Underground nuclear weapons testing

{{short description|Test detonation of nuclear weapons underground}} [[File:NTS test preparation4.jpg|thumb|260px|Preparation for an underground nuclear test at the Nevada Test Site in the 1990s as the diagnostic cables are being installed.]] {{nuclear weapons}}

'''Underground nuclear testing''' is the test detonation of nuclear weapons that is performed underground. When the device being tested is buried at sufficient depth, the nuclear explosion may be contained, with no release of radioactive materials to the atmosphere.

The extreme heat and pressure of an underground nuclear explosion cause changes in the surrounding rock. The rock closest to the location of the test is vaporised, forming a cavity. Farther away, there are zones of crushed, cracked, and irreversibly strained rock. Following the explosion, the rock above the cavity may collapse, forming a rubble chimney. If this chimney reaches the surface, a bowl-shaped subsidence crater may form.

The first underground test took place in 1951. Further tests soon led scientists to conclude that even notwithstanding environmental and diplomatic considerations, underground testing was of far greater scientific value than all other forms of testing. This understanding strongly influenced the governments of the first three nuclear powers to sign the Limited Test Ban Treaty in 1963, which banned all nuclear tests except for those performed underground. From then until the signing of the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty in 1996, most nuclear tests were performed underground, which prevented additional nuclear fallout from entering into the atmosphere.

==Background== Public concern about fallout from nuclear testing grew in the early 1950s.<ref name="ctbto">{{cite web |publisher=The Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization |title=History of the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) |url=http://www.ctbto.org/treaty/history.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=2007-03-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070303165210/http://www.ctbto.org/treaty/history.html}}</ref><ref name="ortmeyer1997">{{cite journal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vgwAAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA46 |first=Pat |last=Ortmeyer |last2=Makhijani |first2=Arjun |date=November–December 1997 |title= Worse Than We Knew |journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists |volume=53 |issue=6 |pages=46–50 |bibcode=1997BuAtS..53f..46O |doi=10.1080/00963402.1997.11456789|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Fallout was discovered after the ''Trinity'' test, the first ever atomic bomb test, in 1945.<ref name="ortmeyer1997" /> Photographic film manufacturers later reported 'fogged' films; this was traced to packaging materials sourced from Indiana crops, contaminated by ''Trinity'' and later tests at the Nevada Test Site, over {{convert|1000|mi|km}} away.<ref name="ortmeyer1997" /> Intense fallout from the 1953 ''Simon'' test was documented as far as Albany, New York.<ref name="ortmeyer1997" />

The fallout from the March 1954 ''Bravo'' test in the Pacific Ocean had "scientific, political and social implications that have continued for more than 40 years".<ref name="eisenbud1997">{{cite journal |title=Monitoring distant fallout: The role of the Atomic Energy Commission Health and Safety Laboratory during the Pacific tests, with special attention to the events following Bravo |first=Merril |last=Eisenbud |journal=Health Physics |date=July 1997 |volume=73 |issue=1 |pmid=9199215 |pages=21–27 |url=http://www.eh.doe.gov/health/marshall/marsh/journal/rpt-2.pdf |doi=10.1097/00004032-199707000-00002 |url-status=dead |archive-date=October 14, 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061014214420/https://www.eh.doe.gov/health/marshall/marsh/journal/rpt-2.pdf}}</ref> The multi-megaton test caused fallout to occur on the islands of the Rongerik and Rongelap atolls, and a Japanese fishing boat known as the ''Daigo Fukuryū Maru'' (Lucky Dragon).<ref name="eisenbud1997" /> Prior to this test, there was "insufficient" appreciation of the dangers of fallout.<ref name="eisenbud1997"/>

The test became an international incident. In a Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) interview, the historian Martha Smith argued: "In Japan, it becomes a huge issue in terms of not just the government and its protest against the United States, but all different groups and all different peoples in Japan start to protest. It becomes a big issue in the media. There are all kinds of letters and protests that come from, not surprisingly, Japanese fishermen, the fishermen's wives; there are student groups, all different types of people; that protest against the Americans' use of the Pacific for nuclear testing. They're very concerned about, first of all, why the United States even has the right to be carrying out those kinds of tests in the Pacific. They're also concerned about the health and environmental impact."<ref>{{cite web |title=Martha Smith on: The Impact of the Bravo Test |publisher=Public Broadcasting Service |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/bomb/filmmore/reference/interview/marthasmith01.html |access-date=2017-09-03 |url-status=dead |archive-date=2016-08-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160801010105/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/bomb/filmmore/reference/interview/marthasmith01.html}}</ref>

