Tokugawa shogunate

{{Short description|1603–1868 Japanese military government (Edo Jidai)}} {{Use mdy dates|date=April 2025}} {{Infobox country | native_name = {{ublist |{{lang|ja|徳川幕府}} |{{Transliteration|ja|Tokugawa bakufu}}}} | conventional_long_name = Tokugawa shogunate | common_name = Tokugawa Shogunate| | era = Edo period | status = | government_type = {{Nowrap|Monarchy under a feudal<ref name="britannica" /> dynastic<ref>{{cite web |title=Japan § Introduction |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/japan/#introduction |website=The World Factbook |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |access-date=9 March 2021 |archive-date=5 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210105105736/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/japan/#introduction |url-status=dead }}</ref> military dictatorship<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/shogunate |title=Shogunate |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. |access-date=October 21, 2020 |quote=The shogunate was the hereditary military dictatorship of Japan (1192–1867). |archive-date=October 9, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201009213712/https://www.britannica.com/topic/shogunate |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Tokugawa-period |title=Tokugawa period |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. |access-date=June 3, 2020 |archive-date=July 24, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190724013712/https://www.britannica.com/event/Tokugawa-period |url-status=live }}</ref>}} | year_start = 1603<ref>{{Cite web|url= https://www.nakasendoway.com/the-story-of-the-battle-of-sekigahara/|title= The Story of the Battle of Sekigahara|accessdate= 2021-05-28|archive-date= 2021-05-16|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210516072023/https://www.nakasendoway.com/the-story-of-the-battle-of-sekigahara/|url-status= live}}</ref> | year_end = 1868<ref>{{Cite web |url= https://www.history.com/.amp/topics/japan/|title=meiji-restoration Tokugawa Period and Meiji Restoration |accessdate=2021-05-28}}</ref> | life_span = 1603–1868 | event_pre = {{nowrap|Battle of Sekigahara}} | date_pre = 21 October 1600 | event_start = Shogunate established | date_start = 24 March | event_end = Meiji Restoration | date_end = 3 January | event1 = Siege of Osaka | date_event1 = 8 November 1614 | event2 = Sakoku Edict of 1635 | date_event2 = 1635 | event3 = Kanagawa Treaty | date_event3 = 31 March 1854 | event4 = Harris Treaty | date_event4 = 29 July 1858| | p1 = Azuchi–Momoyama period | flag_p1 = Toyotomi_mon.png | border_p1 = no | p2 = | flag_p2 = | border_p2 = no | s1 = Empire of Japan | s2 = Republic of Ezo | flag_s1 = Merchant_flag_of_Japan_(1870).svg | flag_s2 = Seal_of_Ezo.svg | image_coat = Tokugawa family crest.svg | image_flag = Flag of the Tokugawa Shogunate.svg | flag_type = Naval ensign<ref>{{Cite web|title=Daimyo Flags, 19th Century|url=https://www.fotw.info/flags/jp_daimy.html#tok|website=Flags of the World|access-date=2022-09-15|archive-date=2022-09-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220920163554/https://www.fotw.info/flags/jp_daimy.html#tok|url-status=live}}</ref> | symbol_type = ''Mon'' of the Tokugawa clan | other_symbol = '''National seal'''{{br}}{{lang|ja|經文緯武}}{{br}}85px{{br}}(from 1857) | image_map = Map of Japan in Provinces in time of Iyeyasu.jpg | map_width = 220px | capital = {{ubl|Edo (Shōgun's residence)|Heian-kyō (Emperor's palace)}} | largest_city = {{ubli|Osaka (1603–1613)|Heian-kyō (1613–1638)|Edo (1638–1868)}} | national_motto = | national_anthem = | common_languages = {{ubli|Early Modern Japanese<ref name="Shibatani">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Shibatani |first=Masayoshi |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Japanese-language |title=Japanese language {{pipe}} Origin, History, Grammar, & Writing |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. |access-date=June 15, 2021 |archive-date=January 31, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200131184950/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Japanese-language |url-status=live }}</ref>|Modern Japanese<ref name="Shibatani"/>}} | religion = '''State religions:'''{{ubli|Japanese Buddhism (particularly Tendai, Jōdo, and Shingon)<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Makoto|first1=Hayashi|last2=Amstutz|first2=Galen|date=2012|title=General Education and the Modernization of Japanese Buddhism|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44362468|journal=The Eastern Buddhist|volume=43|issue=1/2|pages=137|jstor=44362468|issn=0012-8708|access-date=2026-04-21|archive-date=2021-09-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210913000058/https://www.jstor.org/stable/44362468|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Yamagishi |first=Keiko |editor-last1=Ferrari |editor-first1=Silvio |editor-last2=Cristofori |editor-first2=Rinaldo |title=Law and Religion, An Overview |year=2016 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FzcrDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA458 |volume=1 |page=458 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-4094-3600-3 |access-date=31 May 2023 |quote=The Tokugawa Shogunate had sanctioned Buddhism as a state religion. |archive-date=31 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230531204856/https://books.google.com/books?id=FzcrDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA458 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Tucci |first=Giuseppe |authorlink=Giuseppe Tucci |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Buddhism/Korea-and-Japan |title=Buddhism - Korea and Japan |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. |access-date=June 15, 2021 |archive-date=October 13, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221013194541/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Buddhism/Korea-and-Japan |url-status=live }}</ref>|Confucianism<ref name="Calabresi2021">{{cite book |last=Calabresi |first=Steven Gow |author-link=Steven Calabresi |title=The History and Growth of Judicial Review |year=2021 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gBYoEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA458 |volume=2 |page=116 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780190075750 |access-date=31 May 2023 |quote=A dew sexteenth-century Chiristian missionaries left a small following in Japan, but from 1600 until 1853, the countory was governed by the Tokugawa Shogunate banned Christianity, forbade travel overseas, and only allowed foreign trade in the port of Nagasaki with the Netherlands and China. Confucianism, with its emphasis on harmony, was the prevailing 'state religion', although it coexisted with Shintoism, a religion that worshipped nature gods and that was personified by the emperor. |archive-date=31 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230531204855/https://books.google.com/books?id=gBYoEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA458 |url-status=live }}</ref>}}'''Others:'''{{ubli|Shinto<ref name="Calabresi2021"/>|Shinbutsu-shūgō<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Hirai |first=Naofusa |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shinto#ref8484 |title=Shinto § The encounter with Buddhism |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. |access-date=June 15, 2021 |quote=Buddhistic Shintō was popular for several centuries and was influential until its extinction at the Meiji Restoration. |archive-date=August 11, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811211341/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shinto#ref8484 |url-status=live }}</ref>|<hr>Roman Catholicism<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kirishitan |title=Kirishitan {{pipe}} religion |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. |access-date=June 15, 2021 |archive-date=May 3, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210503050531/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kirishitan |url-status=live }}</ref> (banned, until 1853)<ref name="Calabresi2021"/>}} | currency = The tri-metallic Tokugawa coinage system based on copper Mon, silver Bu and Shu, as well as gold Ryō | leader1 = Go-Yōzei<ref>Emperor Go-Yōzei started reigning in 1586, after the abdication of Emperor Ōgimachi.</ref> | leader2 = Meiji<ref>Emperor Meiji reigned until his death in 1912.</ref> | year_leader1 = 1603–1611 (first) | year_leader2 = 1867–1868 (last) | title_leader = Emperor| | representative1 = Tokugawa Ieyasu | representative2 = Tokugawa Yoshinobu | year_representative1 = 1603–1605 (first)<ref>{{Cite web |url= https://www.japanvisitor.com/famous-japanese-people/tokugawa-ieyasu |title= Tokugawa Ieyasu JapanVisitor Japan Travel Guide |accessdate= 2021-05-28 |archive-date= 2021-04-18 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210418012729/https://www.japanvisitor.com/famous-japanese-people/tokugawa-ieyasu |url-status= live }}</ref> | year_representative2 = 1866–1867 (last) | title_representative = ''Shōgun'' | deputy1 = | deputy2 = | year_deputy1 = 1603–1614 (first) | year_deputy2 = 1868 (last) | title_deputy = | legislature = | stat_year1 = | stat_area1 = | stat_pop1 = | stat_year2 = | stat_area2 = | today = Japan | footnotes = | demonym = | area_km2 = | area_rank = | GDP_PPP = | GDP_PPP_year = | HDI = | HDI_year = }} {{History of Japan |smart |image=NikkoYomeimon5005.jpg |caption=Nikkō Tōshō-gū}} The '''Tokugawa shogunate''',{{efn|{{IPAc-en|ˌ|t|oʊ|k|uː|ˈ|g|ɑː|w|ə}} {{respell|TOHK|oo|GAH|wə}};<ref>{{Cite dictionary |url=http://www.lexico.com/definition/Tokugawa |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201128102825/https://www.lexico.com/definition/tokugawa |url-status=dead |archive-date=November 28, 2020 |title=Tokugawa |dictionary=Lexico UK English Dictionary |publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref> {{langx|ja|徳川幕府|Tokugawa bakufu}}, {{IPA|ja|to.kɯ.ɡa.wa baꜜ.kɯ̥.ɸɯ, -ŋa.wa-|IPA}}<ref>{{cite book|script-title=ja:NHK日本語発音アクセント新辞典|publisher=NHK Publishing|editor=NHK Broadcasting Culture Research Institute|date=24 May 2016|language=ja}}</ref><ref name=daijirin/>}} also known as the {{nihongo foot|'''Edo shogunate''',|江戸幕府|Edo bakufu|{{IPA|ja|e.do baꜜ.kɯ̥.ɸɯ|IPA}}<ref name=daijirin>{{cite book|script-title=ja:大辞林|publisher=Sanseidō|editor-last=Matsumura|editor-first=Akira|edition=4th|date=5 September 2019|language=ja}}</ref>|lead=yes|group=lower-alpha}} was the military government of Japan during the Edo period from 1603 to 1868.<ref name="nussbaum978">{{harvnb|Nussbaum|2002|p=978}}</ref><ref name="Edo-jidai">{{harvnb|Nussbaum|2002|p=167}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Nussbaum|2002|p=525}}</ref>

