{{Short description|Species of tree}} {{Speciesbox | image = Starr_010309-0546_Calophyllum_inophyllum.jpg | image_caption = | status = LC | status_system = IUCN3.1 | status_ref = <ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021">{{cite iucn |author=Barstow, M. |date=2019 |title=''Calophyllum inophyllum'' |volume=2019 |article-number=e.T33196A67775081 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-1.RLTS.T33196A67775081.en |access-date=19 November 2021}}</ref> | genus = Calophyllum | species = inophyllum | authority = L.<ref name="POWO">{{cite web |url=https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:427190-1 |title=''Calophyllum inophyllum'' L. |website=Plants of the World Online |publisher=Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew |year=2025 |access-date=22 December 2025}}</ref><ref name=grin>{{GRIN | access-date=26 April 2012}}</ref> | synonyms = {{species list|header=10 synonyms|hidden=yes |Balsamaria inophyllum |Lour. |Calophyllum apetalum |Blanco |Calophyllum bintagor |Roxb. |Calophyllum blumei |Wight |Calophyllum inophyllum f. oblongata |Miq. |Calophyllum inophyllum f. obovata |Miq. |Calophyllum inophyllum var. takamaka |Fosberg |Calophyllum inophyllum var. wakamatsui |(Kaneh.) Fosberg & Sachet |Calophyllum ovatifolium |Noronha |Calophyllum wakamatsui |Kaneh. }} | synonyms_ref= {{R|POWO}} }}
'''''Calophyllum inophyllum''''' is a large evergreen plant, commonly called '''tamanu''', '''oil-nut''', '''mastwood''', '''beach calophyllum''' or '''beautyleaf'''.<ref name=grin/> It is native to the Old World Tropics, from Africa through Asia to Australia and Polynesia. Due to its importance as a source of timber for the traditional shipbuilding of large outrigger ships, it has been spread in prehistoric times by the migrations of the Austronesian peoples to the islands of Oceania and Madagascar, along with other members of the genus ''Calophyllum''. It has since been naturalized in regions of the East African coast.<ref name="Damon2016">{{cite book|first1=Frederick H. |last1=Damon|title =Trees, Knots, and Outriggers: Environmental Knowledge in the Northeast Kula Ring|chapter =A Story of ''Calophyllum'': From Ecological to Social Facts|publisher =Berghahn Books|year =2016|pages=180–246|isbn =978-1-78533-233-3|chapter-url =https://books.google.com/books?id=AObACwAAQBAJ&pg=PA180}}</ref> It is also a source of the culturally important tamanu oil.
== Names == ''Calophyllum inophyllum'' is also known as Alexandrian laurel balltree, beach touriga, Borneo-mahogany, Indian doomba oiltree, Indian-laurel, laurelwood, red poon, satin touriga, and tacamahac-tree.<ref>{{cite book|author=Mabberley, D.J.|year=1997|title=The plant book: A portable dictionary of the vascular plants|url=https://archive.org/details/plantbookportabl00mabb|url-access=registration|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0-521-41421-0}}</ref><ref name=grin/><ref name=Nature&Nation>{{cite book|author=Kathirithamby-Wells, J.|year=2005|title=Nature and nation: Forests and Development in Peninsular Malaysia|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|page=xvi,34}}</ref> In Island Southeast Asia and Oceania, it is also commonly known as bintangur, bitaog, tamanu, or kamani.<ref name="blusttrusell">{{cite journal |last1=Blust |first1=Robert |last2=Trussel |first2=Stephen |title=The Austronesian Comparative Dictionary: A Work in Progress |journal=Oceanic Linguistics |date=2013 |volume=52 |issue=2 |pages=493–523 |doi=10.1353/ol.2013.0016 |s2cid=146739541 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265931196}}</ref><ref>cf. {{Hawaiian Dictionaries|kamani|id=D111168}} and {{Hawaiian Dictionaries|kamani|id=D111169}}</ref> In Kiswahili it is known as Mtondoo.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://en.bab.la/dictionary/swahili-english/mtondoo|title=MTONDOO - Translation in English - bab.la}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://swahiliproverbs.afrst.illinois.edu/experience.html |title=1861. Mtondoo haufi maji|website=Swahili Proverbs}}</ref>
