{{short description|Prehistoric European culture characterized by burial mounds}} {{Infobox archaeological culture |name = Tumulus culture |map = Tumulus1a.png |mapalt = |altnames = |horizon = |region = Central Europe |period = Middle Bronze Age |dates = {{circa|1600–1200 BC}} |typesite = |majorsites = |extra = |precededby = Únětice culture, Ottomány culture, Rhône culture, Mad'arovce culture, Encrusted Pottery culture |followedby = Urnfield culture, Lusatian culture }} {| align='center' width=240px style='empty-cells:show; float: right; clear: both; padding: 8px;' |- bgcolor='#EDDABE' | colspan='2' align='center' | '''Central European Bronze Age''' |- bgcolor='#F2C8A1' style='font-size:90%;' | colspan='2' align='center' | '''Late Bronze Age''' |- bgcolor='#F2C8A1' style='font-size:82%;' | Ha B2/3 || 950–800 BC |- bgcolor='#F2C8A1' style='font-size:82%;' | Ha B1 || 1050–950 BC |- bgcolor='#F2C8A1' style='font-size:82%;' | Ha A2 || 1100–1050 BC |- bgcolor='#F2C8A1' style='font-size:82%;' | Ha A1 || 1200–1100 BC |- bgcolor='#F2C8A1' style='font-size:82%;' | Bz D || 1300–1200 BC |- bgcolor='#F4D5B1' style='font-size:90%;' | colspan='2' align='center' | '''Middle Bronze Age''' |- bgcolor='#F4D5B1' style='font-size:82%;' | Bz C2 || 1400–1300 BC |- bgcolor='#F4D5B1' style='font-size:82%;' | Bz C1 || 1500–1400 BC |- bgcolor='#F4D5B1' style='font-size:82%;' | Bz B || 1600–1500 BC |- bgcolor='#F6DEBA' style='font-size:90%;' | colspan='2' align='center' | '''Early Bronze Age''' |- bgcolor='#F6DEBA' style='font-size:82%;' | Bz A2 || 2000–1600 BC |- bgcolor='#F6DEBA' style='font-size:82%;' | Bz A1 || 2300–2000 BC |- |} The '''Tumulus culture''' (German: ''Hügelgräberkultur'') was the dominant material culture in Central Europe during the Middle Bronze Age ({{circa}} 1600 to 1300 BC).
It was the descendant of the Unetice culture. Its heartland was the area previously occupied by the Unetice culture, and its territory included parts of Germany, the Czech Republic, Austria, Switzerland, the Carpathian Basin, Poland and France. It was succeeded by the Late Bronze Age Urnfield culture and part of the origin of the Italic and Celtic cultures.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-_kZIeAsk9w | title=Urnfield Proto-Celts of the Bronze Age | website=YouTube }}</ref>
==Artefacts and characteristics== [[File:02019 0741 16-14th-century BC works in Silesia.jpg|thumb|left|Tumulus culture artefacts from Silesia, Poland, 16th-14th century BC]]
The Tumulus culture is distinguished by the practice of burying the dead beneath burial mounds (tumuli or kurgans).
In 1902, Paul Reinecke distinguished a number of cultural horizons based on research of Bronze Age hoards and tumuli in periods covered by these cultural horizons are shown in the table below (right). The Tumulus culture was prevalent during the Bronze Age periods B, C1, and C2. Tumuli have been used elsewhere in Europe from the Stone Age to the Iron Age; the term "Tumulus culture" specifically refers to the South German variant of the Bronze Age. In the table, Ha designates Hallstatt. Archaeological horizons Hallstatt A–B are part of the Bronze Age Urnfield culture, while horizons Hallstatt C–D are the type site for the Iron Age Hallstatt culture.
The Tumulus culture was eminently a warrior society, which expanded with new chiefdoms eastward into the Carpathian Basin (up to the river Tisza), and northward into Polish and Central European Únětice territories.