Knowledge about fallout and its effects grew, and with it concern about the global environment and long-term genetic damage.<ref name="state_ltbt">{{cite web |title=Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space and Under Water |publisher=US Department of State |url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/t/ac/trt/4797.htm}}</ref> Talks between the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, France, and the Soviet Union began in May 1955 on the subject of an international agreement to end nuclear tests.<ref name="state_ltbt" /> On August 5, 1963, representatives of the United States, the Soviet Union, and the United Kingdom signed the Limited Test Ban Treaty, forbidding testing of nuclear weapons in the atmosphere, in space, and underwater.<ref name="jfklibrary">{{cite web |title=JFK in History: Nuclear Test Ban Treaty |publisher=John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum |url=http://www.jfklibrary.org/Historical+Resources/JFK+in+History/Nuclear+Test+Ban+Treaty.htm |access-date=2006-10-17 |archive-date=2009-09-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090904154042/http://www.jfklibrary.org/Historical+Resources/JFK+in+History/Nuclear+Test+Ban+Treaty.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> Agreement was facilitated by the decision to allow underground testing, eliminating the need for on-site inspections that concerned the Soviets.<ref name="jfklibrary"/> Underground testing was allowed, provided that it does not cause "radioactive debris to be present outside the territorial limits of the State under whose jurisdiction or control such explosion is conducted".<ref name="state_ltbt" />

==Early history of underground testing== Following analysis of underwater detonations that were part of ''Operation Crossroads'' in 1946, inquiries were made regarding the possible military value of an underground explosion.<ref name="gladeck1986">{{cite book |title=For the Record – A History of the Nuclear Test Personnel Review Program, 1978–1986 (DNA 601F) |publisher=Defense Nuclear Agency |first=F. |last=Gladeck |last2=Johnson |first2=A. |year=1986 |url=http://handle.dtic.mil/100.2/ADA306360 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110522022747/http://handle.dtic.mil/100.2/ADA306360 |url-status=dead |archive-date=May 22, 2011 }}</ref> The US Joint Chiefs of Staff thus obtained the agreement of the United States Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) to perform experiments on both surface and sub-surface detonations.<ref name="gladeck1986" /> The Alaskan island of Amchitka was initially selected for these tests in 1950, but the site was later deemed unsuitable and the tests were moved to the Nevada Test Site.<ref name="doe_responsib">{{cite report |url=https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/758922-sfDXiQ/webviewable/ |title=Amchitka Island, Alaska: Potential U.S. Department of Energy site responsibilities (DOE/NV-526) |date=December 1998 |publisher=Department of Energy |doi=10.2172/758922 |osti=758922 |access-date=2006-10-09 |author=((U.S. Department of Energy, Nevada Operations Office))|doi-access=free }}</ref>

