between the ''tú''-form and the ''vos''-form, such that the ''vos'' form carries information about the speaker's belief state, and can be stigmatized.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Mary |year=2016 |title=Epistemicity in voseo and tuteo negative commands in Argentinian Spanish |journal=Journal of Pragmatics |volume=97 |pages=37–54 |doi=10.1016/j.pragma.2016.02.003}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Forms of Address in Spanish across the Americas |author=Moyna, María Irene |author2=Rivera-Mills, Susana |name-list-style=amp |publisher=John Benjamins |year=2016 |isbn=9789027258090 |pages=127–148 }}</ref> For example, in Central America the subjunctive and negative command form is ''no mintás'', and in Chile it is ''no mintái''; however, in Río de la Plata both ''no mientas'' and ''no mintás'' are found. ''Real Academia Española'' models its ''voseo'' conjugation tables on the most frequent, unstigmatized Río de la Plata usage and therefore omits the subjunctive ''voseo''.<ref name="DRAE-example">See for example in ''Real Academia Española'' Dictionary, [http://buscon.rae.es/draeI/SrvltGUIVerbos?IDVERBO=7900 mentir] or [http://buscon.rae.es/draeI/SrvltGUIVerbos?IDVERBO=8765 preocupar], where ''mentís'' and ''preocupás'' are present, but ''mintás'' and ''preocupés'' are missing.</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="margin:auto;" |- ! style="background:#e0e0ff;"|Central America1 Bolivia ! style="background:#e0e0ff;"|Río de la Plata region ! style="background:#e0e0ff;"|Chile ! style="background:#e0e0ff;"|Venezuela (Zulia) Panama (Azuero) ! style="background:#e0e0ff;"|meaning |- | No quiero que '''mintás'''. || No quiero que '''mientas'''. || No quiero que '''mintái'''. |No quiero que '''mintáis'''.|| ''I don't want you to lie.'' |- | No '''temás'''. || No '''temas'''. || No '''temái'''. |No '''temáis'''.|| ''Do not fear.'' |- | Que '''durmás''' bien || Que '''duermas''' bien. || Que '''durmái''' bien. |Que '''durmáis''' bien.|| ''Sleep well.'' |- | No te '''preocupés'''. || No te '''preocupes'''. || No te '''preocupís'''. || No te '''preocupéis'''.|| ''Don't worry.'' |- | colspan=5 | 1including areas in Colombia with voseo, e.g. the Paisa region. |}

=== Verbal ''voseo'' and pronominal ''voseo'' === * 'Verbal ''voseo''{{'}} refers to the use of the verb conjugation of ''vos'' regardless of which pronoun is used.<ref name="DPD" /> :Verbal ''voseo'' with a pronoun other than ''vos'' is widespread in Chile, in which case one would use the pronoun ''tú'' and the verb conjugation of ''vos'' at the same time. E.g.: ''tú venís'', ''tú escribís'', ''tú podís'', ''tú sabís'', ''tú vai'', ''tú estái''.<ref name=":1" /> :There are some partially rare cases of a similar sort of verbal ''voseo'' in Uruguay where one would say for example ''tú podés'' or ''tú sabés''.<ref name=":1" /> * 'Pronominal ''voseo''{{'}} is the use of the pronoun ''vos'' regardless of verb conjugation.<ref name="DPD" />

==Geographical distribution== thumb|left|200px|Distribution of ''voseo'':<ref name="DPD" /> {{legend|#000070|primarily spoken + written}} {{legend|#0077E5|primarily spoken}} {{legend|#A2D2FC|spoken, alternating with ''tuteo''}} {{legend|#8F8F8F|absent}}

===Countries where ''voseo'' is predominant=== [[File:Voseo Buenos Aires.jpg|thumb|''Voseo'' used on a billboard in Buenos Aires, Argentina: ''¿Querés cambiar? Vení a Claro'' ("Do you want to change? Come to Claro."). In ''tuteo'', it would have been ''¿Quieres cambiar? Ven a Claro.'']] [[File:Voseo Usage in Honduras.png|thumb|''Voseo'' used on signage inside a shopping mall in Tegucigalpa, Honduras: ''En City sí encontrás de todo para lucir como te gusta'' ("At City you find everything to look how you like"). The ''tuteo'' equivalent would have been ''En City sí encuentras de todo para lucir como te gusta'']] thumb|''Voseo'' used on a billboard in El Salvador: ''¡Pedí aquí tu fría!'' ("Order your cold one here!"). The ''tuteo'' equivalent would have been ''¡Pide aquí tu fría!''

