Udder

{{Short description|Organ formed of mammary glands on the females of dairy animals}} {{For|the ice cream store brand|Udders (ice cream)}} [[File:Cow udders02.jpg|thumb|250px|Udder of a cow]] An '''udder''' is an organ formed of two or four mammary glands on the females of dairy animals and ruminants such as cattle, goats, and sheep.<ref name="Frandson2013">{{citation|author1=Rowen D. Frandson|author2=W. Lee Wilke|author3=Anna Dee Fails|title=Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals|date=1 April 2013|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-118-68601-0|pages=449–451}}</ref> An udder is equivalent to the breast in primates and other mammals. The udder is a single mass hanging beneath the animal, consisting of pairs of mammary glands with protruding teats. In cattle, camels and deer, there are normally two pairs, in sheep and goats, there is one pair, and in some animals, there are many pairs. In animals with udders, the mammary glands develop on the milk line near the groin. Mammary glands that develop on the chest (such as in primates and elephants) are generally referred to as breasts.<ref name="Frandson2013"/>

Udder care and hygiene in cows is important in milking, aiding uninterrupted and untainted milk production, and preventing mastitis. Products exist to soothe the chapped skin of the udder. This helps prevent bacterial infection, and reduces irritation during milking by the cups, and so the cow is less likely to kick the cups off. It has been demonstrated that incorporating nutritional supplements into diet, including vitamin E, is an additional method of improving udder health and reducing infection.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=O'Rourke|first=D|date=2009-04-01|title=Nutrition and udder health in dairy cows: a review|journal=Irish Veterinary Journal|volume=62|issue=Suppl 4|pages=S15–S20|article-number=S15|doi=10.1186/2046-0481-62-S4-S15|issn=0368-0762|pmc=3339345|pmid=22082340|doi-access=free}}</ref>

== Etymology == Udder has been attested in Middle English as {{lang|enm|udder}} or {{lang|enm|uddyr}} (also as {{lang|enm|uther}}, {{lang|enm|iddyr}}), and in Old English as {{lang|ang|ūder}}.<ref>{{Cite web|title=udder - Middle English Compendium|url=https://quod.lib.umich.edu/m/middle-english-dictionary/dictionary/MED47547|access-date=2022-01-31|website=quod.lib.umich.edu}}</ref> It was evolved from the Proto-Germanic reconstructed root ''*eudrą'' or ''*ūdrą'', which in turn descended from Proto-Indo-European ''*h₁ówHdʰr̥'' (“udder”). It is cognate with Saterland Frisian {{lang|stq|Jadder}} (“udder”), Dutch {{lang|nl|uier}} (“udder”), German {{lang|de|Euter}} (“udder”), Swedish {{lang|sv|juver}} (“udder”), Icelandic {{lang|is|júgur}} (“udder”), Vedic Sanskrit ऊधर् (ū́dhar), Ancient Greek {{lang|grc-Grek|οὖθαρ|italic=no}} ({{lang|grc-latn|oûthar}}), and Latin {{lang|la|ūber}}.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kroonen|first=Guus|url=https://brill.com/view/title/12611|title=Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Germanic|date=2013-07-19|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-18340-7|language=en}}</ref>

== Culinary use== The udder, or ''elder'' in Ireland, Scotland and northern England, of a slaughtered cow was in times past prepared and consumed.<ref>[https://www.irishtimes.com/news/the-words-we-use-1.1115207 The Words We Use], Diarmaid O Muirithe, irishtimes.com, 11 November 2000</ref> In other countries, like Italy, parts of Pakistan, Kenya, and some South American countries, cow udder is still consumed in dishes like the traditional {{lang|it|{{ill|teteun|it}}}} and ubres asada.