== Description == === Trunk and leaves === ''Calophyllum inophyllum'' is a low-branching and slow-growing tree, which spreads with a broad and irregular crown. It usually reaches {{convert|8|to|30|m|ft|abbr=on}}<!-- min fr Dweck, max fr WildSingapore --> in height.<ref name="WildSingapore">{{cite web |last1=Tan |first1=Ria |title=Penaga laut |url=http://www.wildsingapore.com/wildfacts/plants/coastal/calophyllum/inophyllum.htm |website=Wild Singapore |access-date=16 September 2022 |date=January 2013}}</ref> Its trunk is thick and covered with black and cracked bark.<ref name="Dweck2002">{{cite journal |last1=Dweck |first1=A.C. |last2=Meadows |first2=T. |title=Tamanu (''Calophyllum inophyllum'') – the African, Asian, Polynesian and Pacific Panacea |journal=International Journal of Cosmetic Science |date=2002 |volume=24 |issue=6 |pages=341–348 |doi=10.1046/j.1467-2494.2002.00160.x |pmid=18494888 |s2cid=21847865 |url=https://pinkhorizons.com/content/Tamanu.2.pdf |access-date=18 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190119174227/https://pinkhorizons.com/content/Tamanu.2.pdf |archive-date=2019-01-19 |url-status=usurped }}</ref>
=== Flowers === Flowering can occur perennially, but usually two distinct flowering periods are observed each year: in late spring from April to June, and in late autumn from October to December.<ref name="WildSingapore"/> The flower is {{cvt|25|to|30|mm|1}} wide and occurs in racemose or paniculate inflorescences consisting of four to 15 flowers. It has a sweet fragrance, which attracts many insects to pollinate it.<ref name="WildSingapore"/> The blooming is all-year-round. The fruit (the ballnut) appears as rounded and green drupe with {{cvt|2|-|4|cm|1}} in diameter and a single large seed is located at the center.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Vittaya |first1=Luksamee |last2=Chalad |first2=Chakhriya |last3=Ratsameepakai |first3=Waraporn |last4=Leesakul |first4=Nararak |title=Phytochemical characterization of bioactive compounds extracted with different solvents from ''Calophyllum inophyllum'' flowers and activity against pathogenic bacteria |journal=South African Journal of Botany |date=2023 |language=en |volume=154 |pages=346–355 |doi=10.1016/j.sajb.2023.01.052|bibcode=2023SAJB..154..346V |doi-access=free }}</ref>
=== Fruit === The fruit (the ballnut) is a round, green drupe measuring {{convert|2|to|4|cm|in|1|abbr=on}} in diameter. When ripe, the fruit is wrinkled and its color varies from yellow to brownish-red. It has thin spongy flesh with a taste slightly like apple.<ref name ="WildSingapore"/><ref name="Dweck2002"/>
==Distribution and habitat== ''Calophyllum inophyllum'' is native to the following regions as defined in the World Geographical Scheme for Recording Plant Distributions:<ref name=POWO/><ref name="BRUMMIT">{{Cite book |last=Brummitt |first=R.K. |year=2001 |title=World Geographical Scheme for Recording Plant Distributions |edition=2nd |publisher=International Working Group on Taxonomic Databases For Plant Sciences (TDWG) |url=https://raw.githubusercontent.com/tdwg/wgsrpd/master/109-488-1-ED/2nd%20Edition/TDWG_geo2.pdf |access-date=22 December 2025 }}</ref> *'''East Tropical Africa''': Kenya, Tanzania *'''South Tropical Africa''': Mozambique *'''Western Indian Ocean''': Aldabra, Chagos Archipelago, Comoros, Madagascar, Mauritius, Mozambique Channel Islands, Rodrigues, Réunion, Seychelles *'''China''': Hainan *'''Eastern Asia''': Kazan-retto, Nansei-shoto, Ogasawara-shoto, Taiwan *'''Indian Subcontinent''': Bangladesh, India, Laccadive Islands, Maldives, Sri Lanka *'''Indo-China''': Andaman Islands, Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Nicobar Islands South China Sea, Thailand, Vietnam *'''Malesia''': Borneo, Christmas Island, Cocos (Keeling) Islands, Jawa, Lesser Sunda Islands, Malaya, Maluku, Philippines, Sulawesi, Sumatera *'''Papuasia''': Bismarck Archipelago, New Guinea, Solomon Islands *'''Australia''': Queensland *'''North-Central Pacific''': Hawaii *'''Northwestern Pacific''': Caroline Islands, Marianas, Marshall Islands *'''South-Central Pacific''': Cook Islands *'''Southwestern Pacific:''' Fiji, Gilbert Islands, Nauru, New Caledonia, Niue, Samoa, Santa Cruz Islands, Tokelau-Manihiki, Tonga, Tuvalu, Vanuatu, Wallis-Futuna Islands
It has been introduced to Florida and some areas of Central America, the Caribbean and western Africa..{{R|POWO}}
[[File:Calophyllum inophyllum, SBG.jpg|thumb|Heritage tree, Penaga Laut (''Calophyllum inophyllum'') at Singapore Botanic Gardens]] thumb|Fruits
Now, it is widely cultivated in all tropical regions of the world.<ref name=grin/> Because of its decorative leaves, fragrant flowers, and spreading crown, it is best known as an ornamental plant.<ref name=grin/>
