Ukuthwasa

{{Short description|Culture-bound syndrome}} {{About|South African Culture-bound syndrome|South African term for bride kidnapping|Ukuthwalwa}} {{italic title}}{{Use British English|date=August 2023}}{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2023}} [[File:Ithwasa drinking blood of goat.jpg|thumb|''iThwasa'' after drinking the blood of a goat at a ''sangoma'' initiation (''Ukuthwasa'') ceremony]] '''''Ukuthwasa''''' is a Southern African culture-bound syndrome<ref name="Niehaus-2004">{{Cite journal |last1=Niehaus |first1=D.J.H. |last2=Oosthuizen |first2=P. |last3=Lochner |first3=C. |last4=Emsley |first4=R.A. |last5=Jordaan |first5=E. |last6=Mbanga |first6=N.I. |last7=Keyter |first7=N. |last8=Laurent |first8=C. |last9=Deleuze |first9=J.-F. |last10=Stein |first10=D.J. |date=2004-05-14 |title=A Culture-Bound Syndrome 'Amafufunyana' and a Culture-Specific Event 'Ukuthwasa': Differentiated by a Family History of Schizophrenia and other Psychiatric Disorders |url=https://doi.org/10.1159/000077579 |journal=Psychopathology |volume=37 |issue=2 |pages=59–63 |doi=10.1159/000077579 |issn=0254-4962 |pmid=15057028 |s2cid=23545601 |access-date=2023-06-03 |archive-date=2023-08-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230826184917/https://karger.com/psp/article-abstract/37/2/59/284440/A-Culture-Bound-Syndrome-Amafufunyana-and-a?redirectedFrom=fulltext |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name="CRC2">{{cite book |last=Helman |first=Cecil G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uz59BgAAQBAJ |title=Culture, Health and Illness, Fifth edition |date=January 26, 2007 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=9781444113631 |page=269 |chapter=Cross-Cultural Psychiatry |access-date=August 23, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161130214912/https://books.google.com/books?id=uz59BgAAQBAJ |archive-date=November 30, 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> associated with the calling and the initiation process to become a ''sangoma'', a type of traditional healer. In the cultural context of traditional healers in Southern Africa, the journey of ''ukuthwasa'' (or '''''intwaso''''') involves a spiritual process marked by rituals, teachings, and preparations. It begins with a calling, '''idlozi''', from ancestors, often received through dreams or altered states of consciousness. Initiates, known as '''''ithwasane''''' ''or '''ithwasa''''', undergo formal training under a mentor, ''gobela'', which can last months to years. ''Ukuthwasa'' process entails physical, psychological, and spiritual manifestations, which are believed to cleanse and prepare the initiate. The term ''{{linktext|ukuthwasa}}'', meaning "come out" or "be reborn," signifies the transformative nature of the experience. Both men and women can become traditional healers through this calling.

In the community of traditional healers, ''Ukuthwasa'' is perceived to hold cultural and spiritual significance, preserving traditions, and bridging the human and spirit worlds. However, the process can lead to intense psychosocial and mental health experiences, with some cases of disorders or fatalities. While ''ukuthwasa'' was stigmatised during colonialism and apartheid, it's increasingly respected and being integrated in the health system as outlined by the South African Traditional Health Practitioners Act 35 of 2004.<ref name="Government Gazette" /> In addition, the initiation process has influenced literature, cinema, and popular culture, reflecting its importance in African societies.

Scientific studies revealed that ''ukuthwasa'' is associated with people having varying types of psychosis.<ref name="Bakow-2018" /><ref name="Pearson2" /><ref name="Campbell-2017">{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Megan M. |last2=Sibeko |first2=Goodman |last3=Mall |first3=Sumaya |last4=Baldinger |first4=Adam |last5=Nagdee |first5=Mohamed |last6=Susser |first6=Ezra |last7=Stein |first7=Dan J. |date=2017-01-24 |title=The content of delusions in a sample of South African Xhosa people with schizophrenia |journal=BMC Psychiatry |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=41 |doi=10.1186/s12888-017-1196-3 |issn=1471-244X |pmc=5259874 |pmid=28118821 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The coexistence of traditional practices like ''ukuthwasa'' and modern healthcare and education can pose challenges.

== Process (from ''thwasa'' to ''sangoma'') ==

In the culture of traditional healers of Southern Africa, the journey of ''ukuthwasa'' is a deeply personal and spiritual one, marked by various rituals, teachings, and preparations. It begins when an individual receives a calling, known as ''{{linktext|idlozi}}'' or ''{{linktext|indiki}}'',<ref name="Mkhize-2011" /> from their ancestors, often through dreams, visions, or altered states of consciousness.<ref name="lovespells-2021">{{Cite web |last=lovespells |first=2fast |date=2021-08-12 |title=What are the signs of Ukuthwasa symptoms? |url=https://www.2fastlovespells.com/what-are-the-signs-of-ukuthwasa-symptoms/ |access-date=2023-06-03 |website=MAGIC SPELL CASTING ONLINE |language=en-US |archive-date=2023-06-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230603222152/https://www.2fastlovespells.com/what-are-the-signs-of-ukuthwasa-symptoms/ |url-status=usurped }}</ref> The symptoms and experiences associated with ''ukuthwasa'' are significant aspects of the initiation process, or ''itwasa''.<ref name="Mkhize-2011">{{Cite web |last=Mkhize |first=Prof Velaphi |date=2011-10-21 |title=Ukuthwasa – Umsamo Institute |url=https://umsamo.org.za/ukuthwasa/ |access-date=2023-06-03 |language=en-US |archive-date=2023-02-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230203005727/https://umsamo.org.za/ukuthwasa/ |url-status=live }}</ref> These symptoms can include physical, psychological, and spiritual manifestations. Examples of physical symptoms may include illness, insomnia, loss of appetite, or trance-like states.<ref name="lovespells-2021" /> These symptoms are believed to be a form of spiritual cleansing and preparation for the initiate's role as a healer or diviner, also colloquially known as ''amagqirha'' in Xhosa and ''sangoma'' in Zulu communities.<ref name="Booi-2004">{{Cite book |last=Booi |first=Beauty Ntombizanele |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/145055556.pdf |title=Three perspectives on ukuthwasa: The view from Traditional beliefs, Western Psychiatry and Transpersonal Psychology |publisher=Rhodes University Grahamstown |year=2004 |access-date=2023-06-03 |archive-date=2023-06-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230603222150/https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/145055556.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Shamans of the world: extraordinary first-person accounts of healings, mysteries, and miracles |date=2008 |publisher=Sounds True |isbn=978-1-59179-957-3 |editor-last=Connor |editor-first=Nancy |location=Boulder, Colo |pages=118 |editor-last2=Keeney |editor-first2=Bradford P.}}</ref>