thumb|right|''Buster-Jangle Uncle'', the first underground nuclear explosion The first underground nuclear test was conducted on 29 November 1951.<ref name="tecsoc">{{cite web |title=Today in Technology History: November 29 |publisher=The Center for the Study of Technology and Society |url=http://www.tecsoc.org/pubs/history/2001/nov29.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020421101410/http://tecsoc.org/pubs/history/2001/nov29.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=2002-04-21 }}</ref><ref name="adushkin2001">{{cite web |title=USGS Open File Report 01-312: Containment of Soviet underground nuclear explosions |first=Vitaly V. |last=Adushkin |last2=Leith |first2= William |publisher=US Department of the Interior Geological Survey |date=September 2001 |url=https://geology.er.usgs.gov/eespteam/pdf/USGSOFR01312.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130509080818/http://geology.er.usgs.gov/eespteam/pdf/USGSOFR01312.pdf |archive-date=2013-05-09 }}</ref><ref>Some sources identify later tests as the "first". Adushkin (2001) defines such a test as "the near-simultaneous detonation of one or more nuclear charges inside one underground excavation (a tunnel, shaft or borehole)", and identifies ''Uncle'' as the first.</ref> This was the 1.2 kiloton ''Buster-Jangle Uncle'',<ref>Some sources refer to the test as ''Jangle Uncle'' (e.g., Adushkin, 2001) or ''Project Windstorm'' (e.g., DOE/NV-526, 1998). Operation ''Buster'' and Operation ''Jangle'' were initially conceived as separate operations, and ''Jangle'' was at first known as ''Windstorm'', but the AEC merged the plans into a single operation on 19 June 1951. See Gladeck, 1986.</ref> which detonated {{cvt|17|ft|m}} beneath ground level.<ref name="adushkin2001" /> The test was designed as a scaled-down investigation of the effects of a 23-kiloton ground-penetrating gun-type fission weapon that was then being considered for use as a cratering and bunker-buster weapon.<ref name="nwa_bj">{{cite web |title=Operation Buster-Jangle |publisher=The Nuclear Weapons Archive |url=http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Usa/Tests/Busterj.html}}</ref> The explosion resulted in a cloud that rose to {{cvt|11500|ft|m}}, and deposited fallout to the north and north-northeast.<ref name="dna_6025f">{{cite book |title=Shots Sugar and Uncle: The final tests of the Buster-Jangle series (DNA 6025F) |first=Jean |last=Ponton |date=June 1982 |publisher=Defense Nuclear Agency |url=http://www.dtra.mil/rd/programs/nuclear_personnel/docs%5CT24299.PDF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070710110311/http://www.dtra.mil/rd/programs/nuclear_personnel/docs%5CT24299.PDF |url-status=dead |archive-date=2007-07-10 |display-authors=etal }}</ref> The resulting crater was {{cvt|260|ft|m}} wide and {{cvt|53|ft|m}} deep.<ref name="nwa_bj" />

thumb|''Teapot Ess'' The next underground test was ''Teapot Ess'', on 23 March 1955.<ref name="adushkin2001" /> The one-kiloton explosion was an operational test of an 'Atomic Demolition Munition' (ADM).<ref name="ponton1981">{{cite book |title=Shots Ess through Met and Shot Zucchini: The final Teapot tests (DNA 6013F) |date=November 1981 |first=Jean |last=Ponton |publisher=Defense Nuclear Agency |url=http://www.dtra.mil/rd/programs/nuclear_personnel/docs%5CT8592.PDF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070710110255/http://www.dtra.mil/rd/programs/nuclear_personnel/docs%5CT8592.PDF |url-status=dead |archive-date=2007-07-10 |display-authors=etal }}</ref> It was detonated {{cvt|67|ft|m}} underground, in a shaft lined with corrugated steel, which was then back-filled with sandbags and dirt.<ref name="nwa_tp">{{cite web |title=Operation Teapot |publisher=The Nuclear Weapons Archive |url=http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Usa/Tests/Teapot.html}}</ref> Because the ADM was buried underground, the explosion blew tons of earth upwards,<ref name="ponton1981" /> creating a crater {{cvt|300|ft|m|sigfig=1}} wide and {{cvt|128|ft|m}} deep.<ref name="nwa_tp" /> The resulting mushroom cloud rose to a height of {{cvt|12000|ft|m}} and subsequent radioactive fallout drifted in an easterly direction, travelling as far as {{convert|225|km|mi|abbr=on|order=flip}} from ground zero.<ref name="ponton1981" />

On 26 July 1957, ''Plumbbob Pascal-A'' was detonated at the bottom of a {{cvt|148|m|ft|order=flip}} shaft.<ref name="nwa_pb">{{cite web |title=Operation Plumbbob |publisher=The Nuclear Weapons Archive |url=http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Usa/Tests/Plumbob.html}}</ref><ref>According to the Nuclear Weapons Archive, the yield is described as "slight", but was approximately 55 tons.</ref> According to one description, it "ushered in the era of underground testing with a magnificent pyrotechnic roman candle!"<ref name="campbell1983">{{cite journal |title=Field Testing: The Physical Proof of Design Principles |first=Bob |last=Campbell |journal=Los Alamos Science |year=1983 |url=https://fas.org/sgp/othergov/doe/lanl/pubs/00285892.pdf|display-authors=etal}}</ref> As compared with an above-ground test, the radioactive debris released to the atmosphere was reduced by a factor of ten.<ref name="campbell1983" /> Theoretical work began on possible containment schemes.<ref name="campbell1983" />