In South America: # Argentina – both pronominal and verbal ''voseo'', the pronoun ''tú'' is not preferred.<ref name="DPD" /> # Paraguay – both pronominal and verbal ''voseo'',<ref name="DPD" /> the pronoun ''tú'' is uncommon in most of the country. # Uruguay – dual-usage of both pronominal and verbal ''voseo'' and a combination of the pronoun ''tú'' + verb conjugated in the ''vos'' form,<ref name="DPD" /> except near the Brazilian border, where only pronominal and verbal ''tuteo'' is common.

In Central America: # Guatemala – three-tiered system is used to indicate the degree of respect or familiarity: ''usted'', ''tú'', ''vos''. ''Usted'' expresses distance and respect; ''tú'' corresponds to an intermediate level of familiarity, but not deep trust; ''vos'' is the pronoun of maximum familiarity and solidarity. Pronominal ''tú'' is frequent with verbal ''voseo''.<ref name="DPD" /> # Honduras – three-tiered system is used to indicate the degree of respect or familiarity: ''usted'', ''tú'', ''vos''. ''Usted'' expresses distance and respect; ''tú'' corresponds to an intermediate level of familiarity, but not deep trust; ''vos'' is the pronoun of maximum familiarity and solidarity.<ref name="DPD" /> # Nicaragua – both pronominal and verbal voseo throughout all social classes; ''tú'' is mostly used in writing. ''Tuteo'' is increasingly common in tourist areas.<ref name=":2" /> # Costa Rica – ''voseo'' has historically been used, back in the 2000s it was losing ground to ''ustedeo'' and ''tuteo'', especially among younger speakers.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Maria Irene Moyna |first1=Susana Rivera-Mills |title=Forms of Address in the Spanish of the Americas |date=2016 |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company |location=Amsterdam/Philadelphia |isbn=978-90-272-6700-9 |pages=243–263}}</ref> ''Vos'' is now primarily used orally with friends and family in Cartago, Guanacaste province, the San José metropolitan area and near the Nicaraguan border and in advertising signage. ''Usted'' is the primary form in other areas and with strangers. ''Tuteo'' is rarely used, but when it is used in speech by a Costa Rican, it is commonly considered fake and effeminate.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Solano Rojas |first1=Yamileth |title=Las formas pronominales: Vos – tu – usted en Costa Rica, análisis de una muestra |journal=Revista Pensamiento Actual |date=1995 |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=42–57 |lang=es}}</ref> # El Salvador – three-tiered system is used to indicate the degree of respect or familiarity: ''usted'', ''tú'', ''vos''. ''Usted'' expresses distance and respect; ''tú'' corresponds to an intermediate level of familiarity, but not deep trust; ''vos'' is the pronoun of maximum familiarity and solidarity and also lack of respect.<ref name="Lipski-salv">{{cite journal|url=https://johnlipski.github.io/sal2.pdf |title=El español que se habla en El Salvador y su importancia para la dialectología hispanoamericana |author=John M. Lipski |language=es|journal=Revista Científica}}</ref>

===Countries where ''voseo'' is extensive, but not predominant=== In South America: # Bolivia – in the Lowlands of Eastern Bolivia—with mestizo, ''Criollo'' and German descendants majority—(Santa Cruz, Beni, Pando, Tarija and the Lowlands of La Paz) ''voseo'' is used universally; while in the Highlands of Western Bolivia—with indigenous peoples majority—(highlands of La Paz, Oruro, Potosí, Chuquisaca and Cochabamba) ''tú'' is predominant, but there is still a strong use of ''voseo'', especially in verb forms. # Chile – verbal ''voseo'' and pronominal ''tú'' is used in informal situations, whereas pronominal ''voseo'' is reserved only for very intimate situations or to offend someone. In every other situation and in writing, the normal ''tú'' or ''usted'' pronouns are used.