The Tokugawa shogunate was established by Tokugawa Ieyasu after victory at the Battle of Sekigahara, ending the civil wars of the Sengoku period following the collapse of the Ashikaga shogunate. Ieyasu became the ''shōgun,'' and the Tokugawa clan governed Japan from Edo Castle in the eastern city of Edo (Tokyo) along with the ''daimyō'' lords of the samurai class.<ref>{{harvnb|Nussbaum|2002|pp=878–879}}</ref><ref name="nussbaum976">{{harvnb|Nussbaum|2002|p=976}}</ref><ref name="Edo-jidai" />

The Tokugawa shogunate organized Japanese society under the strict Tokugawa class system and banned the entry of most foreigners under the isolationist policies of ''Sakoku'' to promote political stability. Japanese subjects were also barred from leaving the country. The Tokugawa shoguns governed Japan in a feudal system, with each ''daimyō'' administering a ''han'' (feudal domain), although the country was still nominally organized as imperial provinces. Under the Tokugawa shogunate, Japan experienced rapid economic growth and urbanization, which led to the rise of the merchant class and ''Ukiyo'' culture.

The Tokugawa shogunate declined during the ''Bakumatsu'' period from 1853 and was overthrown by supporters of the Imperial Court in the Meiji Restoration in 1868. The Empire of Japan was established under the Meiji government, and Tokugawa loyalists continued to fight in the Boshin War until the defeat of the Republic of Ezo at the Battle of Hakodate in June 1869.

==History== {{see also|Sengoku period|Tokugawa Ieyasu|Bakumatsu}}{{Further|Edo period}} Following the Sengoku period ("Warring States period"), the central government had been largely re-established by Oda Nobunaga during the Azuchi–Momoyama period. After the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600, central authority fell to Tokugawa Ieyasu.<ref name="nussbaum978" /> While many ''daimyō'' who fought against him were extinguished or had their holdings reduced, Ieyasu was committed to retaining the ''daimyō'' and the ''han'' (domains) as components under his new shogunate.<ref name="brown 1997">{{Cite book |title=The Cambridge history of Japan. 1: Ancient Japan / ed. by Delmer M. Brown |date=1997 |publisher=Cambridge Univ. Press |others=James L. McClain |isbn=978-0-521-22352-2 |editor-last=Brown |editor-first=Delmer Myers |edition=Repr |location=Cambridge |oclc=17483588}}</ref> ''Daimyō'' who sided with Ieyasu were rewarded, and some of Ieyasu's former vassals were made ''daimyō'' and were located strategically throughout the country.<ref name="brown 1997" /> The ''sankin-kotai'' policy, in an effort to constrain rebellions by the ''daimyō'', mandated the housing of wives and children of the ''daimyō'' in the capital as hostages.<ref name="paik steele tanaka 2017" />

A period of peace occurred between the Siege of Osaka in 1615 and the Keian Uprising in 1651. This period saw the bakufu (shogunate's administration) prioritise civil administration, while civil society witnessed a surge in trade and industrial activities. Trade under the reign of Ieyasu saw much new wealth created by mining and goods manufacturing, which resulted in a rural population flow to urban areas.<ref name="sansom 1958">{{Cite book |last=Sansom |first=Sir George Bailey |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Oul3FkdYxR0C |title=A History of Japan: 1615-1867 |date=1958 |publisher=Stanford University Press |location=Stanford, California |pages=58, 156 |language=en}}</ref> By the Genroku period (1688–1704) Japan saw a period of material prosperity and the blossoming of the arts, such as the early development of ''ukiyo-e'' by Moronobu. The reign of Tokugawa Yoshimune (1716–1745) saw poor harvests and a fall in tax revenue in the early 1720s; as a result he pushed for the Kyoho reforms to repair the finances of the bakufu as he believed the military aristocracy was losing its power against the rich merchants and landowners.<ref name="sansom 1958" />

Society in the Tokugawa period, unlike in previous shogunates, was supposedly based on the strict class hierarchy originally established by Toyotomi Hideyoshi. The ''daimyō'' were at the top, followed by the warrior-caste of samurai, with the farmers, artisans, and traders ranking below. In some parts of the country, particularly smaller regions, ''daimyō,'' and samurai were more or less identical, since ''daimyō'' might be trained as samurai, and samurai might act as local rulers.{{Citation needed|date=March 2024}}

