{{Short description|Fish eaten by humans}} {{About|fish as food for humans|sealife in general as food|seafood|fish fed to other fish|commercial fish feed|and|aquarium fish feed}} <!-- note systematic use of the collective noun "fish" = "the flesh of fish" in this article as opposed to singular/plural fish/fish or fish/fishes --> [[File:Fish stuffed with Thai herbs.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|''Channa striata'' stuffed with Thai herbs]] thumb|upright=1.2|Fish for sale in baskets at the Dubai Fish Market Many species of fish are caught by humans and consumed as food in virtually all regions around the world. Their meat has been an important dietary source of protein and other nutrients in the human diet.
The English language does not have a special culinary name for food prepared from fish like with other animals (as with ''pig'' vs. ''pork''), or as in other languages (such as Spanish ''pez'' vs. ''pescado''). In culinary and fishery contexts, ''fish'' may include so-called shellfish such as molluscs, crustaceans, and echinoderms; but, more expansively, ''seafood'' covers both fish and other marine life used as food.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Why is fish not considered as meat? |url=https://cooking.stackexchange.com/questions/46964/why-is-fish-not-considered-as-meat |access-date=2023-06-01 |website=Seasoned Advice |language=en}}</ref>
Since 1961, the average annual increase in global apparent food fish consumption (3.2 percent) has outpaced population growth (1.6 percent) and exceeded the increase in consumption of meat from all terrestrial animals except poultry (4.9 percent), both combined (2.8 percent) and individually (bovine, ovine, porcine, et cetera). In ''per capita'' terms, food fish consumption has grown from {{cvt|9.0|kg}} in 1961, to {{cvt|20.2|kg}} in 2015, at an average rate of about 1.5 percent per year.<ref name=":0"/> The expansion in consumption has been driven not only by increased production, but also by a combination of many other factors, including reduced wastage, better utilization, improved distribution channels and growing consumer demand, linked with population growth, rising disposable incomes and urbanization.<ref name=":0"/>
Europe, Japan and the United States together accounted for 47 percent of the world's total food fish consumption in 1961, but only about 20 percent in 2015. Of the global total of 149 million tonnes in 2015, Asia consumed more than two-thirds (106 million tonnes at 24.0 kg per capita),<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=http://www.fao.org/3/ca0191en/ca0191en.pdf|title=In brief, The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture, 2018|publisher=FAO|year=2018}}</ref> while Oceania and Africa consumed the lowest share. The shift is the result of structural changes in the sector, and the growing role of Asian countries in fish production in particular, as well as a significant gap between the economic growth rates of the world's more mature fish markets and those of many increasingly important emerging markets around the world, particularly in Asia.<ref name=":0"/>
==Species== Over 32,000 species of fish have been described,<ref>FishBase: [http://www.fishbase.org/search.php June 2012 update.] Retrieved 18 June 2012.</ref> making them the most diverse group of vertebrates. In addition, there are many species of shellfish. However, only about 20% of extant fish species are used by humans as food.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Fishes Used by Humans |url=https://fishbase.se/Report/FishesUsedByHumans.php |access-date=2026-04-03 |website=fishbase.se}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable collapsible" ! colspan="4" style="width:570px;"| Common species of fish and shellfish used for food<ref>Peterson, James and editors of Seafood Business (2009) [https://books.google.com/books?id=s-r5bx-SG6kC&q=%22seafood%22 ''Seafood Handbook: The Comprehensive Guide to Sourcing, Buying and Preparation''] John Wiley & Sons. {{ISBN|9780470404164}}.