The long tailpipe

{{Update|emissions data from 2013 and earlier|date=July 2020}} [[File:Baka-charging-station cropped.jpg|thumb|320px|Chevrolet Volts charging at a solar-powered charging station in Toronto. The carbon footprint of plug-in electric vehicles depends on the fuel and technology used for electricity generation.]]

'''The long tailpipe''' is an argument stating that usage of electric vehicles does not always result in fewer emissions (e.g. greenhouse gas emissions) compared to those from non-electric vehicles. While the argument acknowledges that plug-in electric vehicles operating in all-electric mode have no greenhouse gas emissions from the onboard source of power, it claims that these emissions are shifted from the vehicle tailpipe to the location of the electrical generation plants. From the point of view of a well-to-wheel assessment, the extent of the actual carbon footprint depends on the fuel and technology used for electricity generation, as well as the impact of additional electricity demand on the phase-out of fossil fuel power plants.

==Description== {{See also|Plug-in electric vehicle#Air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions|l1=Greenhouse gas emissions in plug-in electric vehicles|Electric car#Air pollution and carbon emissions|l2=air pollution and carbon emissions in electric cars|Plug-in hybrid#Greenhouse gas emissions|l3=greenhouse gas emissions in plug-in hybrids}} Plug-in electric vehicles (PEVs) operating in all-electric mode do not emit greenhouse gases from the onboard source of power but emissions are shifted to the location of the generation plants. From the point of view of a well-to-wheel assessment, the extent of the actual carbon footprint depends on the fuel and technology used for electricity generation. From the perspective of a full life cycle analysis, the electricity used to recharge the batteries must be generated from renewable or clean sources such as wind, solar, hydroelectric, or nuclear power for PEVs to have almost none or zero well-to-wheel emissions.<ref name=TwoBillion>{{Cite book | last = Sperling, Daniel and Deborah Gordon | title = Two billion cars: driving toward sustainability | year = 2009 | pages = [https://archive.org/details/twobillioncarsdr00sper_0/page/22 22–26 and 114–139] | publisher = Oxford University Press, New York | isbn = 978-0-19-537664-7 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/twobillioncarsdr00sper_0/page/22 }}</ref><ref name=PEVs>{{cite book|title=Plug-In Electric Vehicles: What Role for Washington?|editor=David B. Sandalow|editor-link=David B. Sandalow|year=2009|publisher=The Brookings Institution|isbn=978-0-8157-0305-1|edition=1st.|url=http://www.brookings.edu/press/Books/2009/pluginelectricvehicles.aspx|pages=2–5}} ''See definition on pp. 2.''</ref> On the other hand, when PEVs are recharged from coal-fired plants, they usually produce slightly more greenhouse gas emissions than internal combustion engine vehicles and higher than hybrid electric vehicles.<ref name=TwoBillion/><ref name=SciMag>{{cite news|url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=interactive-plug-in-hybrids|title=The Dirty Truth about Plug-in Hybrids, Made Interactive|publisher=Scientific American|date=July 2010|access-date=2010-10-16}} ''Click on the map to see the results for each region.''</ref>

Because plug-in electric vehicles do not produce emissions at the point of operation are often perceived as being environmentally friendlier than vehicles driven through internal combustion. Assessing the validity of that perception is difficult due to the greenhouse gases generated by the power plants that provide the electricity to charge the vehicles' batteries.<ref>{{cite web|title=Analyzing effects from well to wheel to air (the long tailpipe)|url=http://greentransportation.info/analyzing-effects-from-well-to-wheel-to-air-the-long-tailpip|work=Green Transportation|access-date=20 December 2012|date=27 Oct 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Hickman|first=Leo|title=Are electric cars bad for the environment?|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/blog/2012/oct/05/electric-cars-emissions-bad-environment|access-date=20 December 2012|newspaper=The Guardian|date=5 October 2012}}</ref> For example, the New York Times reported that a Nissan Leaf driving in Los Angeles would have the same environmental impact as a gasoline-powered car with {{convert|79|mpgUS|abbr=on}} compared to the same trip in Denver would only have the equivalent of {{convert|33|mpgUS|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite news|last=STENQUIST|first=PAUL|title=How Green Are Electric Cars? Depends on Where You Plug In|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/15/automobiles/how-green-are-electric-cars-depends-on-where-you-plug-in.html|access-date=20 December 2012|newspaper=New York Times|date=30 April 2012}}</ref> The U.S. Department of Energy published a concise description of the problem: "Electric vehicles (EVs) themselves emit no greenhouse gases (GHGs), but substantial emissions can be produced 'upstream' at the electric power plant."<ref name=DOE>{{cite web|title=Electric Power|url=http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/evghg.shtml|work=Energy Information Administration|publisher=U.S. Department of Energy|access-date=21 December 2012}}</ref>