== Microbial ecology == The udder microbiome of cows can act as a defense mechanism for preventing infection and can impact the production and quality of milk. The presence of ''Staphylococcus'' – specifically ''S. aureus, S. uberis,'' and ''S.'' agalactiae – on the teat apex can lead to intramammary infections (IMI) if it migrates to the teat canal and the mammary gland.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zigo |first1=František |last2=Farkašová |first2=Zuzana |last3=Výrostková |first3=Jana |last4=Regecová |first4=Ivana |last5=Ondrašovičová |first5=Silvia |last6=Vargová |first6=Mária |last7=Sasáková |first7=Naďa |last8=Pecka-Kielb |first8=Ewa |last9=Bursová |first9=Šárka |last10=Kiss |first10=David Sandor |date=2022-02-14 |title=Dairy Cows' Udder Pathogens and Occurrence of Virulence Factors in Staphylococci |journal=Animals |language=en |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=470 |doi=10.3390/ani12040470 |doi-access=free |issn=2076-2615 |pmc=8868196 |pmid=35203178}}</ref> These infections trigger the mammary gland immune response<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Oviedo-Boyso |first1=Javier |last2=Valdez-Alarcón |first2=Juan J. |last3=Cajero-Juárez |first3=Marcos |last4=Ochoa-Zarzosa |first4=Alejandra |last5=López-Meza |first5=Joel E. |last6=Bravo-Patiño |first6=Alejandro |last7=Baizabal-Aguirre |first7=Víctor M. |date=April 2007 |title=Innate immune response of bovine mammary gland to pathogenic bacteria responsible for mastitis |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0163445306002076 |journal=Journal of Infection |language=en |volume=54 |issue=4 |pages=399–409 |doi=10.1016/j.jinf.2006.06.010 |pmid=16882453 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> and can lead to decreased milk production.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Schukken |first1=Y.H. |last2=Hertl |first2=J. |last3=Bar |first3=D. |last4=Bennett |first4=G.J. |last5=González |first5=R.N. |last6=Rauch |first6=B.J. |last7=Santisteban |first7=C. |last8=Schulte |first8=H.F. |last9=Tauer |first9=L. |last10=Welcome |first10=F.L. |last11=Gröhn |first11=Y.T. |date=July 2009 |title=Effects of repeated gram-positive and gram-negative clinical mastitis episodes on milk yield loss in Holstein dairy cows |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0022030209706265 |journal=Journal of Dairy Science |language=en |volume=92 |issue=7 |pages=3091–3105 |doi=10.3168/jds.2008-1557 |pmid=19528587 }}</ref> The 4 major phyla associated with a healthy teat apex include ''Actinobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes,'' and ''Proteobacteria.''<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Derakhshani |first1=Hooman |last2=Fehr |first2=Kelsey B. |last3=Sepehri |first3=Shadi |last4=Francoz |first4=David |last5=De Buck |first5=Jeroen |last6=Barkema |first6=Herman W. |last7=Plaizier |first7=Jan C. |last8=Khafipour |first8=Ehsan |date=December 2018 |title=Invited review: Microbiota of the bovine udder: Contributing factors and potential implications for udder health and mastitis susceptibility |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0022030218309147 |journal=Journal of Dairy Science |language=en |volume=101 |issue=12 |pages=10605–10625 |doi=10.3168/jds.2018-14860 |pmid=30292553 }}</ref> Some of these non-''aureus'' staphylococci (NAS) can release bacteriocins that inhibit the growth of ''S. aureus'' and prevent infection<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Carson |first1=Domonique A. |last2=Barkema |first2=Herman W. |last3=Naushad |first3=Sohail |last4=De Buck |first4=Jeroen |date=September 2017 |editor-last=Drake |editor-first=Harold L. |title=Bacteriocins of Non-aureus Staphylococci Isolated from Bovine Milk |journal=Applied and Environmental Microbiology |language=en |volume=83 |issue=17 |article-number=e01015-17 |doi=10.1128/AEM.01015-17 |pmid=28667105 |pmc=5561277 |bibcode=2017ApEnM..83E1015C |issn=0099-2240}}</ref> whereas the microbiome of dairy cows with IMI can be categorized with an increased prevalence of ''Staphylococcus'' and decreased diversity.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Metzger |first1=Stephanie A. |last2=Hernandez |first2=Laura L. |last3=Skarlupka |first3=Joseph H. |last4=Walker |first4=Teresa M. |last5=Suen |first5=Garret |last6=Ruegg |first6=Pamela L. |date=2018-10-09 |title=A Cohort Study of the Milk Microbiota of Healthy and Inflamed Bovine Mammary Glands From Dryoff Through 150 Days in Milk |journal=Frontiers in Veterinary Science |volume=5 |article-number=247 |doi=10.3389/fvets.2018.00247 |doi-access=free |issn=2297-1769 |pmc=6189514 |pmid=30356776}}</ref> IMIs can also impact the quality and composition of the proteins found in milk.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=L. |last2=Boeren |first2=S. |last3=van Hooijdonk |first3=A.C.M. |last4=Vervoort |first4=J.M. |last5=Hettinga |first5=K.A. |date=August 2015 |title=A proteomic perspective on the changes in milk proteins due to high somatic cell count |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0022030215004208 |journal=Journal of Dairy Science |language=en |volume=98 |issue=8 |pages=5339–5351 |doi=10.3168/jds.2014-9279 |pmid=26094216 }}</ref> The loss of milk production and increased waste of milk due to lower quality make IMIs one of the leading causes of economic losses in the milk industry.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rasmussen |first1=Philip |last2=Barkema |first2=Herman W. |last3=Osei |first3=Prince P. |last4=Taylor |first4=James |last5=Shaw |first5=Alexandra P. |last6=Conrady |first6=Beate |last7=Chaters |first7=Gemma |last8=Muñoz |first8=Violeta |last9=Hall |first9=David C. |last10=Apenteng |first10=Ofosuhene O. |last11=Rushton |first11=Jonathan |last12=Torgerson |first12=Paul R. |date=September 2024 |title=Global losses due to dairy cattle diseases: A comorbidity-adjusted economic analysis |journal=Journal of Dairy Science |language=en |volume=107 |issue=9 |pages=6945–6970 |doi=10.3168/jds.2023-24626 |pmc=11382338 |pmid=38788837}}</ref>