</ref> |- ! style="width:100px;"| ! width=33% | Mild flavour ! width=33% | Moderate flavour ! width=33% | Full flavour |- ! valign=top | Delicate<br />texture | style="vertical-align:top; background:#f5f5f5;"| Basa, flounder, hake, scup, smelt, rainbow trout, hardshell clam, blue crab, peekytoe crab, spanner crab, cuttlefish, eastern oyster, Pacific oyster | style="vertical-align:top; background:#f1f1fa;"| Anchovy, herring, lingcod, moi, orange roughy, Atlantic Ocean perch, Lake Victoria perch, yellow perch, European oyster, sea urchin | style="vertical-align:top; background:#e8e8f8;"| Atlantic mackerel, sardines |- ! valign=top | Medium<br />texture | style="vertical-align:top; background:#e8f8e8;"| Black sea bass, European sea bass, hybrid striped bass, bream, cod, drum, haddock, porgy, hoki, Alaska pollock, rockfish, pink salmon, snapper, tilapia, turbot, walleye, lake whitefish, wolffish, hardshell clam, surf clam, cockle, Jonah crab, snow crab, crayfish, bay scallop, Chinese white shrimp | style="vertical-align:top; background:#f3eaea;"| Sablefish, Atlantic salmon, coho salmon, skate, dungeness crab, king crab, blue mussel, greenshell mussel, pink shrimp | style="vertical-align:top; background:#f0e0f0;"| Escolar, chinook salmon, chum salmon, American shad |- ! valign=top | Firm<br />texture | style="vertical-align:top; background:#ddf8dd;"| Arctic char, carp, catfish, dory, grouper, halibut, monkfish, pompano, Dover sole, sturgeon, tilefish, wahoo, yellowtail, abalone, conch, stone crab, American lobster, spiny lobster, octopus, black tiger shrimp, sheepshead, freshwater shrimp, gulf shrimp, Pacific white shrimp, grey triggerfish, squid | style="vertical-align:top; background:#e8f0d8;"| Barramundi, cusk, dogfish, kingklip, mahimahi, opah, mako shark, swordfish, albacore tuna, yellowfin tuna, geoduck clam, squat lobster, sea scallop, rock shrimp | style="vertical-align:top; background:#f0e0e0;"| Barracuda, Chilean sea bass, cobia, croaker, eel, blue marlin, mullet, sockeye salmon, bluefin tuna |}
==Preparation== {{See also|Fish processing}} Fish can be prepared in a variety of ways. It can be served uncooked (raw food, e.g., sashimi); cured by marinating (e.g., ceviche), pickling (e.g., pickled herring) or smoking (e.g., smoked salmon); or cooked by baking, frying (e.g., fish and chips), grilling, poaching (e.g., court-bouillon) or steaming. Many of the preservation techniques used in different cultures have since become unnecessary but are still performed for their resulting taste and texture when consumed.{{Citation needed|date=March 2021}}
Compared to meat, fish has a relatively delicate texture derived from short fibers separated by large sheets and thin connective tissue (about 3% of its weight, as opposed to 15% in land animals).<ref>{{cite book |last=McGee |first=Harold |date=1984 |title=On Food and Cooking |location=New York |publisher=Collier Books |page=91}}</ref>{{better source|date=January 2026}}
The British historian William Radcliffe wrote in ''Fishing from the Earliest Times'': <blockquote>"The Emperor Domitian (Juvenal, IV.) ordered a special sitting of the Senate to deliberate and advise on a matter of such grave State importance as the best method of cooking a turbot."<ref>[https://web.ics.purdue.edu/~rauhn/Hist_416/hist420/JuvenalSatirespdf.pdf Juvenal: The Satires] Satire IV: Mock Epic, pages 25–29. Translated by A. S. Kline 2011.</ref></blockquote>
==Nutritional value== {| class="wikitable floatright" |- ! colspan=4 | Comparison of nutrients in 100 g of whitefish or oily fish |- ! Nutrient ! Whitefish<br />Alaska pollock<ref>{{cite web |url=https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/food-details/173681/nutrients |title=Nutrient data for 15067, Fish, pollock, Alaska, cooked, dry heat (may contain additives to retain moisture) |author=United States Department of Agriculture |work=FoodData Central |date=January 4, 2019 |access-date=19 November 2022}}</ref> ! Oily fish<br />Atlantic herring<ref>{{cite web |url=https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/food-details/175117/nutrients |title=Nutrient data for 