A recent study<ref name=IFW>{{cite web|title=Electric Mobility and Climate Protection: A Substantial Miscalculation|url=https://www.ifw-kiel.de/publications/kiel-policy-briefs/2020/electric-mobility-and-climate-protection-a-substantial-miscalculation-14660/|publisher=Institut fuer Wirtschaftsforschung|access-date=7 July 2020}}</ref> by the German IfW shows that the increased electricity demand, and the resulting delay in the shutdown of coal-fired power plants in Germany, causes electric vehicles to have 73% higher {{CO2}} emissions than Diesel vehicles.

==Carbon footprint in selected countries== {{Update section|date=April 2024}} A study published in the UK in April 2013 assessed the carbon footprint of plug-in electric vehicles in 20 countries. As a baseline the analysis established that manufacturing emissions account for 70 g CO2/km. The study found that in countries with coal-intensive generation, PEVs are no different from conventional petrol-powered vehicles. Among these countries are China, Indonesia, Australia, South Africa and India. A pure electric car in India generates emissions comparable to a {{convert|20|mpgUS|abbr=on}} petrol car. The country ranking was led by Paraguay, where all electricity is produced from hydropower, and Iceland, where electricity production relies on renewable power, mainly hydro and geothermal power. Resulting carbon emissions from an electric car in both countries are 70 g CO2/km, which is equivalent to a {{convert|220|mpgUS|abbr=on}} petrol car, and correspond to manufacturing emissions. Next in the ranking are other countries with similar low carbon electricity generation, including Sweden (mostly hydro and nuclear power ), Brazil (mainly hydropower) and France (predominantly nuclear power). Countries ranking in the middle include Japan, Germany, the UK and the United States.<ref name=Guardian022013>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/blog/2013/feb/07/india-green-country-electric-cars|title=India named least green country for electric cars |work=The Guardian|date=2013-02-07|access-date=2013-07-08}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.avem.fr/news?id=3964|title=Véhicules électriques et émissions de {{CO2}} – de 70 à 370 g {{CO2}}/km selon les pays|language=French|trans-title=Electric Vehicles and {{CO2}} emissions - 70 to 370 g {{CO2}}/km by country |author=Michaël Torregrossa|publisher= Association pour l'Avenir du Véhicule Electrique Méditerranéen (AVEM)|date=2013-03-21|access-date=2013-07-08}}</ref><ref name=ShadeOG>{{cite web|url=http://shrinkthatfootprint.com/electric-car-emissions#.UWMjH5xsYH4.email|title=Shades of Green: Electric Cars' Carbon Emissions Around the Globe|author=Lindsay Wilson|publisher=Shrink That Footprint|date=February 2013|access-date=2013-07-08}}</ref>

The following table shows the emission intensity estimated in the study for each of the 20 countries, and the corresponding emissions equivalent in miles per US gallon of a petrol-powered car.

Note that changes since 2013 will make significant changes to the figures, for example the UK emission factor for electricity in 2013 was 0.44546 kg/kWh,<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/greenhouse-gas-reporting-conversion-factors-2013 | title=Greenhouse gas reporting - Conversion factors 2013 }}</ref> by 2023 this had dropped to 0.207074 kg/kWh,<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/greenhouse-gas-reporting-conversion-factors-2023 | title=Greenhouse gas reporting: Conversion factors 2023 | date=28 June 2023 }}</ref> about 46% of the 2013 figure, which would move the UK into the "Low carbon" section.