Some scholars see Tumulus groups from southern Germany as corresponding to a community that shared an extinct Indo-European linguistic entity, such as the hypothetical Italo-Celtic group that was ancestral to Italic and Celtic.<ref>Kortlandt, Frederik (2007a). ''Italo-Celtic origins and prehistoric development of the Irish language''. Amsterdam: Rodopi, {{page needed|date=July 2018}}</ref><ref>Eska, J. F. (2010). "The emergence of the Celtic languages". IN: M. J. Ball and N. Müller (eds.), ''The Celtic Languages'', second edition. London: Routledge, {{page needed|date=July 2018}}</ref> This particular hypothesis, however, conflicts with suggestions by other Indo-Europeanists. For instance, David W. Anthony suggests that Proto-Italic (and perhaps also Proto-Celtic) speakers could have entered Northern Italy at an earlier stage, from the east (e.g., the Balkan/Adriatic region).<ref>Anthony, David W. (2010). ''The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World'', Princeton University Press, p. 367.</ref> {{clear|left}}
==Culture== [[File:MUFT - Schwarza Frauentracht.jpg|thumb|Women's attire from Schwarza, Germany, {{Circa|1500 BC}} (reconstruction)<ref>{{cite web |url=https://alt-thueringen.de/museum-fuer-ur-und-fruehgeschichte-weimar_mittlere_bronzezeit_schmuck/ |title=Jewelry from Schwarza |website=Museum of Prehistory and Early History of Thuringia}}</ref>|292x292px]]
=== Settlements ===
The culture's dispersed settlements consisted of villages or homesteads centered on fortified structures such as hillforts.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6ZQeAAAAQBAJ|title=The Oxford Handbook of the European Bronze Age|editor-last1=Fokkens|editor-first1=Harry|editor-last2=Harding|editor-first2=Anthony|chapter=40. Germany in the Bronze Age|date=27 June 2013 |page=730|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-957286-1}}</ref> Significant fortified settlements include the Heuneburg, Bullenheimer Berg, Ehrenbürg, Heidenschanze and Bernstorf.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.academia.edu/36007908|last1=Schussmann|first1=Markus|date=2017|editor-last1=Heeb|editor-first1=Bernhard|editor-last2=Szentmiklosi|editor-first2=Alexandru|editor-last3=Krause|editor-first3=Rüdiger|editor-last4=Wemhof|editor-first4=Matthias|title=Fortifications: The Rise and Fall of Defended Sites in Late Bronze and Early Iron Age of South-East Europe|publisher=Die Deutsche Bibliothek – CIP-Einheitsaufnahme|pages=59–78|chapter=Defended sites and fortifications in Southern Germany during the Bronze Age and Urnfield Period – a short introduction}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Kristiansen|first1=Kristian|last2=Suchowska-Ducke|first2=Paulina|date=December 2015|title=Connected Histories: the Dynamics of Bronze Age Interaction and Trade 1500–1100 BC|journal=Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society|publisher=Cambridge University Press|volume=81|pages=361–392|doi=10.1017/ppr.2015.17|doi-access=free|quote=Bernstorff is the largest fortified settlement in southern Germany/western Central Europe with a size of 14 ha. Its huge fortifications were constructed in the Middle Bronze Age (middle of the 14th century BC), when the power balance between eastern and western Central Europe was changing, and shortly after it was devastated and burned down along 1.6 kilometers of its length. We will probably never know who the enemies were, but we might suspect them to be outsiders, because at the same time we find evidence of major upheavals in eastern Central Europe.}}</ref> Fortification walls were built from wood, stone, and clay. The massive 3.6m-wide wall surrounding the plateau of the Ehrenbürg resembled later ''murus gallicus'' fortifications known from the Iron Age.