Both men and women can become traditional healers but they need to be ''called''.<ref name="lovespells-2021" /> ''Sangomas'' believe that failure to respond to the calling will result in further illness until the person concedes and goes to be trained.<ref name="Cumes-2004">{{Cite book |last=Cumes |first=David |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d0r5eYM5YMsC |title=Africa in My Bones: A Surgeon's Odyssey Into the Spirit World of African Healing |date=2004 |publisher=New Africa Books |isbn=978-0-86486-556-4 |language=en}}</ref>{{Rp|page=11}} The word ''{{linktext|ukuthwasa}}'' is derived from ''{{linktext|thwasa}}'' which means "the light of the new moon" or from ''ku mu thwasisa'' meaning "to be led to the light".<ref name="Janzen-1995">{{Cite journal |last=Janzen |first=John M. |date=1995 |title=Self-Presentation and Common Cultural Structures in Ngoma Rituals of Southern Africa |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1581271 |journal=Journal of Religion in Africa |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=141–162 |doi=10.1163/157006695X00173 |jstor=1581271 |issn=0022-4200|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

A trainee ''sangoma,'' or ''ithwasane'', trains formally under another ''sangoma'' known as ''gobela'',<ref name="Mkhize-2011" /> a spiritual teacher, for a period of anywhere between a number of months and many years, with some sources suggesting a minimum duration of nine months to fully explore and develop the abilities and knowledge of an initiate.<ref name="Sinxo-2016">{{Cite news |last=Sinxo |first=Zolani |date=2 December 2016 |title=The Journey of Ukuthwasa |url=https://www.georgeherald.com/News/Article/General/the-journey-of-ukuthwasa-20170711 |work=George Herald}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bannister |first=Patrick |date=2007 |title=Regulating 'Tradition' South African Izangoma and the Traditional Health Practitioners Act 2004 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23820708 |journal=Cambridge Anthropology |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=25–61 |jstor=23820708 |issn=0305-7674 |access-date=2023-08-26 |archive-date=2022-04-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220418223704/https://www.jstor.org/stable/23820708 |url-status=live }}</ref> This journey includes metaphysical transformation, symbolized by wearing specific garments, performing ceremonies, and undergoing a process called ''ivuma ukhufa'', where the initiate's old identity dies to be reborn as a healer.<ref name="Mkhize-2011" /> They learn about traditional healing practices, spiritual ceremonies, herbal medicine, and the use of divination tools. The training also involves learning humility to the ancestors, purification through steaming, washing in the blood of sacrificed animals, and the use of muti, medicines with spiritual significance.<ref name="Chinyama-2017">{{Cite journal |last=Chinyama |first=Namanzi Choongo Mweene |date=2017 |title=Finding Spirit in the Work — Ukuthwasa |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/48725747 |journal=Feminist Africa |issue=22 |pages=111–118 |issn=1726-4596 |jstor=48725747 |access-date=2023-06-04 |archive-date=2023-06-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230604135850/https://www.jstor.org/stable/48725747 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Cumes-2004" />{{Rp|pages=41, 43–44}} The ''ithwasa'' may not see their families during training and must abstain from sexual contact and often live under harsh and strict conditions.<ref name="Chinyama-2017" />

During the training period the ''ithwasa'' will share their ailments in the form of song and dance, a process that is nurtured by the analysis of dreams, anxieties, and with prayer. The story develops into a song which becomes a large part of the graduation-type ceremony that marks the end of the ''ukuthwasa'' training.<ref name="Janzen-1995" /> At times in the training, and for the graduation, a ritual sacrifice of an animal is performed, usually chickens and a goat or a cow.<ref name="Campbell-2000">{{Cite book |last=Campbell |first=Susan Schuster |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MDQ1qpkvKmMC |title=Called to Heal: African Shamanic Healing |date=2000 |publisher=Lotus Press |isbn=978-0-914955-91-7 |pages=70–71, 101 |language=en}}</ref> thumb|An initiate (''ithwasa'') being led towards the goat that will be sacrificed at her initiation into becoming a ''sangoma'' At the end of ''ukuthwasa'' and during initiation, early hours of the morning a goat that will be slaughtered should be a female one, that's for ''Umguni'', the second one will be slaughtered the following morning after the chickens, which are sacrificed at ''Abamdzawo'' river. All these sacrifices are to call to the ancestors and appease them. The local community, friends and family are all invited to the initiation to witness and celebrate the completion of training. The ''ithwasa'' is also tested by the local elder ''sangomas'' to determine whether they have the skills and insight necessary to heal.<ref>{{Cite web |last=mudda |date=2021-06-20 |title=Ukuthwasa {{!}} Ukuthwasa Underwater {{!}} Physical Signs Of Ukuthwasa |url=https://bestherbalisthealer.co.za/ukuthwasa/ |access-date=2023-06-03 |website=Best Sangoma And Traditional Healer |language=en-US |archive-date=2023-06-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230603222151/https://bestherbalisthealer.co.za/ukuthwasa/ |url-status=live }}</ref> This is signified and proved when other ''sangomas'' hide the ithwasa's sacred objects, including the gall bladder of the goat (''Umgamase'') that was sacrificed. The ''ithwasa'' must, in front of the community, call upon their ancestors, find the hidden objects, which includes the ''Umgamase'', the ancestors clothes and return them back to the ''sangomas'' that hid them. Thus, proving they have the ability to "see" beyond the physical world.<ref name="Campbell-2000" />