{| class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto" ! colspan="5" style="text-align:center; background:#abcdef;"|Country comparison of full life cycle assessment of greenhouse gas emissions resulting from charging plug-in electric cars and emissions equivalent in terms of miles per US gallon of a petrol-powered car<ref name=Guardian022013/><ref name=ShadeOG/> |- ! style="background:#abcdef;"| Country||style="background:#abcdef;"|PEV well-to-wheels carbon dioxide equivalent emissions per electric car expressed in (CO2e/km)||style="background:#abcdef;"|Power source || style="background:#abcdef;"|PEV well-to-wheels emissions equivalent in terms of mpg US of petrol-powered car||style="background:#abcdef;"|Equivalent petrol car |-align=center | align=left |{{PAR}}||70||rowspan="5" bgcolor="green"|Low carbon ||{{Convert|218|mpgUS|L/100km|abbr=on}}||rowspan="5"|Hybrid multiples |- align=center | align=left | {{flag|Iceland}}||70||{{Convert|217|mpgUS|L/100km|abbr=on}} |- align=center | align=left | {{SWE}}||81 ||{{Convert|159|mpgUS|L/100km|abbr=on}} |- align=center | align=left | {{BRA}} ||89||{{Convert|134|mpgUS|L/100km|abbr=on}} |- align=center | align=left |{{FRA}}||93||{{Convert|123|mpgUS|L/100km|abbr=on}} |- align=center | align=left | {{CAN}}||115 ||rowspan="3" bgcolor="#ccffcc"|Fossil light ||{{Convert|87|mpgUS|L/100km|abbr=on}}||rowspan="3"|Beyond hybrid |- align=center | align=left | {{ESP}}||146 ||{{Convert|61|mpgUS|L/100km|abbr=on}} |- align=center | align=left | {{RUS}} ||155||{{Convert|57|mpgUS|L/100km|abbr=on}} |-align=center | align=left |{{ITA}}||170||rowspan="4" bgcolor="yellow"|Broad mix ||{{Convert|50|mpgUS|L/100km|abbr=on}}||rowspan="4"|New hybrid |- align=center | align=left | {{JAP}}||175 ||{{Convert|48|mpgUS|L/100km|abbr=on}} |- align=center | align=left | {{GER}}||179 ||{{Convert|47|mpgUS|L/100km|abbr=on}} |- align=center | align=left | {{UK}} ||189||{{Convert|44|mpgUS|L/100km|abbr=on}} |-align=center | align=left |{{USA}}||202||rowspan="3" bgcolor="orange"|Fossil heavy ||{{Convert|40|mpgUS|L/100km|abbr=on}}||rowspan="3"|Efficient petrol |- align=center | align=left | {{MEX}}||203 ||{{Convert|40|mpgUS|L/100km|abbr=on}} |- align=center | align=left | {{TUR}}||204 ||{{Convert|40|mpgUS|L/100km|abbr=on}} |- align=center | align=left | {{CHN}} ||258||rowspan="5" bgcolor="red"|Coal based||{{Convert|30|mpgUS|L/100km|abbr=on}}||rowspan="5" |Average petrol |-align=center | align=left |{{IDN}}||270||{{Convert|28|mpgUS|L/100km|abbr=on}} |- align=center | align=left | {{AUS}}||292 ||{{Convert|26|mpgUS|L/100km|abbr=on}} |- align=center | align=left | {{SAF}}||318 |||{{Convert|24|mpgUS|L/100km|abbr=on}} |- align=center | align=left | {{IND}} ||370||{{Convert|20|mpgUS|L/100km|abbr=on}} |- |colspan="5" style="background:#abcdef;"|'''Note:''' Electric car manufacturing emissions account for 70 g CO2/km '''Source:''' Shades of Green: Electric Cars’ Carbon Emissions Around the Globe, Shrink That Footprint, February 2013.<ref name=ShadeOG/> |}