thumb|Dust raised by ''Plumbbob Rainier'' thumb|Layout of the ''Plumbbob Rainier'' tunnel ''Plumbbob Rainier'' was detonated at {{convert|899|ft|m|abbr=on}} underground on 19 September 1957.<ref name="nwa_pb" /> The 1.7 kt explosion was the first to be entirely contained underground, producing no fallout.<ref name="doe_0800021_22">{{cite web |title=Operation Plumbbob |publisher=Department of Energy |url=http://www.nv.doe.gov/library/films/fulltext/0800021_22.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060925145149/http://www.nv.doe.gov/library/films/fulltext/0800021_22.htm |archive-date=2006-09-25 }}</ref> The test took place in a 1,600<ref>{{cite book |title=ORAU Team: NIOSH Dose Reconstruction Project |first=Gene |last=Rollins |year=2004 |publisher=Centers for Disease Control |url=https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/ocas/pdfs/tbd/nts4.pdf |access-date=2017-09-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060625133617/http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/ocas/pdfs/tbd/nts4.pdf |archive-date=2006-06-25 |url-status=dead }}</ref> to 2,000 ft<ref name="lanl_pb">{{cite web |title=Plumbbob Photographs |publisher=Los Alamos National Laboratory |url=http://www.lanl.gov/orgs/esa/esa-wr/documents/nts_cdrom4.pdf}}</ref> (500 to 600 m) horizontal tunnel in the shape of a hook.<ref name="lanl_pb" /> The hook "was designed so explosive force will seal off the non-curved portion of tunnel nearest the detonation before gases and fission fragments can be vented around the curve of the tunnel's hook".<ref name="lanl_pb" /> This test would become the prototype for larger, more powerful tests.<ref name="doe_0800021_22" /> Rainier was announced in advance, so that seismic stations could attempt to record a signal.<ref name="llnl_50s">{{cite web |title=Accomplishments in the 1950s |publisher=Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory |url=http://www.llnl.gov/50th_anniv/decades/1950s.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041205174037/http://www.llnl.gov/50th_anniv/decades/1950s.htm |archive-date=2004-12-05 }}</ref>

Analysis of samples collected after the test enabled scientists to develop an understanding of underground explosions that "persists essentially unaltered today".<ref name="llnl_50s" /> The information would later provide a basis for subsequent decisions to agree to the Limited Test Ban Treaty.<ref name="llnl_50s" />

''Cannikin'', the last test at the facility on Amchitka, was detonated on 6 November 1971. At approximately five megatons, it was the largest underground test in US history.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.greenpeace.org/raw/content/usa/press/reports/nuclear-flashback.pdf |first=Pam |last=Miller |title=Nuclear Flashback: Report of a Greenpeace Scientific Expedition to Amchitka Island, Alaska – Site of the Largest Underground Nuclear Test in U.S. History |access-date=2006-10-09 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060928190111/http://www.greenpeace.org/raw/content/usa/press/reports/nuclear-flashback.pdf |archive-date = September 28, 2006}}</ref>

== Effects == thumb|Relative crater sizes and shapes resulting from various burst depths The effects of an underground nuclear test may vary according to factors including the depth and yield of the explosion, as well as the nature of the surrounding rock.<ref name="McEwan"/> If the test is conducted at sufficient depth, the test is said to be ''contained'', with no venting of gases or other contaminants to the environment.<ref name="McEwan"/> In contrast, if the device is buried at insufficient depth ("underburied"), then rock may be expelled by the explosion, forming a subsidence crater surrounded by ejecta, and releasing high-pressure gases to the atmosphere (the resulting crater is usually conical in profile, circular, and may range between tens to hundreds of yards in diameter and depth<ref name="Hawkins"/>).

One figure used in determining how deeply the device should be buried is the ''scaled depth of burial'', or ''-burst'' (SDOB)<ref name="McEwan"/> This figure is calculated as the burial depth divided by the cube root of the yield. It is estimated that, in order to ensure containment, this figure should be greater than {{cvt|100|m|ft|order=flip|sigfig=1}} per kiloton1/3.<ref name="McEwan"/><ref>Hawkins and Wohletz specify a figure of 90–125.</ref>

{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 2em 1em 0; float:left" |+ '''Zones in surrounding rock''' |- ! style="background:#efefef;" | Name ! style="background:#ffdead;" | Radius<ref name="Hawkins"/> |- | Melt cavity || {{cvt|4|–|12|m|ft|order=flip|sigfig=1}} per kt''1/3'' |- | Crushed zone || {{cvt|30|–|40|m|ft|order=flip|-1}} per kt1/3 |- | Cracked zone || {{cvt|80|–|120|m|ft|order=flip}} per kt1/3 |- | Zone of irreversible strain || {{cvt|800|–|1100|m|ft|order=flip}} per kt1/3 |}