The graduation ceremony takes three days from Friday to Sunday. In the early hours of the morning, the ''ithwasa'' sweeps the whole yard, wash their clothes, and to bath at the river and they should return when they are dry.<ref name="Campbell-2000" />

== Significance == [[File:N'angas celebrate at Ndau Thwasa Initiation.jpg|thumb|Tsonga traditional healers celebrate at initiation dedicated to the Ndau spirit]] ''Ukuthwasa'' is a traditional African practice that involves a spiritual calling and initiation process for individuals chosen by their ancestors to become healers or diviners. The Xhosa term "''ukuthwasa''" translates to "come out" or "be reborn," symbolising the transformative nature of the experience. It holds significant cultural and spiritual importance, particularly among the Xhosa people and Zulu people. The training and thus healing practices and understanding varies across different African communities,<ref name="Sinxo-2016" /> including Nguni people, and Xesibe people.<ref name="Pearson2" /><ref name="Mlisa-2009" />{{Rp|page=7}}

In the culture of traditional healers of Southern Africa, the significance of ''ukuthwasa'' extends beyond the individual initiate. Traditional healers and diviners are respected members of their communities and they play crucial roles with providing spiritual guidance, healing, and support. They are often sought after for their ability to address various ailments, both physical and spiritual, and serve as a bridge between the human and spirit worlds.<ref>{{Cite web |last=lovespells |first=2fast |date=2021-09-26 |title=Steps of ukuthwasa |url=https://www.2fastlovespells.com/steps-of-ukuthwasa/ |access-date=2023-06-03 |website=MAGIC SPELL CASTING ONLINE |language=en-US |archive-date=2023-06-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230603223656/https://www.2fastlovespells.com/steps-of-ukuthwasa/ |url-status=usurped }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nomfundo Mlisa |first=Lily Rose |date=2020-02-11 |title=I am an igqirha (healer): phenomenological and experiential spiritual journey towards healing identity construction |journal=Numen |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=220–239 |doi=10.34019/2236-6296.2019.v22.29618 |s2cid=213610745 |issn=2236-6296 |doi-access=free }}</ref> They also play a crucial part in preserving cultural traditions, guiding rituals, and acting as intermediaries between clients and ancestors.<ref name="African-2021">{{Cite web |last=African |first=New |date=2021-09-20 |title=The spiritual journey of becoming a traditional healer |url=https://newafricanmagazine.com/26920/ |access-date=2023-06-03 |website=New African Magazine |language=en-GB |archive-date=2023-06-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230603222151/https://newafricanmagazine.com/26920/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Established traditional healers' associations ensure safety and ethical practices within this cultural tradition.<ref name="Mkhize-2011" /> There are two main types of Xhosa traditional healers: ''Igqirha'', who offer spiritual insights, and ''Umthandazeli'', who work with ancestral spirits using water, prayers, and indigenous wisdom.<ref name="African-2021" />