==Carbon footprint in the United States== {{Update section|date=April 2024}} In the case of the United States, the Union of Concerned Scientists (UCS) conducted a study in 2012 to assess average greenhouse gas emissions resulting from charging plug-in car batteries from the perspective of the full life-cycle (well-to-wheel analysis) and according to fuel and technology used to generate electric power by region. The study used the Nissan Leaf all-electric car to establish the analysis baseline, and electric-utility emissions are based on EPA's 2007 estimates. The UCS study expressed the results in terms of miles per gallon instead of the conventional unit of grams of greenhouse gases or carbon dioxide equivalent emissions per year in order to make the results more friendly for consumers. The study found that in areas where electricity is generated from natural gas, nuclear, hydroelectric or renewable sources, the potential of plug-in electric cars to reduce greenhouse emissions is significant. On the other hand, in regions where a high proportion of power is generated from coal, hybrid electric cars produce less CO2 equivalent emissions than plug-in electric cars, and the best fuel efficient gasoline-powered subcompact car produces slightly less emissions than a PEV. In the worst-case scenario, the study estimated that for a region where all energy is generated from coal, a plug-in electric car would emit greenhouse gas emissions equivalent to a gasoline car rated at a combined city/highway driving fuel economy of {{Convert|30|mpgUS|abbr=on}}. In contrast, in a region that is completely reliant on natural gas, the PEV would be equivalent to a gasoline-powered car rated at {{Convert|50|mpgUS|abbr=on}}.<ref name=UCS2012EVs>{{cite web|url=http://www.ucsusa.org/assets/documents/clean_vehicles/electric-car-global-warming-emissions-report.pdf|title=State of Charge: Electric Vehicles' Global Warming Emissions and Fuel-Cost Savings across the United States|author=Don Anair and Amine Mahmassani|publisher=Union of Concerned Scientists |date=April 2012|access-date=2012-04-16}} ''pp. 16-20''.</ref><ref name=NYTCO201>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/15/automobiles/how-green-are-electric-cars-depends-on-where-you-plug-in.html?_r=1&emc=eta1&pagewanted=all|title=How Green Are Electric Cars? Depends on Where You Plug In|author=Paul Stenquist|work=The New York Times|date=2012-04-13|access-date=2012-04-14}}</ref>