===Countries where ''voseo'' occurs in some areas=== In the following countries, ''voseo'' is used only in certain areas: * Colombia – in the following departments: **In the west (along the Pacific coast): ***Chocó ***Valle del Cauca ***Cauca ***Nariño **In the center – primarily the Paisa region (Antioquia, Risaralda, Quindío, and Caldas Departments). **In the (north)east: ***Norte de Santander – Ocaña region ***La Guajira ***Cesar * Cuba – in Camagüey Province, often used alongside ''tú''. * Ecuador – in the Sierra, the center, and Esmeraldas. * Mexico – widely used in the countryside of the state of Chiapas by indigenous populations and becoming rare among the same groups in the state of Tabasco.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Davis|first=Jack Emory|date=1971|title=The Spanish of Mexico: An Annotated Bibliography for 1940–69|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/337708|journal=Hispania|volume=54|pages=624–656|doi=10.2307/337708|jstor=337708 |issn=0018-2133|url-access=subscription}}</ref> * Panama – in the west along the border with Costa Rica. * Peru – in some areas in both the Northern and Southern ends of the country. * Puerto Rico – At the eastern end of the island in Fajardo.<ref>{{cite book |last=Moreno de Alba |first=José G. |date=2001 |title=El español en América |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s9oSunr8GwsC&pg=PA232 |location=Mexico City |publisher=Fondo de Cultura Económica |page=232 |isbn=9681663934 |edition=3rd |language=es}}</ref> * The Philippines – among Chavacano speakers in Mindanao and Luzon,<ref name="chavacano" /><ref name="chavacano2" /> but otherwise absent in standard Spanish.<ref name="es-ph" /> * Spain – in La Gomera island, in The Canaries, often used alongside ''tú''. * The United States – Found among speakers with origins in countries where ''voseo'' is predominant—for instance, among Honduran Americans.<ref name="Lipski-salv"/> In other circumstances, ''tú'' is used by default. * Venezuela – in the northwest (primarily in Zulia State).

===Countries where ''voseo'' is virtually absent=== In the following countries, ''voseo'' has disappeared completely among the native population: * Dominican Republic * Peninsular Spain

==External links== {{commons}}

==References== {{Reflist}}

==Sources== * {{in lang|es}} Díaz Collazos, Ana María. ''Desarrollo sociolingüístico del voseo en la región andina de Colombia (1555–1976)'' * {{in lang|es}} ''El voseo'' at Spanish Wikibooks * {{in lang|fr}} [http://www.elconjugador.com/frvoseo.php ''Le Voseo''] * {{in lang|es}} ''Voseo Spanish'' Site dedicated to teaching Argentine Voseo usage * {{in lang|es}} Carricaburo. Norma Beatriz (2003). [http://www.elcastellano.org/artic/voseo.htm ''El voseo en la historia y en la lengua de hoy – Las fórmulas de tratamiento en el español actual''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160402171442/http://www.elcastellano.org/artic/voseo.htm |date=2016-04-02 }} * {{in lang|es}} Hotta. Hideo (2000). [https://web.archive.org/web/20061216061101/http://www.aichi-pu.ac.jp/for/~hotta-hi/hh1997b.htm ''La estandarización y el regionalismo en el voseo del español argentino''] * {{in lang|es}} Roca, Luis Alberto (2007). ''Breve historia del habla cruceña y su mestizaje'' * {{in lang|es}} Rosenblat, Ángel (2000). [https://web.archive.org/web/20070110205527/http://www.analitica.com/bitblioteca/rosenblat/castellano.asp ''El castellano en Venezuela''] * {{in lang|es}} Toursinov, Antón (2005). [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/343635272_Formas_pronominales_de_tratamiento_en_el_espanol_actual_de_Guatemala ''Formas pronominales de tratamiento en el español actual de Guatemala'']

Category:Spanish grammar Category:Personal pronouns Category:Second-person pronouns

fr:Dialectologie de la langue espagnole#Voseo