The largely inflexible nature of this social stratification system unleashed disruptive forces over time. Taxes on the peasantry were set at fixed amounts that did not account for inflation or other changes in monetary value. As a result, the tax revenues collected by the samurai landowners increasingly declined over time. A 2017 study found that peasant rebellions and desertion lowered tax rates and inhibited state growth in the Tokugawa shogunate.<ref name="paik steele tanaka 2017">{{Cite journal |last1=Paik |first1=Christopher |last2=Steele |first2=Abbey |last3=Tanaka |first3=Seiki |year=2017 |title=Constraining the Samurai: Rebellion and Taxation in Early Modern Japan |url=http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/137080/1/Binder3.pdf |url-status=live |journal=International Studies Quarterly |volume=61 |issue=2 |pages=5 |doi=10.1093/isq/sqx008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200309202210/http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/137080/1/Binder3.pdf |archive-date=2020-03-09 |access-date=2019-08-16}}</ref> By the mid-18th century, both the ''shōgun'' and ''daimyō'' were hampered by financial difficulties, whereas more wealth flowed to the merchant class. Peasant uprisings and samurai discontent became increasingly prevalent. Some reforms were enacted to attend to these issues such as the Kansei reforms (1787–1793) by Matsudaira Sadanobu.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Deal |first=William E. |title=Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2006 |pages=14 |language=en}}</ref> He bolstered the bakufu's rice stockpiles and mandated ''daimyō'' to follow suit. He cut down urban spending, allocated reserves for potential famines, and urged city-dwelling peasants to return to rural areas.<ref name="mikiso perez 2015" />

By 1800, Japan included five cities with over 100,000 residents, and three among the world's twenty cities that had more than 300,000 inhabitants. Edo likely claimed the title of the world's most populous city, housing over one million people.<ref>{{harvnb|Jansen|2002|pp=245–246}}</ref>

=== Late Tokugawa shogunate (1853–1867) === {{main|Bakumatsu}}

[[File:Satsuma-samurai-during-boshin-war-period.jpg|thumb|Samurai of the Shimazu clan]] The late Tokugawa shogunate (''Bakumatsu'') was the period between 1853 and 1867, during which Japan ended its isolationist foreign policy called ''sakoku'' and modernized from a feudal shogunate to the Meiji government. The 1850s saw growing resentment by the ''tozama daimyōs'' and anti-Western sentiment following the arrival of a U.S. Navy fleet under the command of Matthew C. Perry (which led to the forced opening of Japan). The major ideological and political factions during this period were divided into the pro-imperialist ''Ishin Shishi'' (nationalist patriots) and the shogunate forces; aside from the dominant two groups, other factions attempted to use the chaos of the Bakumatsu era to seize personal power.<ref name="SHINSENGUMI">{{Cite book |last=Hillsborough |first=Romulus |title=Shinsengumi: the shōgun's last samurai corps |date=2005 |publisher=Tuttle Pub |isbn=978-0-8048-3627-2 |edition=1st |location=North Clarendon, VT}}</ref>

An alliance of ''daimyō'' and the emperor succeeded in overthrowing the shogunate, which came to an official end in 1868 with the resignation of the 15th Tokugawa shogun'','' Tokugawa Yoshinobu, leading to the "restoration" (王政復古, ''Ōsei fukko'') of imperial rule. Some loyal retainers of the shogun continued to fight during the Boshin War that followed but were eventually defeated in the notable Battle of Toba–Fushimi.<ref name="LS">{{Cite book |last=Ravina |first=Mark |title=The last samurai: the life and battles of Saigō Takamori |date=2004 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-0-471-70537-6 |location=Hoboken, NJ}}</ref>

== Religious policy == === Christians under the Shogunate === {{see also|Christianity in Japan}} Followers of Catholic Christians first began appearing in Japan during the 16th century.<ref>{{harvnb|Totman|Nakane|Ōishi|1990|p=12}}</ref>

In 1600, when English sailor William Adams and his Dutch colleague Jan Joosten arrived at Japan, they told Ieyasu about the world situation, including that there were many conflicts in Europe, and that the Jesuits and other Catholics (e.g. Portuguese, Spanish), who had been proselytizing Christianity in Japan, and the Protestants (e.g. Dutch, English) were on different sides and were in conflict with each other. Ieyasu reportedly took a liking to them for their frankness and regarded them as trustworthy.<ref name="Japaaan191464">{{cite web| url = https://mag.japaaan.com/archives/191464|title =400年以上の交流の歴史が! 日本とオランダの歴史を振り返る | website = excite news| publisher =Excite Japan| language = ja| trans-title = There is a history of exchange for over 400 years! Looking back at the history of Japan and the Netherlands| access-date = 17 September 2023}}</ref><ref name="rekishijin24815">{{cite web| url = https://www.rekishijin.com/24815| title= 家康を支えた「ブレーン」とその変遷| last =Emiya| first = Takayuki| author-link =| date = 24 January 2023 | website = Rekishijin| publisher = ABC ARC| language = ja| trans-title = The 'brains' behind Ieyasu and their evolution| access-date = 17 September 2023}}</ref>

While at first tolerant of Christianity,<ref>Leonard, Jonathan, ''Early Japan'', Time-Life Books, New York, cl1968, p. 162</ref> Tokugawa Ieyasu soon began to see it as a growing threat to the stability of the shogunate.<ref>{{harvnb|Nussbaum|2002|p=738}}</ref> His attitude changed after 1613, and persecution of Christians sharply increased, with Ieyasu completely banning Catholicism in 1614.<ref>Sansom, G. B., ''The Western World and Japan'', Charles E. Tuttle Company, Rutland and Tokyo, 1950, p. 132</ref><ref name=TotmanTokugawa>{{harvnb|Totman|Nakane|Ōishi|1990|pp=24–28}}</ref>

The hostility of Ieyasu towards Catholics was shown when he replaced Jesuit translator João Rodrigues Tçuzu with William Adams in his court in the aftermath of the Nossa Senhora da Graça incident in Nagasaki.{{sfn|Milton|2011|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jZqNl1GnkoYC&pg=PT38]}}<ref name="Takase Koichiro 2002 383–384">{{Cite book |author=Takase Koichiro |title=キリシタン時代の貿易と外交 |publisher=Yagi Shoten |year=2002 |isbn=4840620202 |pages=383–384 |trans-title=Trade and diplomacy in the Christian era}}</ref> This change of attitude is believed to be due to the Okamoto Daihachi incident, where a Catholic ''daimyō'' and shogun's official were accused of a series of crimes.{{sfn|Murdoch|Yamagata|1903|p=498}}