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.academia.edu/36007908|last1=Schussmann|first1=Markus|date=2017|editor-last1=Heeb|editor-first1=Bernhard|editor-last2=Szentmiklosi|editor-first2=Alexandru|editor-last3=Krause|editor-first3=Rüdiger|editor-last4=Wemhof|editor-first4=Matthias|title=Fortifications: The Rise And Fall Of Defended Sites In Late Bronze And Early Iron Age Of South-East Europe|publisher=Die Deutsche Bibliothek – CIP-Einheitsaufnahme|pages=59–78|chapter=Defended sites and fortifications in Southern Germany during the Bronze Age and Urnfield Period – a short introduction}}</ref> 'Cyclopean' stone fortifications topped with wooden battlements were constructed {{Circa|1400 BC}} at the large hillfort of Stätteberg in Bavaria.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.academia.edu/94519472 |journal=Bayerische Archäologie |date=2022 |title=Eine »zyklopische« Steinbefestigung der Mittelbronzezeit auf dem Stätteberg bei Oberhausen |last1=Nebelsick |first1=Louis |pages=15–25}}</ref>
=== Trade ===
Tumulus culture societies traded with those in Scandinavia, Atlantic Europe, the Mediterranean region and the Aegean. Traded items included amber and metal artefacts.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society|volume=81|date=December 2015|title=Connected Histories: the Dynamics of Bronze Age Interaction and Trade 1500–1100 BC|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/284811960|last1=Kristiansen|first1=Kristian|last2=Suchowska-Ducke|first2=Paulina|pages=361–392|doi=10.1017/ppr.2015.17|quote=In the 15th and into the 13th century BC ... the western Mediterranean became the focus of new direct trade with the expanding Tumulus Culture of western Central Europe, which secured direct connections to Jutland and its sources of amber. The archaeological evidence shows that the Tumulus societies were in contact with the Aegean city-states through the exchange of amber and metal items, and also perhaps of perishable goods. It created new wealth in the Nordic Bronze Age and led to the formation of a specific Nordic style based on Mycenaean templates.|doi-access=free}}</ref> From the beginning of the Middle Bronze Age there is evidence for the use of weighed metal as form of payment or money.<ref>{{cite journal |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=16 |issue=1 |title=The origins of money: Calculation of similarity indexes demonstrates the earliest development of commodity money in prehistoric Central Europe |last1=Kuijpers |first1=Maikel H. G. |last2=Popa |first2=Cătălin N. |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0240462 |date=January 2021|article-number=e0240462 |pmid=33471789 |pmc=7816976 |bibcode=2021PLoSO..1640462K |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Pare |first1=Christopher |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6ZQeAAAAQBAJ |title=The Oxford Handbook of the European Bronze Age |date=2013 |isbn=978-0-19-957286-1 |editor-last1=Harding |editor-first1=Anthony |pages=508–527 |chapter=Chapter 29: Weighing, Commodification and Money |publisher=OUP Oxford |editor-last2=Fokkens |editor-first2=Harry}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |journal=PNAS |volume=118 |issue=30 |date=2021 |last=Vandkilde |first=Helle |title=Trading and weighing metals in Bronze Age Western Eurasia |doi=10.1073/pnas.2110552118 |pmid=34301879 |pmc=8325268 |quote=copper was traded for amber to be transported southward hundreds of kilometers to south German Tumulus groups who were in possession of weighing technology and greatly appreciated the amber, worn by women as necklaces not unlike those found in the shaft grave circles of Mycenae. |doi-access=free }}</ref> Weighing equipment has been found in central Europe dating from c. 1400 BC onwards.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://www.academia.edu/40489178 |title=Weights and Marketplaces from the Bronze Age to the Early Modern Period |date=2019 |publisher=European Research Council |last1=Ialongo |first1=N. |last2=Rahmstorf |first2=L. |chapter=The identification of balance weights in pre-literate Bronze Age Europe: Typology, chronology, distribution and metrology |pages=105–126}}</ref>
=== Metalwork ===