This tree often grows in coastal regions, as well as nearby lowland forests. However, it has also been cultivated successfully in inland areas at moderate altitudes. It tolerates varied kinds of soil, including coastal sand, clay, or even degraded soil.{{citation needed|date=April 2012}}
== Uses == === Shipbuilding === Mastwood is notable for its ability to grow to massive sizes in sandy or rocky beaches of island and coastal habitats, as well as its habit of sending out arching large trunks over the water where its seeds are dispersed via the currents.<ref name="OrwaCalophyllum">{{cite book|first1=C.|last1=Orwa |first2=A.|last2=Mutua|first3=R.|last3=Kindt|first4=S.|last4=Anthony|title = Agroforestree Database:a tree reference and selection guide |version=4.0|chapter =''Calophyllum inophyllum''|publisher =World Agroforestry|year =2009|url =http://www.worldagroforestry.org/treedb/AFTPDFS/Calophyllum_inophyllum.PDF}}</ref><ref name="Damon2016"/> Due to these characters, mastwood is of particular importance to traditional shipbuilding of the larger Austronesian outrigger ships and was carried with them as they migrated to Oceania and Madagascar. Other species of the genus ''Calophyllum'' were used similarly, including ''Calophyllum soulattri'', ''Calophyllum peekelii'', and ''Calophyllum goniocarpum''. It was comparable in importance to the traditional use of oak in European shipbuilding and timber industries.<ref name="Damon2016"/>
Various parts of the mastwood were integral to the manufacture of outrigger canoes among various Austronesian peoples. The large curving limbs were commonly carved into the dugout canoe that formed the keel of the Austronesian outrigger ships. The strakes, which are attached to the keel by the uniquely Austronesian technique of "sewing" them with a combination of dowels and lashed lugs instead of nails, can also be made from mastwood, but it is more commonly made from other softer timber species like ''Artocarpus''. Other pieces became masts, outrigger floats, and outrigger spars. Smaller curving limbs can also be carved into the ribs of the boat.<ref name="Damon2016"/>
In many parts of Polynesia, mastwood groves planted in ''marae'' were considered sacred and the abodes of spirits. Mastwood was also carved into religious objects such as ''tiki''.<ref name="Dweck2002"/><ref name="Halpern2002">{{cite book|first1=Georges M. |last1=Halpern|first2=Peter|last2=Weverka|title =The Healing Trail: Essential Oils of Madagascar|publisher =Basic Health Publications, Inc.|year =2002|pages=43–50|isbn =978-1-59120-016-1|url =https://books.google.com/books?id=595byAiZLygC&pg=PA43}}</ref> They are also commonly mentioned in the chants and folklore of Polynesia.<ref name="Allen2002">{{cite book|first1=James A.|last1=Allen|editor1-first=J.A.|editor1-last=Vozzo|title =Tropical Tree Seed Manual|chapter =''Calophyllum inophyllum''|publisher =US Department of Agriculture Forest Service|volume = 721 |series =Agriculture Handbook|year =2002|pages=357–359|url =https://www.fs.fed.us/psw/publications/allen/psw_2002_allen002.pdf}}</ref>
In Australia, the 1889 book ''The Useful Native Plants of Australia'' records "During a debate on the Pearl Fisheries Bill in the Queensland Assembly, a clause was specially inserted to protect trees of this species at Thursday Island. A fine of £10 is inflicted on any person who cuts down or injures this or a cocoa-nut tree, or any other tree bearing edible fruit. This clause is, of course, in the interest of the aboriginals."<ref name="MAIDEN">{{cite book |last=Maiden |first=J. H. |title=The Useful Native Plants of Australia, (Including Tasmania) |date=1889 |publisher=The Technological Museum of New South Wales |location=Sydney |page=12 |access-date=22 December 2025 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/12453192 }}</ref>
===Other uses=== Aside from shipbuilding, tamanu oil extracted from the fruit kernels was important in Polynesian culture. The oils, as well as poultices made from leaves and flowers, are also commonly used for traditional medicine.<ref name="OrwaCalophyllum"/><ref name="Dweck2002"/> The leaves contain compounds that are poisonous to fish and can be used as fish poison.<ref name="OrwaCalophyllum"/> The sap of the tree is poisonous and is used to make poison arrows in Samoa.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.plantbook.org/plantdata/clusiaceae/calophyllum_inophyllum.html |title= Landscape Plants of America |author= Alexandrian Laurel, Kamani |edition= online |publisher= plantbooks.com}}</ref> The mature fruit is poisonous enough to use as rat bait.