The Shimabara Rebellion is often portrayed as a Christian rebellion against violent suppression by Matsukura Katsuie. However the main academic understanding is that the rebellion was mainly by peasants against Matsukura's misgovernance, with Christians later joining the rebellion.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://hdl.handle.net/10112/1067 |hdl=10112/1067 |title=島原の乱 : 宗教一揆的要素の再評価 |journal=史泉 |date=31 July 2009 |volume=110 |pages=36–55}}</ref> The system introduced by the Shogunate to stamp out Catholicism after the Shimabara rebellion was the Danka system, which made affiliation of every Household in Japan to the Buddhist temple compulsory.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Marcure |first=Kenneth |date=Spring 1985 |title=The Danka System |journal=Monumenta Nipponica |publisher=Sophia University |location=Tokyo |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=39–67 |doi=10.2307/2385001 |jstor=2385001 }}</ref>

Ieyasu's ban of Christianity is often linked with the creation of the ''sakoku'' seclusionist policies in the 1630s. His successor shoguns followed his policy, compounding upon existing laws by Ieyasu.<ref name=TotmanTokugawa /> The ban on Christianity was enforced via decrees of expulsion and mass-executions in 1613, 1622 (Great Genna Martyrdom), 1623 (Great Martyrdom of Edo) 1630, 1632 and 1634.<ref>[https://www.jesuit.org.sg/june-sebastian-vieira-sj June 6th - Servant of God Sebastian Vieira, SJ] at Society of Jesus, Singapore</ref>

==Government==

===Shogunate and domains===

The ''bakuhan'' system (''bakuhan taisei'' {{lang|ja|幕藩体制}}) was the feudal political system in the Edo period of Japan.<ref name="britannica">{{Cite web |title=Japan - The bakuhan system |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Japan/The-bakuhan-system |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211026043855/https://www.britannica.com/place/Japan/The-bakuhan-system |archive-date=2021-10-26 |access-date=2020-06-01 |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |language=en}}</ref> {{anchor|bakufu}}''Baku'' is an abbreviation of ''bakufu'', meaning "military government"—that is, the shogunate. The ''han'' were the domains headed by ''daimyō''.<ref name="britannica" /> Beginning from Ieyasu's appointment as shogun in 1603, but especially after the Tokugawa victory in Osaka in 1615, various policies were implemented to assert the shogunate's control, which severely curtailed the ''daimyō''' independence.<ref name="brown 1997" /> The number of ''daimyō'' varied but stabilized at around 270.<ref name="brown 1997" />

The ''bakuhan'' system split feudal power between the shogunate in Edo and the ''daimyō'' with domains throughout Japan.<ref name="perez 2009">{{Cite book |last=Perez |first=Louis G. |title=The history of Japan |date=2009 |publisher=Greenwood Press |isbn=978-0-313-36442-6 |edition=2nd |series=The Greenwood histories of the modern nations |location=Westport, Connecticut London |oclc=277040931}}</ref> The ''shōgun'' and the ''daimyō'' were all feudal lords with their own bureaucracies, policies, and territories.<ref name="perez 2009" /> Provinces had a degree of sovereignty and were allowed an independent administration of the ''han'' in exchange for loyalty to the ''shōgun'', who was responsible for foreign relations, national security,<ref name="perez 2009" /> coinage, weights, measures, and transportation.<ref name="brown 1997" />

The ''shōgun'' also administered the most powerful ''han'', the hereditary fief of the House of Tokugawa, which also included many gold and silver mines.<ref name="perez 2009" /> Towards the end of the shogunate, the Tokugawa clan held around 7 million ''koku'' of land (天領 tenryō), including 2.6–2.7 million ''koku'' held by direct vassals, out of 30 million in the country.<ref name="mikiso perez 2015" /> The other 23 million ''koku'' were held by other ''daimyō''.<ref name="mikiso perez 2015" />

The number of ''han'' (roughly 270) fluctuated throughout the Edo period.<ref name="gregorysmits">{{Cite web |last=Smits |first=Gregory |author-link=Gregory Smits |title=Recent Trends in Scholarship on the History of Ryukyu's Relations with China and Japan |url=http://www.personal.psu.edu/faculty/g/j/gjs4/Smits_bonn06_Revised.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120302074408/http://www.personal.psu.edu/faculty/g/j/gjs4/Smits_bonn06_Revised.pdf |archive-date=2012-03-02 |website=Penn State}}</ref> They were ranked by size, which was measured as the number of ''koku'' of rice that the domain produced each year.<ref name="mikiso perez 2015" /> One ''koku'' was the amount of rice necessary to feed one adult male for one year. The minimum number for a ''daimyō'' was ten thousand ''koku'';<ref name="gregorysmits" /> the largest, apart from the ''shōgun'', was more than a million ''koku''.<ref name="mikiso perez 2015" />

==== Policies to control the ''daimyō'' ==== The main policies of the shogunate on the ''daimyō'' included:

* The principle was that each ''daimyō'' (including those who were previously independent of the Tokugawa family) submitted to the shogunate, and each ''han'' required the shogunate's recognition and was subject to its land redistributions.<ref name="brown 1997" />{{Rp|192–93}} ''Daimyō'' swore allegiance to each shogun and acknowledged the Laws for Warrior Houses or ''buke shohatto''.<ref name="mikiso perez 2015">{{Cite book |last1=Hane |first1=Mikiso |title=Premodern Japan: a historical survey |last2=Perez |first2=Louis G. |date=2015 |publisher=Westview Press, a member of the Perseus Books Group |isbn=978-0-8133-4965-7 |edition=2nd |location=Boulder, CO}}</ref> * The ''sankin-kōtai'' ("alternate attendance") system, required ''daimyō'' to travel to and reside in Edo every other year, and for their families to remain in Edo during their absence. * The ''ikkoku ichijyō rei'' (一国一城令), allowed each ''daimyō''{{'}}s ''han'' to retain only one fortification, at the ''daimyō''{{'}}s residence.<ref name="brown 1997" />{{Rp||page=194}} * The Laws for the Military Houses (''buke shohatto''), the first of which in 1615 forbade the building of new fortifications or repairing existing ones without ''bakufu'' approval, admitting fugitives of the shogunate, and arranging marriages of the ''daimyō''' families without official permission.<ref name="brown 1997" /> Additional rules on the samurai were issued over the years.<ref name="brown 1997" /><ref name="mikiso perez 2015" />

Although the shogun issued certain laws, such as the ''buke shohatto'' on the ''daimyō'' and the rest of the samurai class, each ''han'' administered its autonomous system of laws and taxation.<ref name="perez 2009" /> The ''shōgun'' did not interfere in a ''han''<nowiki/>'s governance unless major incompetence (such as large rebellions) was shown, nor were central taxes issued.<ref name="perez 2009" /> Instead, each ''han'' provided feudal duties, such as maintaining roads and official courier stations, building canals and harbors, providing troops, and relieving famines.<ref name="perez 2009" /> ''Daimyōs'' were strategically placed to check each other, and the ''sankin-kōtai'' system ensured that ''daimyō'' or their family were always in Edo, observed by the shogun.<ref name="perez 2009" /> [[File:Edo P2.jpg|thumb|Edo Castle, 17th century]]