The Bronze Hand of Prêles from Switzerland, dating from the 16th-15th century BC, is a unique find from the Tumulus culture period.<ref>{{cite web |title=Photo of the Bronze Hand of Prêles |url=https://qph.cf2.quoracdn.net/main-qimg-ff5c3a342559b1415cdf6aaeeb9a7664}}</ref> Described as "the earliest metal representation of a human body part ever found in Europe",<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/bronze-hand-ancient-switzerland-archaeology |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210219220618/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/bronze-hand-ancient-switzerland-archaeology |archive-date=February 19, 2021 |title=3,500-Year-Old Hand is Europe's Earliest Metal Body Part |website=National Geographic |date=2018}}</ref> it may have been a ritual object, or mounted on a standard like similar metal hands known from the Iron Age,<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.academia.edu/51155651 |title=Das bronzezeitliche Grab und die Bronzehand von Prêles. Ergebnisse der Table Ronde vom 30.Oktober 2019 in Bern|journal=Hefte zur Archäologie Im Kanton Bern Nr. 8 |date=January 2021 |last1=Bär |first1=Barbara |last2=Schaer |first2=Andrea |last3=Meller |first3=Harald |last4=Senn |first4=Marianne |last5=Brunner |first5=Mirco |last6=Ballmer |first6=Ariane }}</ref> or possibly a prosthesis.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.livescience.com/63690-oldest-metal-hand-europe.html |title=Was This Man a Bronze-Age Cyborg? His Metal Hand May Have Been a Prosthetic |website=Live Science |date=2018}}</ref> It was found in a grave along with a bronze hair-ring, pin and dagger. The hand had a golden bracelet or cuff decorated with solar motifs.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Garrow |first1=Duncan |last2=Wilkin |first2=Neil |title=The World of Stonehenge |date=2022 |publisher=British Museum Press |location=London |isbn=978-07141-2349-3 |page=21}}</ref>
=== Calendar ===
Golden hats from Schifferstadt in Germany and Avanton in France, dating from the late Tumulus period (c. 1400 BC), may have been worn by elite religious figures, described as 'oracles' or 'king-priests' by researchers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/germany/1388038/Mysterious-gold-cones-hats-of-ancient-wizards.html|title=Mysterious gold cones 'hats of ancient wizards'|website=Telegraph.co.uk|date=17 March 2002 |access-date=5 December 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Schmidt |first=Mark |date=2017 |title=Religiöse Vorstellungen in der mittleren Bronzezeit |journal=Archäologie in Deutschland |issue=3 |pages=38–39 |jstor=26323464}}</ref> The patterns of ornaments or symbols on the hats are thought to represent calendars,<ref>{{cite book |title=Gold und Kult der Bronzezeit |publisher=Germanisches Nationalmuseum, Nuremberg |year=2003 |pages=220–237|isbn=3-926982-95-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KLg2c5LbCIQ |title=The World of the Nebra Sky Disc: The Golden Hat of Schifferstadt |website=Halle State Museum of Prehistory |date=2022}}</ref> as on the later and more elaborate Berlin Gold Hat, which may encode knowledge of the luni-solar Metonic cycle.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Menghin|first=Wilfried|title=Zahlensymbolik und digitales Rechnersystem in der Ornamentik des Berliner Goldhutes|date=2008|journal=Acta Praehistorica et Archaeologica|volume=40|url=https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/apa/issue/view/5045|doi=10.11588/apa.2008.0.71505|pages=157–169}}</ref> Some researchers have suggested that a Venus calendar is encoded on the Schifferstadt hat and later Ezeldorf and Berlin gold hats.