15040, Fish, herring, Atlantic, cooked, dry heat |author=United States Department of Agriculture |work=FoodData Central |date=January 4, 2019 |access-date=19 November 2022}}</ref> | width=250 rowspan=9 | none|framelessHalibut fillet (a whitefish) on top of a salmon fillet (an oily fish) |- ! Energy (kcal) | style="text-align:center;"| 111 | style="text-align:center;"| 203 |- ! Protein (g) | style="text-align:center;"| 23 | style="text-align:center;"| 23 |- ! Fat (g) | style="text-align:center;"| 1 | style="text-align:center;"| 12 |- ! Cholesterol (mg) | style="text-align:center;"| 86 | style="text-align:center;"| 77 |- ! Vitamin B-12 (μg) | style="text-align:center;"| 4 | style="text-align:center;"| 13 |- ! Phosphorus (mg) | style="text-align:center;"| 267 | style="text-align:center;"| 303 |- ! Selenium (μg) | style="text-align:center;"| 44 | style="text-align:center;"| 47 |- ! Omega-3 (mg) | style="text-align:center;"| 509 | style="text-align:center;"| 2014 |}
Globally, fish and fish products provide an average of only about 34 calories per capita per day. However, more than as an energy source, the dietary contribution of fish is significant in terms of high-quality, easily digested animal proteins and especially in fighting micronutrient deficiencies.<ref name=":0"/> A portion of 150g of fish provides about 50 to 60 percent of an adult's daily protein requirement. Fish proteins are essential in the diet of some densely populated countries where the total protein intake is low, and are particularly important in diets in small island developing States (SIDS).<ref name=":0"/>
''Intermediate Technology Publications'' wrote in 1992 that "Fish provides a good source of high quality protein and contains many vitamins and minerals. It may be classed as either whitefish, oily fish, or shellfish. Whitefish, such as haddock and seer, contain very little fat (usually less than 1%) whereas oily fish, such as sardines, contain between 10–25%. The latter, as a result of its high fat content, contain a range of fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E and K) and essential fatty acids, all of which are vital for the healthy functioning of the body."<ref name=Fellows1992>Fellows Pp and Hampton A (Eds.) (1992) [http://www.fao.org/Wairdocs/X5434E/x5434e0f.htm#11.%20fish%20and%20fish%20products Fish and fish products] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190208173446/http://www.fao.org/WAIRdocs/x5434e/x5434e0f.htm#11.%20fish%20and%20fish%20products |date=2019-02-08 }} Chapter 11 in: ''Small-scale food processing – A guide for appropriate equipment'' Intermediate Technology Publications, FAO, Rome. {{ISBN|1 85339 108 5}}.</ref>
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==Health benefits== {{See also|Health benefits of eating seafood}}
Eating oily fish containing long-chain omega-3 fatty acids may reduce systemic inflammation and lower the risk of cardiovascular disease.<ref name="nhs">{{Cite web|url=https://www.nhs.uk/live-well/eat-well/fish-and-shellfish-nutrition/|title=Fish and shellfish|date=2018-04-27|publisher=UK National Health Service|access-date=2019-12-30}}</ref><ref name="mayo">{{cite web |title=Omega-3 in fish: How eating fish helps your heart |url=https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/heart-disease/in-depth/omega-3/art-20045614 |publisher=Mayo Clinic |access-date=2 November 2020 |date=28 September 2019}}</ref> Eating about {{convert|140|g}} of oily fish rich in omega-3 fatty acids once per week is a recommended consumption amount.<ref name=nhs/><ref name=mayo/> Increasing intake of omega-3 fatty acids may slightly reduce the risk of a fatal heart attack,<ref name=mayo/> but likely has little effect on the overall number of deaths from cardiovascular disease.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Abdelhamid|first1=Asmaa S|last2=Brown|first2=Tracey J|last3=Brainard|first3=Julii S|last4=Biswas|first4=Priti|last5=Thorpe|first5=Gabrielle C|last6=Moore|first6=Helen J|last7=Deane|first7=Katherine HO|last8=AlAbdulghafoor|first8=Fai K|last9=Summerbell|first9=Carolyn D|last10=Worthington|first10=Helen V|last11=Song|first11=Fujian|date=2018-11-30|title=Omega-3 fatty acids for the primary and secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease|journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|volume=11|issue=11 |article-number=CD003177|doi=10.1002/14651858.cd003177.pub4|issn=1465-1858|pmc=6517311|pmid=30521670}}</ref>