The nuts are dried before cracking, after which the oil-laden kernel is removed and further dried. The first neoflavone isolated from natural sources (1951) was calophyllolide from ''C. inophyllum'' seeds.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Garazd |first1=M. M. |last2=Garazd |first2=Ya. L. |last3=Khilya |first3=V. P. |year=2003 |title=Neoflavones. 1. Natural Distribution and Spectral and Biological Properties |journal=Chemistry of Natural Compounds |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=54–121 |doi=10.1023/A:1024140915526 |bibcode=2003CNatC..39...54G |s2cid=38062976}}</ref>
The Mavilan, a Tulu-speaking tribe in north Kerala in India, use the bark to make a powder that they mix with water and apply to plants affected by a type of water-borne plant disease that they call ''neeru vembu''.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://www.krepublishers.com/02-Journals/T%20&%20T/T%20&%20T-08-0-000-10-Web/T%20&%20T-08-2-000-10-Abst-PDF/T%20&%20T-08-2-103-10-171-Suresh-K-P/T&T-8-2-103-10-171-Suresh-K-P-Tt.pdf|author=Suresh, K. P. |year=2010|title=Indigenous Agricultural Practices among Mavilan Tribe in North Kerala|journal=Stud Tribes Tribals|volume=8|issue=2|pages=103–106|doi=10.1080/0972639X.2010.11886616 }}</ref>
The fatty acid methyl esters derived from ''C. inophyllum'' seed oil meets the major biodiesel requirements in the United States (ASTM D 6751), and European Union (EN 14214).{{fact|date=May 2024}} The average oil yield is 11.7 kg-oil per tree or 4680 kg-oil per hectare.{{fact|date=May 2024}} In the northwest coastal areas of Luzon Island in the Philippines, the oil was used for night lamps. This widespread use started to decline when kerosene became available, and later on electricity.{{fact|date=May 2024}} It was also used as fuel to generate electricity to provide power for radios during World War II.{{fact|date=May 2024}}
Extracts contained sesquiterpenoids, triterpenoids, fatty acids, and fatty acid derivatives.<ref name=":0" />
==See also== *Domesticated plants and animals of Austronesia
==References== {{Reflist|30em}}
==External links== {{Commonscat}} *{{AfricanPlants|Calophyllum inophyllum}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q311471}}
inophyllum Category:Flora of tropical Asia Category:Flora of the Pacific Category:Trees of Australia Category:Trees of China Category:Flora of the Coral Sea Islands Territory Category:Flora of the Western Indian Ocean Category:Trees of Japan Category:Flora of Kenya Category:Flora of Mozambique Category:Flora of the Northern Territory Category:Flora of Queensland Category:Flora of the Ryukyu Islands Category:Trees of Taiwan Category:Flora of Tanzania Category:Flora of the Zanzibar Archipelago Category:Malpighiales of Australia Category:Least concern flora of Africa Category:Least concern flora of Asia Category:Least concern flora of the Pacific Category:Least concern flora of Australia Category:Least concern biota of Queensland Category:Ornamental trees Category:Austronesian agriculture Category:Plants described in 1753 Category:Botanical taxa named by Carl Linnaeus