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.knauf-museum.de/images/stories/site/presse/BHB_Schiffertaedter_Tagblatt_07072012.pdf |title=Schifferstadter Tagblatt 2012 |publisher=Knauf Museum Iphofen |quote=''Fur die drei hute wird ausserdem die frage diskutiert, ob die verzierungen im goldblech neben den mond- und sonnensymbolen auch venus-symbole und eined venuskalender enthalten. Die ansichten der fachleute gehen insbesondere bei der frage auseinander ob jahrzehntelange astronomische zyklen damals schon bekannt gewesen sein konnen. Dagegen ist leicht vorstellbar und kaum strittig, dass dis menschen der bronzezeit die widederkehr der Venus am himmel nach 584 Tagen bereits beobachtet haben. Das im mediterranean Bereich fur die venus ubliche Augensymbole befindet sich auf allen dreihuten. Auf dem Berliner Goldhut 19-mal, was genau der Anzahl der monate fur einen Venuszyklus entspricht, wenn man pro Monat mit 30/31 tagen rechnet. Auf dem Schifferstadter un dem Ezeldorfer Goldhut sind die Venuszeichen 22-mal enthalten. Das entspricht ebenfalls der Monatszahl fur einen Venuszyklus, wenn man den alteren Mond-Monat mit 27 tagen als Basis nimmt, Moglicherweise wurde bei Herstellung des Schifferstadter Goldhutes noch mit dem Mondkalender und 300 jahre spater am Ende der Bronzezeit dei Herstellung des Berliner Goldhutes schon in "modernerer" zeitrechnung mit: 30/31 Tagen pro Monat gerechnet.''" '''English translation:''' "For the three hats, the question is also being discussed as to whether the decorations in the gold plate also contain Venus symbols and a Venus calendar in addition to the moon and sun symbols. The views of the experts diverge in particular on the question of whether decades-long astronomical cycles could have been known at the time. On the other hand, it is easy to imagine and hardly controversial that the people of the Bronze Age had already observed the return of Venus in the sky after 584 days. The eye symbol common for Venus in the Mediterranean region can be found on all three hats. On the Berlin Gold Hat 19 times, which corresponds exactly to the number of months for a Venus cycle, if one reckons with 30/31 days per month. On the Schifferstadt and Ezeldorf gold hats, the Venus signs are contained 22 times. This also corresponds to the number of months for a Venus cycle, if one takes the older lunar month with 27 days as a basis. It is possible that when the Schifferstadt gold hat was made, the lunar calendar was still used and 300 years later, at the end of the Bronze Age, the Berlin gold hat was made in a more "modern" calendar with 30/31 days per month.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2012 |title=Ein Venus Kalender auf dem Berliner Goldhut (Schmidt-Kaler 2012) (A Venus calendar on the Berlin Gold Hat) |url=https://www.quantenbit.physik.uni-mainz.de/3161-2/ |publisher=Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz}}</ref> Gold discs from the Czech Republic, dating from c. 1650-1250 BC, feature similar ornaments and are thought to represent simpler calendars.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4khiDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA20 |title=Studies of Homeric Greece |date=2018 |last=Bouzek |first=Jan |publisher=Charles University |isbn=978-80-246-3561-3 |page=205 |quote=The West Bohemian gold roundels with twelve bosses are simplified calendars of the gold cones.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.zcm.cz/en/collections/prehistoric-collections?dysina-nova-hut-zlaty-kotouc-s-tepanou-vyzdobou-mohylova-kultura-1-650-1-250-pr-n-l|publisher=Museum of West Bohemia in Plzeň|title=Prehistoric Collections}}</ref> Identical 'ritual objects' from Haschendorf in Austria and Balkåkra in Sweden may also date from the Middle Bronze Age and have been interpreted as solar calendars.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://www.academia.edu/40568654 |title=Bronze Age Connectivity in the Carpathian Basin |chapter=Local and Interregional Connections Through the Comparison of the Hasfalva Disc and the Balkåkra Disc |last1=Szabo |first1=Geza |date=2016 |pages=345–360 |publisher=Editura Mega |isbn=978-606-020-058-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Randsborg |first=Klavs |date=2006 |title=Calendars of the Bronze Age |url=https://worldarchaeology.org/publications/ |journal=Acta Archaeologica |volume=77 |pages=62–90|doi=10.1111/j.1600-0390.2006.00047.x |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Simple numerals on the objects in the form of lines and dots represent assembly instructions for the objects.