The following table shows a representative sample of cities within each of the three categories of emissions intensity used in the UCS study, showing the corresponding miles per gallon equivalent for each city as compared to the greenhouse gas emissions of a gasoline-powered car: {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto" ! colspan="6" style="text-align:center; background:#cfc;"|Regional comparison of full life cycle assessment of greenhouse gas emissions resulting from charging plug-in electric vehicles expressed in terms of miles per gallon of a gasoline-powered car with equivalent emissions<ref name=UCS2012EVs/><ref name=NYTCO202>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2012/04/13/automobiles/Sorting-Out-the-Power-Grid.html?emc=eta1|title=Carbon In, Carbon Out: Sorting Out the Power Grid|author=Paul Stenquist|work=The New York Times|date=2012-04-13|access-date=2012-04-14}} ''See map for regional results''</ref><ref name=NYTCO203>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/imagepages/2012/04/15/automobiles/15POWERemissions-ch.html?ref=automobiles|title=When it Comes to Carbon Dioxide, Lower is Better and Zero is Perfect|author=Paul Stenquist|work=The New York Times|date=2012-04-13|access-date=2012-04-14}}</ref> |- ! style="background:#cfc;"| Rating scale by emissions intensity expressed as miles per gallon||style="background:#cfc;"| City ||style="background:#cfc;"|PEV well-to-wheels carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e) emissions per year expressed as mpg US|| style="background:#cfc;"|Percent reduction in CO2e emissions compared with 27 mpg US average new compact car || colspan="2" style="background:#cfc;"|Combined EPA's rated fuel economy and GHG emissions for reference gasoline-powered car<ref name=EPArate>{{cite web|url= http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/Find.do?action=sbs&id=31767&id=32183&id=31190&id=31370&#tab2|title=Compare side-by-side|publisher=U.S. Department of Energy and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency|date=2012-04-13|access-date=2012-04-15}} ''Energy and Environment tab: cars selected Toyota Prius, Prius c, Honda Civic Hybrid, and Chevrolet Cruze automatical, all model year 2012.''</ref> |-align=center | rowspan="6" |'''Best''' Lowest CO2e emissions equivalent to over{{Convert|50|mpgUS|L/100km|abbr=on}}|| align=left |Juneau, Alaska||{{Convert|112|mpgUS|L/100km|abbr=on}}||315%||rowspan="3" colspan="2" | 2012 Toyota Prius/Prius c {{Convert|50|mpgUS|L/100km|abbr=on}} |- align=center | align=left | San Francisco||{{Convert|79|mpgUS|L/100km|abbr=on}} ||193% |- align=center | align=left | New York City||{{Convert|74|mpgUS|L/100km|abbr=on}} ||174% |- align=center | align=left | Portland, Oregon ||{{Convert|73|mpgUS|L/100km|abbr=on}}||170% || colspan="2" style="background:#f0f0ff;"| Greenhouse gas emissions (grams/mile) |- align=center | align=left | Boston || {{Convert|67|mpgUS|L/100km|abbr=on}} || 148% || style="background:#f0f0ff;"| Tailpipe CO2|| style="background:#f0f0ff;"| Upstream GHG |- align=center | align=left | Washington, D.C. ||{{Convert|58|mpgUS|L/100km|abbr=on}} ||115% || 178 g/mi (111 g/km) ||44 g/mi (27 g/km) |-align=center | rowspan="5" |'''Better''' Moderate CO2e emissions equivalent to between {{Convert|41|mpgUS|L/100km|abbr=on}} to {{Convert|50|mpgUS|L/100km|abbr=on}} || align=left |Phoenix, Arizona||{{Convert|48|mpgUS|L/100km|abbr=on}}||78%|| rowspan="2" colspan="2" | 2012 Honda Civic Hybrid {{Convert|44|mpgUS|L/100km|abbr=on}} |- align=center | align=left | Miami || {{Convert|47|mpgUS|L/100km|abbr=on}} ||74% |- align=center | align=left | Houston|| {{Convert|46|mpgUS|L/100km|abbr=on}} ||70% || colspan="2" style="background:#f0f0ff;"|Greenhouse gas emissions (grams/mile) |- align=center | align=left | Columbus, Ohio || {{Convert|41|mpgUS|L/100km|abbr=on}}||52% || style="background:#f0f0ff;"| Tailpipe CO2|| style="background:#f0f0ff;"| Upstream GHG |- align=center | align=left | Atlanta || {{Convert|41|mpgUS|L/100km|abbr=on}} ||52% || 202 g/mi (125 g/km)||50 g/mi (31 g/km) |-align=center | rowspan="5" |'''Good''' Highest CO2e emissions equivalent to between {{Convert|31|mpgUS|L/100km|abbr=on}} to {{Convert|40|mpgUS|L/100km|abbr=on}} || align=left | Detroit||{{Convert|38|mpgUS|L/100km|abbr=on}}||41% || rowspan="2" colspan="2" | 2012 Chevrolet Cruze {{Convert|30|mpgUS|L/100km|abbr=on}} |- align=center | align=left | Des Moines, Iowa || {{Convert|37|mpgUS|L/100km|abbr=on}}||37% |- align=center | align=left | St. Louis, Missouri || {{Convert|36|mpgUS|L/100km|abbr=on}}|| 33% || colspan="2" style="background:#f0f0ff;"| Greenhouse gas emissions (grams/mile) |- align=center | align=left | Wichita, Kansas|| {{Convert|35|mpgUS|L/100km|abbr=on}}||30% || style="background:#f0f0ff;"| Tailpipe CO2|| style="background:#f0f0ff;"| Upstream GHG |- align=center | align=left | Denver || {{Convert|33|mpgUS|L/100km|abbr=on}}|| 22%|| 296 g/mi (184 g/km) ||73 g/mi (45 g/km) |- | colspan="6" |Source: Union of Concerned Scientists, 2012.<ref name=UCS2012EVs/> Notes: The Nissan Leaf is the baseline car for the assessment, with an energy consumption rated by EPA at 34 kWh/100 mi or 99 miles per gallon gasoline equivalent ({{convert|99|mpgus|L/100km|abbr=on|disp=out|1}}) combined. The ratings are based on a region's mix of electricity sources and its average emissions intensity over the course of a year. In practice the electricity grid is very dynamic, with the mix of power plants constantly changing in response to hourly, daily and seasonal electricity demand, and availability of electricity resources. |- |} An analysis of EPA power plant data from 2016 showed improvement in mpg-equivalent ratings of electric cars for nearly all regions, with a national weighted average of 80 mpg for electric vehicles.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://blog.ucsusa.org/dave-reichmuth/new-data-show-electric-vehicles-continue-to-get-cleaner|title=New Data Show Electric Vehicles Continue to Get Cleaner|date=2018-03-08|work=Union of Concerned Scientists|access-date=2018-08-26|language=en-US}}</ref> The regions with the highest ratings include upstate New York, New England, and California at over 100 mpg, while only Oahu, Wisconsin, and part of Illinois and Missouri are below 40 mpg, though still higher than nearly all gasoline cars.