== Criticism == Historically, ''ukuthwasa'' was frequently regarded as pagan and ungodly by people and bodies outside of the culture. Missionaries, colonizers, and the apartheid regime exerted significant efforts to undermine African divination practices like ''ukuthwasa.<ref name="Mlisa-2009" />{{Rp|pages=8–9}}''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=MARKS |first=SHULA |date=April 1977 |title=Christianity and Xhosa Tradition |journal=African Affairs |volume=76 |issue=303 |pages=273–274 |doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a096855 |issn=1468-2621 }}</ref> ''Ukuthwasa'' was often linked to concepts like sorcery and witchcraft,{{By whom|date=May 2025}} rather than being associated with healing and spiritual calling<ref>{{Cite web |last= |date=2020-09-21 |title=Criselda Kananda: 'Someone taught me that ubungoma is witchcraft and I believed them' |url=https://www.timeslive.co.za/tshisa-live/tshisa-live/2020-09-22-criselda-kananda-someone-taught-me-that-ubungoma-is-witchcraft-and-i-believed-them/ |access-date=2023-08-26 |website=TimesLIVE |language=en-ZA |archive-date=2022-01-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220117044046/https://www.timeslive.co.za/tshisa-live/tshisa-live/2020-09-22-criselda-kananda-someone-taught-me-that-ubungoma-is-witchcraft-and-i-believed-them/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Swartz |first=Leslie |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DfraAAAAMAAJ&q=%22Ukuthwasa%22+-wikipedia |title=Culture and Mental Health: A Southern African View |date=1998 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-570981-0 |pages=165 |language=en |access-date=2023-08-26 |archive-date=2023-08-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230826184935/https://books.google.com/books?id=DfraAAAAMAAJ&q=%22Ukuthwasa%22+-wikipedia |url-status=live }}</ref> answered by some African Christians<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.westview.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/UKUTHWASA-DEWCOM-Discussion-Document-13-02-2023.pdf |title=Ukuthwasa and the Practice of Being a Traditional Healer: A conversation within the Methodist church of southern Africa |date=February 2023 |publisher=DEWCOM |archive-date=3 June 2023 |access-date=3 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230603222153/https://www.westview.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/UKUTHWASA-DEWCOM-Discussion-Document-13-02-2023.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Opposing systems of belief: is ubungoma at odds with Christianity? |url=https://www.sowetanlive.co.za/news/south-africa/2022-10-17-opposing-systems-of-belief-is-ubungoma-at-odds-with-christianity/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230119104629/https://www.sowetanlive.co.za/news/south-africa/2022-10-17-opposing-systems-of-belief-is-ubungoma-at-odds-with-christianity/ |archive-date=2023-01-19 |access-date=2023-08-26 |website=SowetanLIVE |date=17 October 2022 |language=en-ZA}}</ref> and Muslims.<ref name="Mlisa-2009" />{{Rp|pages=8–9}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Between Islam and the spirits of ancestors: one woman's journey |url=https://www.timeslive.co.za/sunday-times/news/2018-10-13-between-islam-and-the-spirits-of-ancestors-one-womans-journey/ |access-date=2023-08-26 |website=TimesLIVE |date=13 October 2018 |language=en-ZA |archive-date=2021-08-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210808211012/https://www.timeslive.co.za/sunday-times/news/2018-10-13-between-islam-and-the-spirits-of-ancestors-one-womans-journey/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Mental health === ''Ukuthwasa'' is a culture-bound syndrome.<ref name="Niehaus-2004" /><ref name="CRC2"/> The symptoms and experiences associated with ''ukuthwasa'' are seen as signs of spiritual connection and readiness. After study, it was discovered that this term is directed toward people with varying types of psychosis, schizophrenia, or a psychotic depression.<ref name="Niehaus-2004" /><ref name="Bakow-2018">{{Cite journal |last1=Bakow |first1=Brianna Rose |last2=Low |first2=Kathy |date=April 2018 |title=A South African Experience: Cultural Determinants of Ukuthwasa |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0022022117753546 |journal=Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology |language=en |volume=49 |issue=3 |pages=436–452 |doi=10.1177/0022022117753546 |issn=0022-0221 |s2cid=148850213 |access-date=2023-06-03 |archive-date=2023-06-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230605043040/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0022022117753546 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name="CRC2"/><ref name="Pearson2">{{cite book |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1-btwxJAR_gC |title=Fresh Perspectives: Introduction to Psychology |date=2007 |publisher=Pearson South Africa |isbn=9781868912896 |page=202 |chapter=Psychopathology |access-date=2023-06-04 |archive-date=2023-08-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230826184936/https://books.google.com/books?id=1-btwxJAR_gC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Campbell-2017" /><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Basu |first1=Helene |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L1ITDgAAQBAJ&dq=%22Ukuthwasa%22+-wikipedia&pg=PA44 |title=Spirit & Mind: Mental Health at the Intersection of Religion & Psychiatry |last2=Littlewood |first2=Roland |last3=Steinforth |first3=Arne S. |date=2017 |publisher=LIT Verlag Münster |isbn=978-3-643-90707-3 |pages=44 |language=en |access-date=2023-08-26 |archive-date=2023-08-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230826184943/https://books.google.com/books?id=L1ITDgAAQBAJ&dq=%22Ukuthwasa%22+-wikipedia&pg=PA44 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Bank |first1=Andrew |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hScgAwAAQBAJ&dq=%22Ukuthwasa%22+-wikipedia&pg=PA248 |title=Inside African Anthropology: Monica Wilson and her Interpreters |last2=Bank |first2=Leslie J. |date=2013-04-08 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-32861-7 |pages=248 |language=en |access-date=2023-08-26 |archive-date=2023-08-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230826184943/https://books.google.com/books?id=hScgAwAAQBAJ&dq=%22Ukuthwasa%22+-wikipedia&pg=PA248 |url-status=live }}</ref> Ukuthwasa initiates may experience intense and sometimes distressing psychosocial and mental health experiences during the process. In some cases, initiates have experienced disorders and even fatalities.<ref name="Booi-2004" />{{Rp|pages=4–6}}<ref>{{Cite web |last=Fana |first=Gcina Ntsaluba and Andile |title=Mother of Nafcoc Youth president, who died at an initiation school, wants answers |url=https://www.news24.com/citypress/news/mother-of-late-nafcoc-youth-president-wants-answers-20201011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230128041856/https://www.news24.com/citypress/news/mother-of-late-nafcoc-youth-president-wants-answers-20201011 |archive-date=2023-01-28 |access-date=2023-08-26 |website=City Press |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Bakow-2018" /> A similar term, ''amafufunyana'', refers to claims of demonic possession due to members of the Xhosa people exhibiting aberrant behaviour and psychological concerns.<ref name="Niehaus-2004" /> Sometimes, ''ukuthwasa'' exhibits signs that resemble symptoms of madness, such as hallucinations and illusions. Due to these characteristics, it's referred to as "''inkenqe''" (cultural madness) or "''umshologu''" (spiritual madness).<ref name="Mlisa-2009">{{Cite thesis |last=Mlisa |first=Lily-Rose Nomfundo |title=Ukuthwasa initiation of Aamagqirha: Identity construction and the training of Xhosa women as traditional healers |date=May 2009 |degree=PhD |publisher=University of Free State |url=https://scholar.ufs.ac.za:8080/bitstream/handle/11660/2171/MlisaL-RN.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |access-date=2023-06-03 |archive-date=2023-06-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230603222156/https://scholar.ufs.ac.za:8080/bitstream/handle/11660/2171/MlisaL-RN.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |url-status=live }}</ref>{{Rp|page=6}}<ref name="CRC2"/>