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Szabo |first1=Geza |url=https://www.academia.edu/40568654 |title=Bronze Age Connectivity in the Carpathian Basin |date=2016 |publisher=Editura Mega |isbn=978-606-020-058-1 |pages=345–360 |chapter=Local and Interregional Connections Through the Comparison of the Hasfalva Disc and the Balkåkra Disc}}</ref> Similar 'counting marks' were also used by craftsmen in the production of swords.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.academia.edu/115753366/A_Unique_Case_of_Counting_Marks_Revealed_by_Tomography_on_a_Middle_Bronze_Age_Sword_from_Champagneux_France_Savoie_ |journal=Acta Archaeologica |volume=91|issue=1|title=A Unique Case of 'Counting Marks' Revealed by Tomography on a Middle Bronze Age Sword from Champagneux (France, Savoie) |last1=Dumont |first1=Léonard |display-authors=etal |date=2021 |doi=10.1163/16000390-12340001|hdl=1854/LU-8734363 |hdl-access=free |pages=3–15 }}</ref> The repeated use of numbers 10, 20, 30 in the construction of the Balkåkra and Haschendorf objects suggests the use of a ten-digit system.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Randsborg |first=Klavs |date=2006 |title=Calendars of the Bronze Age |url=https://worldarchaeology.org/publications/ |journal=Acta Archaeologica |volume=77 |pages=62–90|doi=10.1111/j.1600-0390.2006.00047.x |url-access=subscription }}</ref>
==Gallery== <gallery> File:Gentleman, Bronze Age, 15th century BC, replica - Naturhistorisches Museum Nürnberg - Nuremberg, Germany -DSC04215.jpg|alt=|Bronze Age dress, 15th century BC, Germany File:Molzbach 1.jpg|The Girl from Molzbach, Germany, c. 1300 BC File:Wetteraumuseum Grab BZ Woelfersheim.jpg|Grave goods from Wölfersheim, Germany File:Middle Bronze Age swords, 1600-1400 BC.png|Bronze swords, 1600-1400 BC File:Middlebronze3.jpg|alt=|Burial goods, 1400 BC File:Hortfund Bronzezeit.JPG|Bronze & gold items, Germany, {{Circa|1600 BC}} File:Bronze spiral ornaments, Tumulus culture.png|Bronze spiral arm ornaments, c. 1500 BC File:ALB - Goldarmband Nassenheide.jpg|Gold bracelet from Nassenheide, Germany File:Gobelets - Man - Saint-Germain-en-Laye - 27 mars 2017.jpg|Gold artefacts, France, {{Circa|1400 BC}} File:Golden decorated disc, 1800-1300 BC, Museum of Western Bohemia, 187791.jpg|alt=Gold disc, Czech Rep., 1650-1250 BC.|Gold disc, Czechia, c.1650 BC.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.zcm.cz/en/collections/prehistoric-collections?dysina-nova-hut-zlaty-kotouc-s-tepanou-vyzdobou-mohylova-kultura-1-650-1-250-pr-n-l|publisher=Museum of West Bohemia in Plzeň|title=Prehistoric Collections}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4khiDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA20 |title=Studies of Homeric Greece |date=2018 |last=Bouzek |first=Jan |publisher=Charles University |isbn=978-80-246-3561-3 |page=205 |quote=The West Bohemian gold roundels with twelve bosses are simplified calendars of the gold cones.}}</ref> File:Eschenz gold cup 1.jpg|Gold cup from Eschenz, Switzerland, {{Circa|1600 BC}} File:Speyer-2009-historisches-museum-026.jpg|Schifferstadt gold hat, Germany, {{Circa|1400 BC}}.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Schmidt |first=Mark |date=2017 |title=Religiöse Vorstellungen in der mittleren Bronzezeit |journal=Archäologie in Deutschland |issue=3 |pages=38–39 |jstor=26323464}}</ref> File:Cône d'Avanton, musée des Antiquités Nationales, 2010-03-26.jpg|Avanton gold hat, France, {{Circa|1400 BC}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://musee-archeologienationale.fr/collection/objet/cone-davanton |title=Cône d'Avanton |website=musee-archeologienationale.fr}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://musee-archeologienationale.fr/en/phototheque/oeuvres/tresor-de-rongeres-coupe-apode-bracelet-bipartite-spirale-et-bague-rubanee_orfevrerie-technique_or-metal |title=Trésor de Rongères |website=musee-archeologienationale.f}}</ref> File:Museum für Vor- und Frühgeschichte Berlin 019.jpg|Gold artefacts, Germany, 14th c. BC<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.academia.edu/11081773 |title=Die neolithischen und bronzezeitlichen Goldfunde Mitteldeutschlands – Eine Übersicht |date=January 2014 |page=667 |last1=Meller |first1=Harald }}</ref> File:Necklace, amber, glass, Middle Bronze Age, Museum of Western Bohemia, 187798.jpg|Amber, glass necklace, Czech Republic File:Bernsteincollier.jpg|Amber necklace, Germany, 1500 BC.