This information has been updated in 2025 by the ICCT, an international, independent non-profit research organization. In 2025, in most major cities, battery powered electric vehicles in normal operation use 25% or even less of the internal combustion engine. According to the ICCT, battery powered electric vehicles use about 70% less energy than internal combustion engine vehicles.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Scott |first=D'Errah |date=2025-07-24 |title=Why electric vehicles are already much greener than combustion engine vehicles |url=https://theicct.org/why-evs-are-already-much-greener-than-combustion-engine-vehicles-jul25/ |access-date=2025-10-07 |website=International Council on Clean Transportation |language=en-US}}</ref>

==Criticism== The long tailpipe has been the target of criticism, ranging from claims that many estimates are methodologically flawed to estimates that state that electricity generation in the United States will become less carbon-intensive over time.<ref>{{cite web|last=Hall|first=Dean|title=Holes in the Long Tailpipe|url=http://www.neohouston.com/2010/04/holes-in-the-long-tailpipe/|publisher=neoHOUSTON|access-date=21 December 2012|date=5 Apr 2010}}</ref> Tesla Motors CEO Elon Musk published his own criticism of the long tailpipe.<ref name=Tesla>{{cite web|last=Musk|first=Elon|title=The Secret Tesla Motors Master Plan (just between you and me)|url=http://www.teslamotors.com/blog/secret-tesla-motors-master-plan-just-between-you-and-me|work=Tesla Blog|publisher=Tesla Motors|access-date=20 December 2012}}</ref> The extraction and refining of carbon based fuels and its distribution is in itself an energy intensive industry contributing to CO2 emissions. In 2007 U.S. refineries consumed 39353 million kWh, 70769 million lbs of steam and 697593 million cubic feet of Natural Gas. And the refining energy efficiency for gasoline is estimated to be, at best, 87.7%.<ref>{{cite web|last=Wang|first=Michael|title=Estimation of Energy Efficiencies of U.S. Petroleum Refineries|url=https://greet.es.anl.gov/files/hl9mw9i7|publisher=Argonne National Laboratory|access-date=6 March 2016|date=Mar 2008}}</ref>

==References== {{Reflist}}

==External links== * [http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/Find.do?action=bt2 Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Electric and Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles], web tool to estimate GHG by car model and zip code, U.S. Department of Energy and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. * [http://shrinkthatfootprint.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/Shades-of-Green-Full-Report.pdf Shades of Green - Electric Car's Carbon Emissions Around the Globe], Shrink that Footprint, February 2013. * [http://www.ucsusa.org/assets/documents/clean_vehicles/electric-car-global-warming-emissions-report.pdf State of Charge: Electric Vehicles' Global Warming Emissions and Fuel-Cost Savings across the United States], Union of Concerned Scientists, April 2012.

Category:Electric power generation Category:Greenhouse gas emissions Category:Electric vehicles