The energy of the nuclear explosion is released in one microsecond. In the following few microseconds, the test hardware and surrounding rock are vaporised, with temperatures of several million degrees and pressures of several million atmospheres.<ref name="McEwan">{{cite book | last=McEwan | first=A. C. | chapter=Environmental effects of underground nuclear explosions | editor=Goldblat, Jozef |editor2=Cox, David | title=Nuclear Weapon Tests: Prohibition Or Limitation? | year=1988 | publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn=0-19-829120-5 | pages=75–79}}</ref> Within milliseconds, a bubble of high-pressure gas and steam is formed. The heat and expanding shock wave cause the surrounding rock to vaporise, or be melted further away, creating a ''melt cavity''.<ref name="Hawkins"/> The shock-induced motion and high internal pressure cause this cavity to expand outwards, which continues over several tenths of a second until the pressure has fallen sufficiently, to a level roughly comparable with the weight of the rock above, and can no longer grow.<ref name="Hawkins"/> Although not observed in every explosion, four distinct zones (including the melt cavity) have been described in the surrounding rock. The ''crushed zone'', about two times the radius of the cavity, consists of rock that has lost all of its former integrity. The ''cracked zone'', about three times the cavity radius, consists of rock with radial and concentric fissures. Finally, the ''zone of irreversible strain'' consists of rock deformed by the pressure.<ref name="Hawkins">{{cite web | last=Hawkins | first=Wohletz | title=Visual Inspection for CTBT Verification | year=1996 | publisher=Los Alamos National Laboratory | url=http://www.ees1.lanl.gov/Wohletz/LAMS-13244-MS.pdf | access-date=2008-05-05 | archive-date=2008-10-30 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081030015654/http://www.ees1.lanl.gov/Wohletz/LAMS-13244-MS.pdf | url-status=dead }}</ref> The following layer undergoes only an elastic deformation; the strain and subsequent release then forms a seismic wave. A few seconds later the molten rock starts collecting on the bottom of the cavity and the cavity content begins cooling. The rebound after the shock wave causes compressive forces to build up around the cavity, called a ''stress containment cage'', sealing the cracks.<ref name="undcont">[http://www.princeton.edu/~ota/disk1/1989/8909/8909.PDF The Containment of Underground Nuclear Explosions]. (PDF) . Retrieved on 2010-02-08.</ref>

thumb|Subsidence crater formed by ''Huron King'' Several minutes to days later, once the heat dissipates enough, the steam condenses, and the pressure in the cavity falls below the level needed to support the overburden, the rock above the void falls into the cavity. Depending on various factors, including the yield and characteristics of the burial, this collapse may extend to the surface. If it does, a subsidence crater is created.<ref name="Hawkins"/> Such a crater is usually bowl-shaped, and ranges in size from around 100 feet to over half a mile in diameter.<ref name="Hawkins"/> At the Nevada Test Site, 95 percent of tests conducted at a scaled depth of burial (SDOB) of less than 150 caused surface collapse, compared with about half of tests conducted at a SDOB of less than 180.<ref name="Hawkins"/> The radius ''r'' (in feet) of the cavity is proportional to the cube root of the yield ''y'' (in kilotons), ''r'' = 55 * <math>\sqrt[3]{y}</math>; an 8 kiloton explosion will create a cavity with radius of {{convert|110|ft|m}}.<ref name="undcont" />

thumb|Rubble mound formed by ''Whetstone Sulky'' Other surface features may include disturbed ground, pressure ridges, faults, water movement (including changes to the water table level), rockfalls, and ground slump.<ref name="Hawkins" /> Most of the gas in the cavity is composed of steam; its volume decreases dramatically as the temperature falls and the steam condenses. There are however other gases, mostly carbon dioxide and hydrogen, which do not condense and remain gaseous. The carbon dioxide is produced by thermal decomposition of carbonates, hydrogen is created by reaction of iron and other metals from the nuclear device and surrounding equipment. The amount of carbonates and water in the soil and the available iron have to be considered in evaluating the test site containment; water-saturated clay soils may cause structural collapse and venting. Hard basement rock may reflect shock waves of the explosion, also possibly causing structural weakening and venting. The noncondensible gases may stay absorbed in the pores in the soil. Large amount of such gases can however maintain enough pressure to drive the fission products to the ground.<ref name="undcont" />