Zeijst et al. acknowledged that the ancestral calling is commonly associated with mental illness, including atypical sensory experiences. However, their research suggested that for certain individuals, successful completion of ''ukuthwasa'' could lead to both recovery from these symptoms and a profession where these experiences are valued. The research suggests that in this particular community, ''ukuthwasa'' serves as a culturally accepted healing process that manages experiences that might be termed psychotic by psychiatric standards while convert challenging situations into positive and esteemed occurrences by reducing societal stigma.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=van der Zeijst |first1=Martine |last2=Veling |first2=Wim |last3=Makhathini |first3=Elliot Mqansa |last4=Susser |first4=Ezra |last5=Burns |first5=Jonathan K |last6=Hoek |first6=Hans W |last7=Susser |first7=Ida |date=August 2021 |title=Ancestral calling, traditional health practitioner training and mental illness: An ethnographic study from rural KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa |url=https://research.rug.nl/en/publications/ancestral-calling-traditional-health-practitioner-training-and-me |journal=Transcultural Psychiatry |volume=58 |issue=4 |pages=471–485 |doi=10.1177/1363461520909615 |pmid=32151201 |s2cid=212650844 |issn=1363-4615 |access-date=2023-06-03 |archive-date=2023-06-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230603222151/https://research.rug.nl/en/publications/ancestral-calling-traditional-health-practitioner-training-and-me |url-status=live |hdl=11370/efada155-8397-4f75-a47d-c78c81244792 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=van der Zeijst |first1=Martine C. E. |last2=Veling |first2=Wim |last3=Makhathini |first3=Elliot M. |last4=Mbatha |first4=Ndukuzakhe D. |last5=Shabalala |first5=Sinethemba S. |last6=van Hoeken |first6=Daphne |last7=Susser |first7=Ezra |last8=Burns |first8=Jonathan K. |last9=Hoek |first9=Hans W. |date=2022 |title=Course of psychotic experiences and disorders among apprentice traditional health practitioners in rural South Africa: 3-year follow-up study |journal=Frontiers in Psychiatry |volume=13 |article-number=956003 |doi=10.3389/fpsyt.2022.956003 |pmid=36245859 |pmc=9558832 |issn=1664-0640 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Nevertheless, if an individual with this condition doesn't successfully transition into a healer, the community may reclassify them as mad (''ukuphambana'').<ref name="CRC2"/>

Despite debates about cultural influence on mental illness expression,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sodi |first1=Tholene |last2=Bojuwoye |first2=Olaniyi |date=2011 |title=Cultural Embeddedness of Health, Illness and Healing: Prospects for Integrating Indigenous and Western Healing Practices |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14330237.2011.10820467 |journal=Journal of Psychology in Africa |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=349–356 |doi=10.1080/14330237.2011.10820467 |s2cid=141568451 |issn=1433-0237 |access-date=2023-08-26 |archive-date=2023-08-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230826185317/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14330237.2011.10820467 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name="Bakow-2018" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sodi |first1=T |last2=Mudhovozi |first2=P |last3=Mashamba |first3=T |last4=Radzilani-Makatu |first4=M |last5=Takalani |first5=J |last6=Mabunda |first6=Jabulani |date=2011 |title=Indigenous healing practices in Limpopo Province of South Africa: A qualitative study |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14635240.2011.10708216 |journal=International Journal of Health Promotion and Education |volume=49 |issue=3 |pages=101–110 |doi=10.1080/14635240.2011.10708216 |s2cid=72438729 |issn=1463-5240 |access-date=2023-08-26 |archive-date=2023-08-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230826185305/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14635240.2011.10708216 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Bakow and Low asserted that significant impact of culture on the experience and treatment of ''ukuthwasa''. Their findings suggested that cultural perspectives deeply affect symptom interpretation, with traditional healing methods proving effective for many participants. The study acknowledged limitations in sample size and the complex nature of ''ukuthwasa'' symptoms.<ref name="Bakow-2018" />

=== Cost === Because ''ukuthwasa'' is linked to various crises and challenges like accidents, mystical occurrences, deaths, and sometimes legal issues, the Xhosa people also colloquially calls ''ukuthwasa'' "''inkathazo''," signifying trouble.<ref name="Mlisa-2009" />{{Rp|page=6}} A significant aspect of the issue is the financial burden associated with the process.<ref name="SABC News-2019">{{Citation |last=SABC News |title=Exploring the cost of Ukuthwasa |date=2019-09-04 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ifnMc0xDNg4 |access-date=2023-06-03 |language=en |archive-date=2023-06-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230603222151/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ifnMc0xDNg4&gl=US&hl=en |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="News24">{{Cite web |title=African culture is expensive. |url=https://www.news24.com/news24/african-culture-is-expensive-20130513 |access-date=2023-08-26 |website=News24 |language=en-US |archive-date=2023-05-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230507134827/https://www.news24.com/news24/african-culture-is-expensive-20130513 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-11-01 |title=There are many reasons for the increasing number of traditional healers |url=https://mg.co.za/thoughtleader/opinion/2022-11-01-there-are-many-reasons-for-the-increasing-number-of-traditional-healers/ |access-date=2023-08-26 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA |archive-date=2023-08-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230826185304/https://mg.co.za/thoughtleader/opinion/2022-11-01-there-are-many-reasons-for-the-increasing-number-of-traditional-healers/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The ''ithwasa'' pays for their trainer, daily expenses, and a cow and goat for graduation.<ref name="SABC News-2019" /><ref name="News24" />