The shogunate had the power to discard, annex, and transform domains, although they were rarely and carefully exercised after the early years of the shogunate, to prevent ''daimyō'' from banding together.<ref name="perez 2009" /> The ''sankin-kōtai'' system of alternative residence required each ''daimyō'' to reside in alternate years between the ''han'' and the court in Edo.<ref name="perez 2009" /> During their absences from Edo, it was also required that they leave their family as hostages until their return. The hostages and the huge expenditure ''sankin-kōtai'' imposed on each ''han'' helped to ensure loyalty to the ''shōgun''.<ref name="perez 2009" /> By the 1690s, the vast majority of ''daimyō'' would be born in Edo, and most would consider it their homes.<ref name="brown 1997" /> Some ''daimyō'' had little interest in their domains and needed to be begged to return "home".<ref name="brown 1997" />

In return for the centralization, peace among the ''daimyō'' was maintained; unlike in the Sengoku period, ''daimyō'' no longer worried about conflicts with one another.<ref name="brown 1997" /> In addition, hereditary succession was guaranteed as internal usurpations within domains were not recognized by the shogunate.<ref name="brown 1997" />

==== Classification of ''daimyō'' ==== The Tokugawa clan further ensured loyalty by maintaining a dogmatic insistence on loyalty to the ''shōgun''. Daimyos were classified into three main categories:<ref name="mikiso perez 2015" />

* ''Shinpan'' ("relatives") were six clans established by sons of Ieyasu, as well as certain sons of the 8th and 9th shoguns, who were made ''daimyō''.<ref name="mikiso perez 2015" /> They would provide an heir to the shogunate if the shogun did not have an heir.<ref name="mikiso perez 2015" /> * ''Fudai'' ("hereditary") were mostly vassals of Ieyasu and the Tokugawa clan before the Battle of Sekigahara.<ref name="mikiso perez 2015" /> In addition to ruling their ''han'', they served as high officials in the shogunate, although their domains tended to be smaller than those of the ''tozama daimyō''.<ref name="mikiso perez 2015" /> * ''Tozama'' ("outsiders") were around 100 ''daimyō'', most of whom became vassals of the Tokugawa clan after the Battle of Sekigahara. Some fought against Tokugawa forces, although some were neutral or even fought on the side of the Tokugawa clan, as allies rather than vassals.<ref name="mikiso perez 2015" /> The ''tozama daimyō'' tend to have the largest ''han'', with 11 of the 16 largest ''daimyō'' in this category.<ref name="mikiso perez 2015" />

The ''tozama daimyō'' who fought against the Tokugawa clan in the Battle of Sekigahara had their holdings reduced substantially.<ref name="mikiso perez 2015" /> They were often placed in mountainous or far away areas, or placed between most trusted ''daimyō''.<ref name="mikiso perez 2015" /> Early in the Edo period, the shogunate viewed the ''tozama'' as the least likely to be loyal; over time, strategic marriages and the entrenchment of the system made the ''tozama'' less likely to rebel. In the end, however, it was still the great ''tozama'' of Satsuma, Chōshū and Tosa, and to a lesser extent Saga, that brought down the shogunate. These four states are called the Four Western Clans, or Satchotohi for short.<ref name="Nussbaum; Satchotohi">{{harvnb|Nussbaum|2002|pp=826–827}}</ref>

===Relations with the Emperor=== [[File:Tokugawa Ieyasu - Directories of Famous Generals of Japan.jpg|thumb|An ''ukiyo-e'' by Yoshitoshi depicting the scene when Ieyasu had an audience with Emperor Go-Yōzei]]

Regardless of the political title of the Emperor, the ''shōguns'' of the Tokugawa family controlled Japan.<ref>{{harvnb|Jansen|2002|pp=144–148}}</ref> The shogunate secured a nominal grant of {{nihongo|administration|体制|taisei}} by the Imperial Court in Kyoto to the Tokugawa family.<ref name="gregorysmits" /> While the Emperor officially had the prerogative of appointing the ''shōgun'' and received generous subsidies, he had virtually no say in state affairs.<ref name="perez 2009" /> The shogunate issued the Laws for the Imperial and Court Officials to set out its relationship with the Imperial family and the ''kuge'' (imperial court officials), and specified that the Emperor should dedicate himself to scholarship and poetry.<ref name="lillehoj 2011">{{Cite book |last=Lillehoj |first=Elizabeth |title=Art and palace politics in early modern Japan, 1580s-1680s |publisher=Brill |year=2011 |isbn=978-90-04-21126-1 |series=Japanese visual culture |location=Leiden Boston |pages=88 |oclc=833766152}}</ref> The shogunate also appointed a liaison, the ''Kyoto Shoshidai'' (''Shogun's Representative in Kyoto''), to deal with the Emperor, court and nobility.

Towards the end of the shogunate, however, after centuries of the Emperor having very little say in state affairs and being secluded in his Kyoto palace, and in the wake of the reigning ''shōgun'', Tokugawa Iemochi, marrying the sister of Emperor Kōmei (r. 1846–1867), in 1862, the Imperial Court in Kyoto began to enjoy increased political influence.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Keene |first=Donald |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VMuPzoc23QMC |title=Emperor of Japan: Meiji and His World, 1852–1912 |date=2005 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-51811-6 |language=en}}</ref> The Emperor would occasionally be consulted on various policies and the shogun even made a trip to Kyoto to visit the Emperor.{{citation needed|date=March 2020}} Government administration would be formally returned from the ''shōgun'' to the Emperor during the Meiji Restoration in 1868.

== Incomes and trades == {{further|Red Seal ships|Nanban trade|Rangaku}} {{More citations needed section|date=November 2025}}

[[File:Grote partij bij het opperhoofd van Dejima.jpg|thumb|Dutch trading post in Dejima, {{circa|1805}}]]

After the unification of Japan, the discovery of new silver mines and the improvement of mining techniques, the extraction and export of silver from Japan increased dramatically, particularly to Ming China. Between 1560 and 1600, the annual export of silver ranged from 33 to 49 tons, but due to the Ming ban on trade with Japan, the import of Japanese silver was facilitated by the Portuguese. In the early 17th century, Japanese silver exports continued to rise, with the import of luxury goods such as silk (reaching up to 280 tons per year in the 1630s). Silk was so abundant and inexpensive in Japan that even some peasants were able to afford it, leading to a rise in its popularity among the lower classes.{{sfn|Atwell|1998|pp=396–399}}

In 1601, the Hokusan region became the domain of Tokugawa Ieyasu. Gold veins in Sado mine were discovered in the same year in the region, and the region served as an important source of revenue for the Shogunate throughout the Edo period. Its peak during the Edo period was the first half of the 17th century. Records indicate that over 400 kg of gold was extracted annually, and 10,000 kan (37.5 tons) of silver was paid to the Shogunate annually,<ref name="JHS">{{Cite web|url=https://www.sado-goldmine.jp/library/#library-texts|title=学習用教材：再発見!! 佐渡金銀山中学生以上向け|publisher=新潟県、佐渡市|date=2015|accessdate=2019-10-06 |trans-title=Learning Materials: Rediscover!! Sado Gold and Silver Mine for Junior High School Students and Above |language=ja }}</ref> Making it one of the world's largest gold mines at the time.<ref>{{cite news|title = 活気づくニッポンの鉱山本当に「資源小国」なのか |trans-title=Japan's mining boom: Is it really a "country with few resources"? |url=http://www.nikkei.com/biz/focus/article/g=96958A88889DE1EAE0EAE1E5EAE2E0E7E2E3E0E2E3E0E2E2E2E2E2E2;p=9694E3E2E3E3E0E2E3E3E7E0E5EA |publisher = 日本経済新聞|date = 2012-01-29| accessdate = 2012-10-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120202083501/http://www.nikkei.com/biz/focus/article/g=96958A88889DE1EAE0EAE1E5EAE2E0E7E2E3E0E2E3E0E2E2E2E2E2E2;p=9694E3E2E3E3E0E2E3E3E7E0E5EA|archive-date=2012-02-02 |language=ja}}</ref>

Foreign affairs and trade were monopolized by the shogunate, yielding an extremely large profit. Foreign trade was also permitted for the Satsuma and the Tsushima domains. Rice was the main trading product of Japan during this time. Isolationism was the foreign policy of Japan and trade was strictly controlled. Merchants were outsiders to the social hierarchy of Japan and were thought to be greedy.