thumb|Radioactivity release during ''Baneberry'' Escape of radioactivity from the cavity is known as containment failure. Massive, prompt, uncontrolled releases of fission products, driven by the pressure of steam or gas, are known as venting; an example of such failure is the ''Baneberry'' test. Slow, low-pressure uncontrolled releases of radioactivity are known as ''seeps''; these have little to no energy, are not visible and have to be detected by instruments. ''Late-time seeps'' are releases of noncondensable gases days or weeks after the blast, by diffusion through pores and crack, probably assisted by a decrease of atmospheric pressure (so called ''atmospheric pumping''). When the test tunnel has to be accessed, controlled tunnel purging is performed; the gases are filtered, diluted by air and released to atmosphere when the winds will disperse them over sparsely populated areas. Small activity leaks resulting from operational aspects of tests are called ''operational releases''; they may occur e.g. during drilling into the explosion location during core sampling, or during the sampling of explosion gases. The radionuclide composition differs by the type of releases; large prompt venting releases significant fraction (up to 10%) of fission products, while late-time seeps contain only the most volatile gases. Soil absorbs the reactive chemical compounds, so the only nuclides filtered through soil into the atmosphere are the noble gases, primarily krypton-85 and xenon-133.<ref name="undcont" />

The released nuclides can undergo bio-accumulation. Radioactive isotopes like iodine-131, strontium-90 and caesium-137 are concentrated in the milk of grazing cows; cow milk is therefore a convenient, sensitive fallout indicator. Soft tissues of animals can be analyzed for gamma emitters, bones and liver for strontium and plutonium, and blood, urine and soft tissues are analyzed for tritium.<ref name="undcont" />

Although there were early concerns about earthquakes arising as a result of underground tests, there is no evidence that this has occurred.<ref name="McEwan"/> However, fault movements and ground fractures have been reported, and explosions often precede a series of aftershocks, thought to be a result of cavity collapse and chimney formation. In a few cases, seismic energy released by fault movements has exceeded that of the explosion itself.<ref name="McEwan"/>

==International treaties== Signed in Moscow on August 5, 1963, by representatives of the United States, the Soviet Union, and the United Kingdom, the Limited Test Ban Treaty agreed to ban nuclear testing in the atmosphere, in space, and underwater.<ref name="jfklibrary" /> Due to the Soviet government's concern about the need for on-site inspections, underground tests were excluded from the ban.<ref name="jfklibrary" /> 108 countries eventually signed the treaty, with the significant exception of China.<ref name="gwu" >{{cite web |title=The Making of the Limited Test Ban Treaty, 1958–1963 |url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB94/ |publisher=The George Washington University}}</ref>

In 1974, the United States and the Soviet Union signed the Threshold Test Ban Treaty (TTBT) which banned underground tests with yields greater than 150 kilotons.<ref name="nas" >{{cite book |author=National Academy of Sciences |title=Technical Issues Related to the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty |year=2002 |publisher=National Academies |isbn=0-309-08506-3}}</ref> By the 1990s, technologies to monitor and detect underground tests had matured to the point that tests of one kiloton or over could be detected with high probability, and in 1996 negotiations began under the auspices of the United Nations to develop a comprehensive test ban.<ref name="gwu" /> The resulting Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty was signed in 1996 by the United States, Russia, United Kingdom, France, and China.<ref name="gwu" /> However, following the United States Senate decision not to ratify the treaty in 1999, it is still yet to be ratified by 8 of the required 44 'Annex 2' states and so has not entered into force as United Nations law.