=== Compatibility with other modern systems ===

==== Schooling ==== ''Ukuthwasa'' has been associated with school dropout. Families sometimes compel children to leave school to heed the ancestral calling that ''ukuthwasa'' represents.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-12-24 |title=UKUTHWASA AS A THREAT TO DEVELOPMENT IN NORTHERN KWAZULU-NATAL IN SOUTH AFRICA - Right for Education |url=https://rightforeducation.org/2022/12/24/ukuthwasa-south-africa/ |access-date=2023-08-26 |language=en-GB |archive-date=2023-06-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230607050049/https://rightforeducation.org/2022/12/24/ukuthwasa-south-africa/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The coexistence of traditional practices like ''ukuthwasa'' and formal education systems is complex, often raising questions about their compatibility and effects on individual trajectories.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Weybright |first1=Elizabeth H. |last2=Caldwell |first2=Linda L. |last3=Xie |first3=Hui (Jimmy) |last4=Wegner |first4=Lisa |last5=Smith |first5=Edward A. |date=May 2017 |title=Predicting secondary school dropout among South African adolescents: A survival analysis approach |journal=South African Journal of Education |volume=37 |issue=2 |pages=1353 |doi=10.15700/saje.v37n2a1353 |issn=0256-0100 |pmc=6168088 |pmid=30287979}}</ref>

In January 2019, a grade 10 student in Gauteng was labelled a "demon" by teachers and told to remove her ''sangoma'' beads. The student had undergone the ''ukuthwasa'' initiation process in 2018. After discussions with the student, parents, and school officials, an agreement was reached that she could wear the beads if concealed under a long-sleeved shirt to avoid drawing attention.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pupil can wear sangoma beads in class - if she covers them up |url=https://www.timeslive.co.za/news/south-africa/2019-01-25-pupil-can-wear-sangoma-beads-in-class-if-she-covers-them-up/ |access-date=2023-08-26 |website=TimesLIVE |date=25 January 2019 |language=en-ZA |archive-date=2023-03-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314175812/https://www.timeslive.co.za/news/south-africa/2019-01-25-pupil-can-wear-sangoma-beads-in-class-if-she-covers-them-up/ |url-status=live }}</ref> However, according to reports, the student was compelled to consume "holy oil" as a mean to remove supposed "evil spirits" from her.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-02-22 |title=Sangoma pupil allegedly forced to drink 'anointing oil' to get rid of demons |url=https://www.sowetanlive.co.za/news/2019-02-22-sangoma-pupil-allegedly-forced-to-drink-anointing-oil-to-get-rid-of-demons/ |access-date=2023-08-26 |website=SowetanLIVE |language=en-ZA |archive-date=2022-08-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220816222842/https://www.sowetanlive.co.za/news/2019-02-22-sangoma-pupil-allegedly-forced-to-drink-anointing-oil-to-get-rid-of-demons/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Similar incident in 2021 ended with the pupil committing suicide after being called "witch".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dayimani |first=Malibongwe |title=Dissolve Bhisho High SGB and remove bullies, says ANCYL after pupil takes her life |url=https://www.news24.com/news24/southafrica/news/dissolve-bhisho-high-sgb-and-remove-bullies-says-ancyl-after-pupil-takes-her-life-20211124 |access-date=2023-08-26 |website=News24 |language=en-US |archive-date=2021-12-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211220014057/https://www.news24.com/news24/southafrica/news/dissolve-bhisho-high-sgb-and-remove-bullies-says-ancyl-after-pupil-takes-her-life-20211124 |url-status=live }}</ref> Siyamthanda Ntlani, who faced similar situation while being a student, stated that

{{Blockquote|text=The teachers would say they were afraid of me and didn't know how to teach someone wearing iintsimbi (beads), even though I didn't wear them at school. I also wore an empty goat's gallbladder on my head and I remember being teased by one of my classmates, saying I must remove the condom on my forehead.|author=Siyamthanda Ntlani|source=''DispatchLIVE''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kaplan village hero driven by a passion to help others |url=https://www.dispatchlive.co.za/local-heroes/2023-08-03-kaplan-village-hero-driven-by-a-passion-to-help-others/ |access-date=2023-08-26 |website=DispatchLIVE |date=3 August 2023 |language=en-ZA |archive-date=2023-08-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230804165021/https://www.dispatchlive.co.za/local-heroes/2023-08-03-kaplan-village-hero-driven-by-a-passion-to-help-others/ |url-status=live }}</ref>}}

==== Healthcare ==== In numerous cases, the interaction between traditional and modern healthcare professionals involves coexisting rather than actively collaborating.<ref name="Mlisa-2009" />{{Rp|page=281}} The government of South Africa acknowledged the presence of traditional healthcare institutions through "The Traditional Health Practitioners Act 35 of 2004,"<ref name="Government Gazette">{{Cite web |last=Government Gazette |title=Traditional Health Practitioners Act 35 of 2004 {{!}} South African Government |url=https://www.gov.za/sites/default/files/gcis_document/201409/a35-04.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230826185131/https://www.gov.za/sites/default/files/gcis_document/201409/a35-04.pdf |archive-date=2023-08-26 |access-date=2023-08-26 |website=South Africa Government}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bannister |first=Patrick |date=2007 |title=Regulating 'Tradition' South African Izangoma and the Traditional Health Practitioners Act 2004 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23820708 |url-status=live |journal=Cambridge Anthropology |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=25–61 |issn=0305-7674 |jstor=23820708 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220418223704/https://www.jstor.org/stable/23820708 |archive-date=2022-04-18 |access-date=2023-08-26}}</ref> yet this recognition primarily took the form of allowing traditional practitioners to exist alongside physicians within a diverse healthcare framework. Instead of integrating traditional practitioners into the official national healthcare system, the government opts for a pluralistic approach to healthcare.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pillsbury |first=Barbara L.K. |date=1982 |title=Policy and evaluation perspectives on traditional health practitioners in national health care systems |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0277-9536(82)90443-9 |url-status=live |journal=Social Science & Medicine |volume=16 |issue=21 |pages=1825–1834 |doi=10.1016/0277-9536(82)90443-9 |issn=0277-9536 |pmid=7178928 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230826185321/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0277953682904439?via%3Dihub |archive-date=2023-08-26 |access-date=2023-08-26|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite thesis |title=Exploring Ukuthwasa didactic principles to enhance student nurses' theory-practice integration |url=https://repository.nwu.ac.za/handle/10394/36992 |publisher=North-West University (South-Africa) |date=2019 |degree=Thesis |language=en |first=Isabelle Ruth |last=Rampho |access-date=2023-06-03 |archive-date=2023-06-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230603223655/https://repository.nwu.ac.za/handle/10394/36992 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Mlisa-2009" />{{Rp|page=281}}