The visits of the Nanban ships from Portugal were at first the main vector of trade exchanges, followed by the addition of Dutch, English, and sometimes Spanish ships.

From 1603 onward, Japan started to participate actively in foreign trade. In 1615, an embassy and trade mission under Hasekura Tsunenaga was sent across the Pacific to Nueva España (New Spain) on the Japanese-built galleon ''San Juan Bautista''. Until 1635, the Shogun issued numerous permits for the so-called "red seal ships" destined for the Asian trade.

After 1635 and the introduction of seclusion laws (''sakoku''), inbound ships were only allowed from China, Korea, and the Netherlands.

The primary source of the shogunate's income was the tax (around 40%) levied on harvests in the Tokugawa clan's personal estates (''tenryō'').<ref name="mikiso perez 2015" /> No taxes were levied on domains of ''daimyō'', who instead provided military duty, public works and corvee.<ref name="mikiso perez 2015" /> The shogunate obtained loans from merchants, which were sometimes seen as forced donations, although commerce was often not taxed.<ref name="mikiso perez 2015" /> Special levies were also imposed for infrastructure-building.<ref name="mikiso perez 2015" />

== Shogunate officials == During the earliest years of the Tokugawa shogunate institution, when Tokugawa Hidetada was crowned as the second shogun and Ieyasu retired, they formed dual governments, where Hidetada controlled the official court with the government central located in Edo city, Ieyasu, who now became the ''Ōgosho'' (retired shogun), also controlled his own informal shadow government which called "Sunpu government" with its center at Sunpu Castle. The membership of the Sunpu government’s cabinet consisted of trusted vassals of Ieyasu who were not included in Hidetada’s cabinet, including William Adams and Jan Joosten van Lodensteijn, whom Ieyasu entrusted with foreign affairs and diplomacy.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Fujino Tamotsu (藤野保 ) |title=徳川政権と幕閣 |trans-title=Tokugawa Government and the Shogunate |date=1995 |publisher=新人物往来社 |page=53 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SYINAQAAMAAJ |access-date=15 July 2024 |language=Ja}} References: * Kitajima Masamoto (ed.), "Everything about Tokugawa Ieyasu" (Shinjinbutsu Oraisha, 1983) * Shinjinbutsu Oraisha, "Tokugawa Ieyasu Reader" (Shinjinbutsu Oraisha, 1992) * Niki Kenichi, "Tokugawa Ieyasu" (Chikuma Shobo, 1998) * Honda Takanari, "The Definitive Edition of Tokugawa Ieyasu" (Yoshikawa Kobunkan, 2010) * Owada Tetsuo, "Detailed Illustrated Ieyasu Chronicle" (Shinjinbutsu Oraisha, 2010)</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=徳川家臣団まとめ。家康が構築した組織構造や家臣の顔ぶれ、その変遷など |trans-title=Summary of the Tokugawa vassals. The organizational structure that Ieyasu established, the lineup of his vassals, and their changes. |url=https://sengoku-his.com/278 |website=戦国ヒストリーのサイトロゴ |publisher=sengoku-his.com |access-date=15 July 2024 |language=Ja |date=2023}}</ref>

The earliest structure of the Edo shogunate’s organization had the ''Buke Shitsuyaku'' as its highest rank; the earliest members of this office were Ii Naomasa, Sakakibara Yasumasa, and Honda Tadakatsu.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rous |first=Antoine |url=https://archive.org/details/lejaponhistoire00magoog |title=Le Japon, histoire et civilisation |date=1907 |publisher=Paris, Plon-Nourrit et cie |page=160 |language=fr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Murdoch |first=James |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fjSQOixtgngC&pg=PA712 |title=A history of Japan |date=1996 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-15076-7 |edition=Reprint |location=London New York |page=712 |language=en}}</ref>

The personal vassals of the Tokugawa shoguns were classified into two groups:

* the bannermen (''hatamoto'') had the privilege to directly approach the shogun;<ref name="mikiso perez 2015" /> * the housemen (''gokenin'') did not have the privilege of the shogun's audience and also held smaller fiefs or stipends.<ref name="mikiso perez 2015"/>

By the early 18th century, out of around 22,000 personal vassals, most were receiving stipends rather than holding fiefs.<ref name="mikiso perez 2015" />

===Rōjū and wakadoshiyori=== The ''rōjū'' were normally the most senior members of the shogunate.<ref name="mikiso perez 2015" /> Normally, four or five men held the office, and one was on duty for a month at a time on a rotating basis.<ref name="mikiso perez 2015" /> They supervised the ''ōmetsuke'' (inspectors, who checked on the ''daimyō''), ''machi''-''bugyō'' (commissioners of administrative and judicial functions in major cities, especially Edo), ''ongoku bugyō'' (遠国奉行, the commissioners of other major cities and shogunate domains) and other officials, oversaw relations with the Imperial Court in Kyoto, kuge (members of the nobility), daimyō, Buddhist temples and Shinto shrines, and attended to matters like divisions of fiefs. Other ''bugyō'' (commissioners) in charge of finances, monasteries and shrines also reported to the rōjū.<ref name="mikiso perez 2015" /> The roju conferred on especially important matters. In the administrative reforms of 1867 (Keiō Reforms), the office was eliminated in favor of a bureaucratic system with ministers for the interior, finance, foreign relations, army, and navy.

[[File:SakuradaGate2.jpg|thumb|Sakuradamon Gate of Edo Castle where Ii Naosuke was assassinated in 1860]] In principle, the requirements for appointment to the office of rōjū were to be a ''fudai daimyō'' and to have a domain assessed at {{val|50,000}} ''koku'' or more.<ref name="mikiso perez 2015" /> However, there were exceptions to both criteria. Many appointees came from the offices close to the ''shōgun'', such as ''soba yōnin'', Kyoto Shoshidai, and Osaka-jō dai.

Irregularly, the ''shōguns'' appointed a ''rōjū'' to the position of ''tairō'' (great elder).<ref name="mikiso perez 2015" /> The office was limited to members of the Ii, Sakai, Doi, and Hotta clans, but Yanagisawa Yoshiyasu was given the status of tairō as well. Among the most famous was Ii Naosuke, who was assassinated in 1860 outside the Sakuradamon Gate of Edo Castle (Sakuradamon incident).