===Monitoring=== In the late 1940s, the United States began to develop the capability to detect atmospheric testing using air sampling; this system was able to detect the first Soviet test in 1949.<ref name="nas"/> Over the next decade, this system was improved, and a network of seismic monitoring stations was established to detect underground tests.<ref name="nas"/> Development of the Threshold Test Ban Treaty in the mid-1970s led to an improved understanding of the relationship between test yield and resulting seismic magnitude.<ref name="nas"/>

When negotiations began in the mid-1990s to develop a comprehensive test ban, the international community was reluctant to rely upon the detection capabilities of individual nuclear weapons states (especially the United States), and instead wanted an international detection system.<ref name="nas"/> The resulting International Monitoring System (IMS) consists of a network of 321 monitoring stations, and 16 radionuclide laboratories.<ref name="ctbtover">{{cite web |title=An Overview of the Verification Regime |url=http://www.ctbto.org/verification/overview.html |publisher=Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509141037/http://www.ctbto.org/verification/overview.html |archive-date=2008-05-09 }}</ref> Fifty "primary" seismic stations send data continuously to the International Data Center, along with 120 "auxiliary" stations which send data on request. The resulting data is used to locate the epicentre, and distinguish between the seismic signatures of an underground nuclear explosion and an earthquake.<ref name="nas"/><ref>{{cite web |title=Verification Technologies: Seismology |url=http://www.ctbto.org/verification/seismology.html |publisher=Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030621233803/http://www.ctbto.org/verification/seismology.html |archive-date=2003-06-21 }}</ref> Additionally, eighty radionuclide stations detect radioactive particles vented by underground explosions. Certain radionuclides constitute clear evidence of nuclear tests; the presence of noble gases can indicate whether an underground explosion has taken place.<ref>{{cite web |title=Verification Technologies: Radionuclide |url=http://www.ctbto.org/verification/radionuclide.html |publisher=Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040610222826/http://www.ctbto.org/verification/radionuclide.html |archive-date=2004-06-10 }}</ref> Finally, eleven hydroacoustic stations<ref>{{cite web |title=Verification Technologies: Hydroacoustics |url=http://www.ctbto.org/verification/hydroacoustics.html |publisher=Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030219233244/http://www.ctbto.org/verification/hydroacoustics.html |archive-date=2003-02-19 }}</ref> and sixty infrasound stations<ref>{{cite web |title=Verification Technologies: Infrasound |url=http://www.ctbto.org/verification/infrasound.html |publisher=Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization }}{{Dead link|date=July 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=no }}</ref> monitor underwater and atmospheric tests.

==Gallery== <gallery> File:Buster-Jangle Uncle 001.jpg|Buster-Jangle Uncle File:NNSA-NSO-252.jpg|Teapot Ess File:Storax Sedan nuke.jpg|Storax Sedan File:Sedan Plowshare Crater.jpg|Sedan Crater File:Bowline Schooner 001d.jpg|Bowline Schooner File:Nevada Test Site craters.jpg|Nevada Test Site subsidence craters File:Chagaiatomictests.jpg|Chagai-I </gallery>

==Notes and references== {{Reflist|2}}

==Further reading== *[http://www.princeton.edu/~ota/disk1/1989/8909/8909.PDF "The Containment of Underground Nuclear Explosions", Project Director Gregory E van der Vink, U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, OTA-ISC-414, (Oct 1989).] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20150320072915/https://www.iaea.org/Publications/Magazines/Bulletin/Bull113/11303580312.pdf IAEA review of the 1968 book: The constructive uses of nuclear explosions by Edward Teller.]

==External links==  *https://web.archive.org/web/20060908032343/http://www.princeton.edu/~globsec/publications/pdf/3_3-4Adushkin.pdf *[http://thebulletin.metapress.com/content/k863mt6800685p0x/?p=76f6d23b4b71493fbbdef7245e96ae47&pi=16 Nuclear Pursuits]{{Dead link|date=July 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=no }}, [http://thebulletin.org ''The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists''], September/October 2003 *http://www.unscear.org/unscear/en/publications.html *https://web.archive.org/web/20041218041325/http://www.ingv.it/~roma/SITOINGLESE/research_projects/CTBTO/explosions.html *http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/intro/ugt.htm *https://fas.org/nuke/intro/nuke/ugt-nts.htm {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150409035413/https://fas.org/nuke/intro/nuke/ugt-nts.htm |date=2015-04-09 }} *http://www.atomictraveler.com/UndergroundTestOTA.pdf *http://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PDF/Pub1215_web.pdf *''The Soviet Program for Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Explosions'', M. D. Nordyke, [http://www.osti.gov/bridge/product.biblio.jsp?osti_id=793554 UCRL-ID-12441O Rev 2] *https://web.archive.org/web/20090227073933/http://www.princeton.edu/~globsec/publications/effects/effects.shtml

{{DEFAULTSORT:Underground Nuclear Testing}} Category:Underground nuclear weapons testing Category:1951 introductions