Environmental factors can play a role in shaping the diversity and composition of these communities. The udder is completely exposed to the both indoor and outdoor environments and comes into direct contact with areas such as bedding, milking equipment, and feces.<ref name=":0" /> These bacteria can then seed raw milk with potential pathogens that affect safety and spoilage organisms that affect quality.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Doyle |first1=Conor J. |last2=Gleeson |first2=David |last3=O'Toole |first3=Paul W. |last4=Cotter |first4=Paul D. |date=2017-01-15 |editor-last=Bjorkroth |editor-first=J. |title=Impacts of Seasonal Housing and Teat Preparation on Raw Milk Microbiota: a High-Throughput Sequencing Study |journal=Applied and Environmental Microbiology |language=en |volume=83 |issue=2 |article-number=e02694-16 |doi=10.1128/AEM.02694-16 |pmid=27815277 |pmc=5203630 |bibcode=2017ApEnM..83E2694D |issn=0099-2240}}</ref> For example, ''S. aureus'' is naturally found on the external teat skin.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Capurro |first1=A. |last2=Aspán |first2=A. |last3=Ericsson Unnerstad |first3=H. |last4=Persson Waller |first4=K. |last5=Artursson |first5=K. |date=January 2010 |title=Identification of potential sources of Staphylococcus aureus in herds with mastitis problems |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0022030210702782 |journal=Journal of Dairy Science |language=en |volume=93 |issue=1 |pages=180–191 |doi=10.3168/jds.2009-2471 |pmid=20059917 }}</ref> ''Listeria'' monocytogenes is commonly found in the environment and is associated with improper cleaning and sanitation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hunt |first1=Karen |last2=Drummond |first2=Niall |last3=Murphy |first3=Mary |last4=Butler |first4=Francis |last5=Buckley |first5=Jim |last6=Jordan |first6=Kieran |date=December 2012 |title=A case of bovine raw milk contamination with Listeria monocytogenes |journal=Irish Veterinary Journal |language=en |volume=65 |issue=1 |article-number=13 |doi=10.1186/2046-0481-65-13 |doi-access=free |issn=2046-0481 |pmc=3526472 |pmid=22769601}}</ref> ''Pseudomonas'' spp. are known spoilage organisms in milk and are often found in environments such as soil. While pasteurization can eliminate or reduce these bacteria, high initial bacterial loads could allow some of these to persist post-pasteurization. Effective cleaning and sanitation of the cow’s housing environment and the udder surface can help prevent contamination of raw milk.<ref name=":1" /> Antimicrobials can also be used to prevent bacteria growth on the udder surface, however, consideration is needed before use to prevent antimicrobial resistance.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Winther |first1=Anja R. |last2=Perrin |first2=Aurelie |last3=Nordraak |first3=Anne O. O. |last4=Kjos |first4=Morten |last5=Porcellato |first5=Davide |date=2024-08-07 |title=An in vitro evaluation of the effect of antimicrobial treatment on bovine mammary microbiota |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=14 |issue=1 |article-number=18333 |doi=10.1038/s41598-024-69273-y |issn=2045-2322 |pmc=11306798 |pmid=39112607}}</ref>

== References == {{Reflist}}

== External links == * {{commons category-inline|Udders}}

Category:Mammal anatomy Category:Breast Category:Exocrine system Category:Mammal female reproductive system Category:Glands Category:Secondary sexual characteristics Category:Dairy farming