Three to five men titled the ''wakadoshiyori'' were next in status below the ''rōjū''.<ref name="mikiso perez 2015" /> An outgrowth of the early six-man ''rokuninshū'' (六人衆, 1633–1649), the office took its name and final form in 1662. Their primary responsibility was management of the affairs of the hatamoto and gokenin, the direct vassals of the ''shōgun''.<ref name="mikiso perez 2015" /> The ''wakadoshiyori'' also had authority over the ''metsuke''.

Some ''shōguns'' appointed a ''soba yōnin'' (側用人). This person acted as a liaison between the ''shōgun'' and the ''rōjū''. The ''soba yōnin'' increased in importance during the time of the fifth ''shōgun'' Tokugawa Tsunayoshi, when a wakadoshiyori, Inaba Masayasu, assassinated Hotta Masatoshi, the ''tairō''. Fearing for his personal safety, Tsunayoshi moved the ''rōjū'' to a more distant part of the castle. Some of the most famous ''soba yōnin'' were Yanagisawa Yoshiyasu and Tanuma Okitsugu.

===Ōmetsuke and metsuke=== The ''ōmetsuke'' and ''metsuke'' were officials who reported to the ''rōjū'' and ''wakadoshiyori''.<ref name="mikiso perez 2015" /> The five ''ōmetsuke'' were in charge of monitoring the affairs of the ''daimyō'', ''kuge'' and imperial court. They were in charge of discovering any threat of rebellion. Early in the Edo period, ''daimyō'' such as Yagyū Munefuyu held the office. Soon, however, it fell to ''hatamoto'' with rankings of 5,000 ''koku'' or more. To give them authority in their dealings with ''daimyō'', they were often ranked at 10,000 ''koku'' and given the title of ''kami'' (an ancient title, typically signifying the governor of a province) such as ''Bizen-no-kami''.

As time progressed, the function of the ''ōmetsuke'' evolved into one of passing orders from the shogunate to the ''daimyō'', and of administering to ceremonies within Edo Castle. They also took on additional responsibilities such as supervising religious affairs and controlling firearms. The ''metsuke'', reporting to the ''wakadoshiyori'', oversaw the affairs of the vassals of the ''shōgun''.<ref name="mikiso perez 2015" /> They were the police force for the thousands of hatamoto and gokenin who were concentrated in Edo. Individual ''han'' had their own ''metsuke'' who similarly policed their samurai.

===San-bugyō=== The ''san-bugyō'' (三奉行 "three administrators") were the ''jisha'', ''kanjō'', and ''machi'', which respectively oversaw temples and shrines, accounting, and the cities. The ''jisha-bugyō'' had the highest status of the three. They oversaw the administration of Buddhist temples (''ji'') and Shinto shrines (''sha''), many of which held landed estates. Also, they heard lawsuits from several land holdings outside the eight Kantō provinces. The appointments normally went to ''daimyō''; Ōoka Tadasuke was an exception, though he later became a ''daimyō''.{{citation needed|date=March 2020}}

The ''kanjō-bugyō'' were next in status. The four holders of this office reported to the ''rōjū''. They were responsible for the finances of the shogunate.<ref>{{harvnb|Nussbaum|2002|p=473}}</ref>

The ''machi-bugyō'' were the chief city administrators of Edo and other cities. Their roles included mayor, chief of the police (and, later, also of the fire department), and judge in criminal and civil matters not involving samurai. Two (briefly, three) men, normally hatamoto, held the office, and alternated by month.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Perez|first=Louis G.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uVWuDwAAQBAJ&q=machi-bugy%C5%8D+alternated&pg=PA23|title=Tokyo: Geography, History, and Culture|date=2019-09-19|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-4408-6495-7|pages=23|language=en|access-date=2020-11-19|archive-date=2023-10-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231016114037/https://books.google.com/books?id=uVWuDwAAQBAJ&q=machi-bugy%C5%8D+alternated&pg=PA23|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Tenryō, gundai and daikan=== The ''san-bugyō'' together sat on a council called the ''hyōjōsho''. In this capacity, they were responsible for administering the ''tenryō'' (the shogun's estates), supervising the ''gundai'' (郡代), the ''daikan'' and the ''kura bugyō'' (蔵奉行), as well as hearing cases involving samurai. The ''gundai'' managed Tokugawa domains with incomes greater than 10,000 koku while the ''daikan'' managed areas with incomes between 5,000 and 10,000 koku.

The shogun directly held lands in various parts of Japan. These were known as ''shihaisho'' (支配所); since the Meiji period, the term ''tenryō'' (天領, literally "Emperor's land") has become synonymous, because the shogun's lands were returned to the emperor.<ref>{{harvnb|Nussbaum|2002|p=961}}</ref> In addition to the territory that Ieyasu held prior to the Battle of Sekigahara, this included lands he gained in that battle and lands gained as a result of the Summer and Winter Sieges of Osaka. Major cities as Nagasaki and Osaka, and mines, including the Sado gold mine, also fell into this category.

===Gaikoku bugyō=== The ''gaikoku bugyō'' were administrators appointed between 1858 and 1868. They were charged with overseeing trade and diplomatic relations with foreign countries, and were based in the treaty ports of Nagasaki and Kanagawa (Yokohama).{{Citation needed|date=March 2024}}

==List of Tokugawa ''shōgun''== {| width=82% class="wikitable" ! width=2% scope="col" | # ! width=1% scope="col" | Picture ! width=10% scope="col" | Name (born-died) ! width=6% scope="col" | ''Shōgun'' from ! width=6% scope="col" | ''Shōgun'' until |- |align="center"|1||align="center"|80px||align="center"|Tokugawa Ieyasu (1543–1616)||align="center"|1603||align="center"|1605 |- |align="center"|2||align="center"|80px||align="center"|Tokugawa Hidetada (1579–1632)||align="center"|1605||align="center"|1623 |- |align="center"|3||align="center"|80px||align="center"|Tokugawa Iemitsu (1604–1651)||align="center"|1623||align="center"|1651 |- |align="center"|4||align="center"|80px||align="center"|Tokugawa Ietsuna (1641–1680)||align="center"|1651||align="center"|1680 |- |align="center"|5||align="center"|80px||align="center"|Tokugawa Tsunayoshi (1646–1709)||align="center"|1680||align="center"|1709 |- |align="center"|6||align="center"|80px||align="center"|Tokugawa Ienobu (1662–1712)||align="center"|1709||align="center"|1712 |- |align="center"|7||align="center"|80px||align="center"|Tokugawa Ietsugu (1709–1716)||align="center"|1713||align="center"|1716 |- |align="center"|8||align="center"|80px||align="center"|Tokugawa Yoshimune (1684–1751)||align="center"|1716||align="center"|1745 |- |align="center"|9||align="center"|80px||align="center"|Tokugawa Ieshige (1712–1761)||align="center"|1745||align="center"|1760 |- |align="center"|10||align="center"|80px||align="center"|Tokugawa Ieharu (1737–1786)||align="center"|1760||align="center"|1786 |- |align="center"|11||align="center"|80px||align="center"|Tokugawa Ienari (1773–1841)||align="center"|1787||align="center"|1837 |- |align="center"|12||align="center"|80px||align="center"|Tokugawa Ieyoshi (1793–1853)||align="center"|1837||align="center"|1853 |- |align="center"|13||align="center"|80px||align="center"|Tokugawa Iesada (1824–1858)||align="center"|1853||align="center"|1858 |- |align="center"|14||align="center"|80px||align="center"|Tokugawa Iemochi (1846–1866)||align="center"|1858||align="center"|1866 |- |align="center"|15||align="center"|80px||align="center"|Tokugawa Yoshinobu (1837–1913)||align="center"|1866||align="center"|1867 |} {{Small|Source:<ref>{{harvnb|Jansen|2002|p=44}}</ref>}}