==== Workplace ==== According to David Bogopa, a researcher at the Nelson Mandela University, the existing leave policies in various organisations do not account for ''ukuthwasa.''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bogopa |first=David |title=Ancestors calling: Cultural practice of ukuthwasa and the workplace |url=https://www.southafricanlabourbulletin.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/Ancestors-calling.pdf |journal=SA Labour Bulletin |volume=38 |issue=3 |pages=20–22}}</ref> In a 2022 study, the majority of the 49 participants noted that their organisations inadequately addressed the well-being requirements of African employees. They indicated that these companies lacked African traditional healing provisions within their Employee Assistance Programs (EAPs).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Makola |first1=Zamandlovu |last2=Tabane |first2=Ramodungoane |date=2022-10-02 |title=South African employees' perceptions of the inclusion of traditional health practitioners' services in workplace employee assistance programmes |journal=Journal of Workplace Behavioral Health |language=en |volume=37 |issue=4 |pages=286–302 |doi=10.1080/15555240.2022.2130347 |issn=1555-5240|doi-access=free }}</ref>

== In popular culture == ''Ukuthwasa'' has found its presence in various forms of popular cultural expression including cinema and literature,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dowling |first1=Tessa |last2=Stinson |first2=Kathryn |date=2011 |title=Pop singer as healer: the use of Xhosa lyrics as cultural self-realization |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41428156 |journal=Journal of African Cultural Studies |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=177–188 |doi=10.1080/13696815.2012.638021 |jstor=41428156 |s2cid=144299729 |issn=1369-6815|url-access=subscription }}</ref> reflecting its significance in African societies.<ref name="Moyo-2015">{{Cite thesis |last=Moyo |first=Arifani James |title=Indigeneity and Theatre in the New South Africa |date=2015 |degree=PhD |publisher=Royal Holloway, University of London |url=https://pure.royalholloway.ac.uk/ws/portalfiles/portal/26119957/2016moyoajphd.pdf.pdf |access-date=2023-08-26 |archive-date=2023-08-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230826185629/https://pure.royalholloway.ac.uk/ws/portalfiles/portal/26119957/2016moyoajphd.pdf.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>{{Rp|page=277}} It has influenced theatre, as seen in works like Richard Loring's ''African Footprint''.<ref name="Moyo-2015" />{{Rp|page=4}} Also, elements of ''ukuthwasa'' found its way to Niq Mhlongo novel ''Paradise in Gaza''.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Niq Mhlongo on writing 'Paradise in Gaza' |url=https://www.timeslive.co.za/sunday-times/books/news/2021-02-08-niq-mhlongo-on-writing-paradise-in-gaza/ |access-date=2023-08-26 |website=TimesLIVE |date=8 February 2021 |language=en-ZA |archive-date=2022-11-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221130224015/https://www.timeslive.co.za/sunday-times/books/news/2021-02-08-niq-mhlongo-on-writing-paradise-in-gaza/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The first African designer to win the LVMH Prize in 2019, Thebe Magugu in his 2022 collection ''Alchemy'' draws inspiration from ''ukuthwasa'', experienced by his friends who transitioned to traditional healers.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-06-25 |title=4 Of The Coolest Designers To Look Out For At The V&A's 'Africa Fashion' Exhibition |url=https://www.vogue.co.uk/arts-and-lifestyle/article/v-and-a-africa-fashion-exhibition-designers |access-date=2023-08-26 |website=British Vogue |language=en-GB |archive-date=2023-03-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230329205357/https://www.vogue.co.uk/arts-and-lifestyle/article/v-and-a-africa-fashion-exhibition-designers |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2018, Buhlebezwe Siwani's exhibition "Qab'imbola" explores the intersection of art and indigenous healing practices in South Africa. Siwani's work reflects on intergenerational trauma in the country's history and the reclamation of African spirituality by black women. The exhibition featured video imagery and live performances. Siwani, who practices ''ubungoma'', indigenous healing, discusses the significance of her artistic journey and initiation into ''ukuthwasa''.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-11-02 |title=Art and the heirs of redness |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2018-11-02-00-art-and-the-heirs-of-redness/ |access-date=2023-08-26 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA |archive-date=2022-07-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220706021458/https://mg.co.za/article/2018-11-02-00-art-and-the-heirs-of-redness/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