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Archäologie in Deutschland|title=Ein Europa ohne Grenzen?|issue=3|date=2017|last=Feger|first=Rosemarie|pages=26–29|jstor=26323460 }}</ref> File:La céramique à l'âge du bronze (musée historique, Haguenau) (36058831702).jpg|Tumulus ceramics, Hagenau, France File:Tumulus culture Ornaments 2.jpg|Bronze and amber ornaments, Germany, 1500-1400 BC File:Goldhort Gessel Ausstellung im Landesmuseum Hannover.jpg|Gold hoard from Gessel, Germany, {{Circa|1400 BC}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/341822155_Vom_Herrschaftszeichen_zum_Herrschaftsornat_Zur_Entstehung_des_goldenen_Ringschmucks_in_Mitteleuropa |title=Vom Herrschaftszeichen zum Herrschaftsornat. Zur Entstehung des goldenen Ringschmucks in Mitteleuropa (Meller et al. 2019) |pages=296}}</ref> File:Bronze Age jewelleryDSCF6607.jpg|Gold Jewellery, Hungary File:Bronze armband british museum.JPG|Bronze armbands, Hungary, 1400-1200 BC File:Middlebronze6.jpg|alt=|Bronze anklets, Germany, 1600-1400 BC File:Bronze Age Europe Decorative Needles & Pendants (28140506213).jpg|Bronze clothing pins File:0367 Schmuck von der Bronzezeit zirka 11. Jh. v. Chr..jpg|Gold ring, Carpathian basin File:Balkåkra ritual object (4663417814).jpg|Ritual objects from Haschendorf in Austria and Balkåkra in Sweden File:AMK - Bronzezeit Frauenberg Trensenknebel.jpg|Horse bits made from antler, Germany File:Bronze Sword, 13th century BC.png|Bronze sword, Central Europe, 13th century BC File:Bronze swords-MGR Lyon-IMG 9733.jpg|Bronze sword, France, 1550-1450 BC File:Huegelgrab3-unteralting-grafrath16.JPG|Tumulus, Germany File:Opferplattform aus der mittleren Bronzezeit in Aicholding bei Riedenburg.jpg|Cremation platform, Germany File:Copenhagen - Nationalmuseet - The Bronze Age House.JPG|Middle Bronze Age house </gallery>
==See also== {{Bronze Age Europe}} *Apennine culture *Argaric culture *Atlantic Bronze Age *Bell Beaker culture *Bernstorf fortified settlement *Bronze Age Britain *Bronze hand of Prêles *Frankleben hoard *Mycenaean Greece *Nordic Bronze Age *Ottomany culture *Srubnaya culture *Terramare culture *Urnfield culture *Vatya culture *Wietenberg culture
==References== *Nora Kershaw Chadwick, J. X. W. P. Corcoran, ''The Celts'' (1970), p. 27.[https://books.google.com/books?q=%22followed+the+Unetice%22&btnG=Search+Books] *Barbara Ann Kipfer, Encyclopedic Dictionary of Archaeology (2000)
;Specific {{Reflist}}
==External links== {{Commons category|Tumulus culture}} *[https://www.academia.edu/40206246/Bronze_age_fortresses_in_Europe_proceedings_of_the_Second_International_LOEWE_Conference_9_13_October_2017_in_Alba_Iulia Bronze age fortresses in Europe] *[https://www.academia.edu/36007908/Defended_sites_and_fortifications_in_Southern_Germany_during_the_Bronze_Age_and_Urnfield_Period_a_short_introduction_In_B_Heeb_A_Szentmiklosi_R_Krause_M_Wemhoff_Eds_Fortifications_The_rise_and_fall_of_defended_sites_in_Late_Bronze_and_Early_Iron_Age_of_South_East_Europe Defended sites and fortifications in Southern Germany during the Bronze Age] *[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/324569706_The_birth_of_a_new_world_Barrows_warriors_and_metallurgists The Birth of a New World: Barrows, warriors, and metallurgists (1600-1200/1100 BC) (Makarowicz 2017)] *[https://journal.equinoxpub.com/JSA/article/view/18113 The Golden Hat of Schifferstadt: An Astronomically Significant Deposit Location? (Amendola 2021)] *[https://www.academia.edu/10768327/Rekonstruktion_des_Ensembles_von_Winklarn_Grab_12_Gedanken_zu_mittelbronzezeitlichen_Kleidungsformen Reconstruction of a female outfit from Winklarn, Austria (2011)]
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Category:Tumulus culture Category:13th-century BC disestablishments