===Family Tree=== {{Tokugawa family tree}}

Over the course of the Edo period, influential relatives of the shogun included: * Tokugawa Mitsukuni of the Mito Domain<ref name="nussbaum p979">{{harvnb|Nussbaum|2002|p=979}}</ref> * Tokugawa Nariaki of the Mito Domain<ref name="nussbaum p979" /> * Tokugawa Mochiharu of the Hitotsubashi branch * Tokugawa Munetake of the Tayasu branch.<ref>{{harvnb|Nussbaum|2002|p=954}}</ref> * Matsudaira Katamori of the Aizu branch.<ref>{{harvnb|Nussbaum|2002|p=616}}</ref> * Matsudaira Sadanobu, born into the Tayasu branch, adopted into the Hisamatsu-Matsudaira of Shirakawa.<ref>{{harvnb|Nussbaum|2002|p=617}}</ref>

== Notes == {{notelist}}

== References == {{reflist}}

== Bibliography == * {{Cite book |last=Atwell |first=William |title=The Cambridge History of China Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1988 |isbn=0521243335 |editor-last=Twitchett |editor-first=Denis C |editor-link=Denis Twitchett |location=Cambridge |pages=511–584 |chapter=The T'ai-ch'ang, T'ien-ch'i, and Ch'ung-chen reigns, 1620–1644 |editor-last2=Mote |editor-first2=Frederick W. |editor-link2=Frederick W. Mote}} * {{Cite book |last=Atwell |first=William |title=The Cambridge History of China 8: The Ming Dynasty, 1368 — 1644, Part II |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1998 |isbn=0521243335 |editor-last=Twitchett |editor-first=Denis C |editor-link=Denis Twitchett |location=Cambridge |pages=376–416 |chapter=Ming China and the emerging world economy, c. 1470–1650 |editor-last2=Mote |editor-first2=Frederick W. |editor-link2=Frederick W. Mote}} * {{cite book|last = Boxer| first = C. R. | author-link=C. R. Boxer|title=Fidalgos in the Far East, 1550–1770|year=1948|publisher= Martinus Nijhoff|location=The Hague}} * {{cite book|last = Boxer| first = C. R. | author-link=C. R. Boxer|title=The Christian Century in Japan: 1549–1650|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2R4DA2lip9gC|year=1951|publisher=University of California Press|id=GGKEY:BPN6N93KBJ7}} * {{Cite book |last=Nussbaum |first=Louis-Frédéric |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p2QnPijAEmEC |title=Japan Encyclopedia |date=2002 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-01753-5 |series=Harvard University Press reference library |location=Cambridge, Mass. |language=en |translator-last=Roth |translator-first=Käthe}} * {{Cite book |last=Bolitho |first=Harold |author-link=Harold Bolitho |title=Treasures Among Men: The Fudai Daimyo in Tokugawa Japan |date=1974 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-01655-0 |location=New Haven}} * {{Cite book |last=Haga |first=Tōru |title=Pax Tokugawana: the cultural flowering of Japan, 1603-1853 |date=2021 |publisher=Japan Publishing Industry Foundation for Culture |isbn=978-4-86658-148-4 |edition=First English |series=Japan library |location=Tokyo |translator-last=Carpenter |translator-first=Juliet Winters |translator-link=Juliet Winters Carpenter}} * {{Cite book |last=Totman |first=Conrad D. |url=https://archive.org/details/bwb_W8-BNB-795/ |title=The collapse of the Tokugawa bakufu, 1862-1868 |date=1980 |publisher=University Press of Hawaii |isbn=978-0-8248-0614-9 |edition=Nachdr. |location=Honolulu}} * {{Cite book |last=Totman |first=Conrad D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H_JEAAAAIAAJ |title=Politics in the Tokugawa Bakufu, 1600-1843 |date=1967 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-68800-1 |language=en}} * {{Cite book |last=Waswo |first=Ann |url=https://archive.org/details/modernjapaneseso0000wasw |title=Modern Japanese society, 1868-1994 |date=1996 |publisher=Oxford; New York : Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-289228-7}} * {{Cite book |title=Meiji Japan Through Contemporary Sources: 1844-1882. Volume Two |date=1970 |publisher=Centre for East Asian cultural studies, The Toyo Bunko |language=en}} * {{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/bwb_P8-BOI-242 |title=Tokugawa Japan: the social and economic antecedents of modern Japan |date=1990 |publisher=University of Tokyo Press |isbn=978-4-13-027024-3 |editor-last=Totman |editor-first=Conrad D. |location=Tokyo, Japan |pages=24–28 |editor-last2=Nakane |editor-first2=Chie |editor-last3=Ōishi |editor-first3=Shinzaburō}} * {{Cite book |last=Jansen |first=Marius B. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AvMXBAAAQBAJ |title=The Making of Modern Japan |date=2002 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-00991-2 |language=en}} * {{citation|last=Turnbull|first=Stephen|year=2002|title=Samurai Invasion: Japan's Korean War 1592–98|publisher=Cassell & Co |isbn=978-0304359486 |oclc=50289152 |url=https://archive.org/details/samuraiinvasionj0000turn}} * {{Cite book |last= Turnbull |first= Stephen |author-link= Stephen Turnbull (historian) |title= Hatamoto. Samurai Horse and Foot Guards 1540–1724 |date=2010 |publisher= Osprey Publishing |location= Oxford |isbn= 978-184603-478-7 }}

==External links== * [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/jptoc.html Japan] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080504211250/http://hkuhist2.hku.hk/nakasendo/tokupols.htm Tokugawa Political System ] * [http://www.sengokudaimyo.com/ SengokuDaimyo.com] – the website of author and samurai historian Anthony J. Bryant * [https://archive.org/details/narrativeofexped03perr Narrative of the Expedition of an American Squadron to the China Seas and Japan], by M.C. Perry, at Internet Archive

{{Shogunates of Japan}} {{Aristocratic family trees}} {{Tokugawa chronology (Japan)}} {{Tokugawa Organization Chart}} {{Tokugawa officials}} {{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Tokugawa Shogunate}} Category:States and territories established in 1600 Category:States and territories disestablished in 1868 * * Category:1600 establishments in Japan Category:1868 disestablishments in Japan Category:17th century in Japan Category:18th century in Japan Category:19th century in Japan Category:Military dictatorships