In addition, several celebrities<ref>{{Cite web |title='You go to ignite your light so you can illuminate others' paths' — Andrea Dondolo on her ukuthwasa awakening |url=https://www.timeslive.co.za/tshisa-live/tshisa-live/2021-12-23-you-go-to-ignite-your-light-so-you-can-illuminate-others-paths-andrea-dondolo-on-her-ukuthwasa-awakening/ |access-date=2023-08-26 |website=TimesLIVE |date=23 December 2021 |language=en-ZA |archive-date=2023-04-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404011249/https://www.timeslive.co.za/tshisa-live/tshisa-live/2021-12-23-you-go-to-ignite-your-light-so-you-can-illuminate-others-paths-andrea-dondolo-on-her-ukuthwasa-awakening/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Mpho wa Badimo reveals she went into depression after her sangoma initiation |url=https://www.timeslive.co.za/tshisa-live/tshisa-live/2022-05-13-mpho-wa-badimo-reveals-she-went-into-depression-after-her-sangoma-initiation/ |access-date=2023-08-26 |website=TimesLIVE |date=13 May 2022 |language=en-ZA |archive-date=2023-06-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230609193512/https://www.timeslive.co.za/tshisa-live/tshisa-live/2022-05-13-mpho-wa-badimo-reveals-she-went-into-depression-after-her-sangoma-initiation/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-10-08 |title=Mshoza on sangoma training: The calling has always been there |url=https://www.timeslive.co.za/tshisa-live/tshisa-live/2018-10-10-mshoza-on-sangoma-training-the-calling-has-always-been-there/ |access-date=2023-08-26 |website=TimesLIVE |language=en-ZA |archive-date=2021-09-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210903051534/https://www.timeslive.co.za/tshisa-live/tshisa-live/2018-10-10-mshoza-on-sangoma-training-the-calling-has-always-been-there/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Langa |first=Phumlani S. |title=Actor Zinhle Ngwenya becomes a traditional healer |url=https://www.news24.com/citypress/trending/actor-zinhle-ngwenya-becomes-a-traditional-healer-20230126 |access-date=2023-08-26 |website=City Press |language=en-US |archive-date=2023-08-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230805191545/https://www.news24.com/citypress/trending/actor-zinhle-ngwenya-becomes-a-traditional-healer-20230126 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-02-28 |title=Lerato Sengadi heeds ancestral calling & slams critics |url=https://www.timeslive.co.za/tshisa-live/tshisa-live/2019-03-01-lerato-sengadi-heeds-ancestral-calling--slams-critics/ |access-date=2023-08-26 |website=TimesLIVE |language=en-ZA |archive-date=2021-10-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211023182856/https://www.timeslive.co.za/tshisa-live/tshisa-live/2019-03-01-lerato-sengadi-heeds-ancestral-calling--slams-critics/ |url-status=live }}</ref> including Dawn Thandeka King, Nandi Nyembe, Letoya Makhene and Boity Thulo<ref>{{Cite web |last=DISETLHE-MTSHAYELO |first=KARABO |date=2019-01-30 |title=Are celebrities with a calling real sangomas? |url=https://www.sowetanlive.co.za/sundayworld/lifestyle/2019-01-30-are-celebrities-with-a-calling-real-sangomas/ |access-date=2023-08-26 |website=SowetanLIVE |language=en-ZA |archive-date=2021-12-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211225152217/https://www.sowetanlive.co.za/sundayworld/lifestyle/2019-01-30-are-celebrities-with-a-calling-real-sangomas/ |url-status=live }}</ref> have claimed to go through the process with others sparking rumours,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-01-14 |title=Masechaba clears the air on ukuthwasa rumours |url=https://www.timeslive.co.za/tshisa-live/tshisa-live/2019-04-25-masechaba-clears-the-air-on-ukuthwasa-rumours/ |access-date=2023-08-26 |website=TimesLIVE |language=en-ZA |archive-date=2023-06-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230607012418/https://www.timeslive.co.za/tshisa-live/tshisa-live/2019-04-25-masechaba-clears-the-air-on-ukuthwasa-rumours/ |url-status=live }}</ref> like Dineo Ranaka.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-06-07 |title=Dineo Ranaka sparks sangoma rumours with 'traditional' pics |url=https://www.timeslive.co.za/tshisa-live/tshisa-live/2019-06-10-dineo-ranaka-sparks-sangoma-rumours-with-traditional-pics/ |access-date=2023-08-26 |website=TimesLIVE |language=en-ZA |archive-date=2022-01-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220110131010/https://www.timeslive.co.za/tshisa-live/tshisa-live/2019-06-10-dineo-ranaka-sparks-sangoma-rumours-with-traditional-pics/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

== See also == * Cultural competence in healthcare * Depression and culture * Ufufunyane

== References == {{Reflist}}

== Further reading == * {{Cite thesis |last=Mlisa |first=Lily-Rose Nomfundo |title=Ukuthwasa initiation of Aamagqirha: Identity construction and the training of Xhosa women as traditional healers |date=May 2009 |degree=PhD |publisher=University of Free State |url=https://scholar.ufs.ac.za:8080/bitstream/handle/11660/2171/MlisaL-RN.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |access-date=3 June 2023 |archive-date=3 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230603222156/https://scholar.ufs.ac.za:8080/bitstream/handle/11660/2171/MlisaL-RN.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |url-status=dead }} * {{Cite book |url=https://www.westview.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/UKUTHWASA-DEWCOM-Discussion-Document-13-02-2023.pdf |title=Ukuthwasa and the Practice of Being a Traditional Healer: A conversation within the Methodist church of southern Africa |date=February 2023 |publisher=DEWCOM |archive-date=3 June 2023 |access-date=3 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230603222153/https://www.westview.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/UKUTHWASA-DEWCOM-Discussion-Document-13-02-2023.pdf |url-status=dead }}

== External links == {{Commons category|Ukuthwasa}} * {{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4O_KrYwqP0M&ab_channel=RelebogileMabotja |title=The dark side of Ukuthwasa (Initiation) |date=2021-06-23 |last=Unpacked With Relebogile Mabotja |publisher=}} * {{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ifnMc0xDNg4&ab_channel=SABCNews |title=Exploring the cost of Ukuthwasa |date=2019-09-04 |last=SABC News}} * {{Cite web |last=Msimango |first=Rosetta |title=Photos {{!}} 'A calling to restore': Embracing the ancestral calling |url=https://www.news24.com/citypress/news/photos-a-calling-to-restore-embracing-the-ancestral-calling-20230521 |access-date= |website=City Press |language=en-US}}

{{Authority control}}

Category:Schizophrenia Category:Psychosis Category:Culture-bound syndromes Category:Spirit possession Category:Zulu culture Category:Xhosa culture