==Health hazards== Fish bone is the most common food-related foreign body to cause airway obstruction. Choking on fish was responsible for about 4,500 reported accidents in the United Kingdom in 1998.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hassandlass.org.uk/query/reports/1998.pdf|title=Accident Statistics: 1998 – Home and leisure accident report Summary of 1998 data p.16 Department of Trade and Industry (UK)|access-date=2011-10-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110930130746/http://www.hassandlass.org.uk/query/reports/1998.pdf|archive-date=2011-09-30}}</ref>
===Allergens=== {{Main|Fish allergy}} A seafood allergy is a food allergy to allergens which can be present in fish. This can result in an overreaction of the immune system and lead to severe physical symptoms<ref>National Institutes of Health, NIAID Allergy Statistics 2005 [https://web.archive.org/web/19970222170452/http://www.niaid.nih.gov/factsheets/allergystat.htm]</ref> from urticaria to angioedema and distributive shock. Allergic reactions can result from ingesting seafood, or by breathing in vapours from preparing or cooking seafood.<ref>{{cite web|title=Seafood* (Fish, Crustaceans and Shellfish) – One of the nine most common food allergens|url=http://www.inspection.gc.ca/english/fssa/labeti/allerg/fispoie.shtml|publisher=Canadian Food Inspection Agency|date=2009-06-12|access-date=2009-06-21}}</ref> The most severe allergic reaction is anaphylaxis, a medical emergency requiring immediate attention and is treated urgently with epinephrine.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www3.niaid.nih.gov/about/organization/dait/PDF/june30_2003.pdf |title=National Report of the Expert Panel on Food Allergy Research, NIH-NIAID 2003 |date=2003-06-30|access-date=2006-08-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061004001123/http://www3.niaid.nih.gov/about/organization/dait/PDF/june30_2003.pdf |archive-date=2006-10-04 }}</ref>
===Biotoxins=== [[File:P1020064.JPG|thumb|A specially prepared dish of the poisonous blowfish fugu, Japan]] Some species of fish, notably the ''fugu'' pufferfish used for sushi, can result in serious food poisoning if not prepared properly. These fish always contain toxins as a natural defense against predators; it is not present due to environmental circumstances. Particularly, ''fugu'' has a lethal dose of tetrodotoxin in its internal organs and must be prepared by a licensed ''fugu'' chef who has passed the national examination in Japan. Ciguatera poisoning can occur from eating larger fish from warm tropical waters, such as sea bass, grouper, barracuda and red snapper.<ref name=nlm>[https://www.medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002851.htm Poisoning – fish and shellfish] ''US National Library of Medicine''. Retrieved 21 July 2012.</ref> Scombroid poisoning can result from eating large oily fish which have sat around for too long before being refrigerated or frozen. This includes scombroids such as tuna and mackerel, but can also include non-scombroids such as mahi-mahi and amberjack.<ref name=nlm /> The poison is often odourless and tasteless.<ref name="Swift-1993" />
Many fish eat algae and other organisms that contain biotoxins, which are defensive substances against predators. Biotoxins accumulated in fish/shellfish include brevetoxins, okadaic acid, saxitoxins, ciguatoxin and domoic acid. Except for ciguatoxine, high levels of these toxins are only found in shellfish. Both domoic acid and ciguatoxine can be deadly to humans; the others will only cause diarrhea, dizziness and a (temporary) feeling of claustrophobia.<ref>EOS magazine, July–August 2010</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.chemischefeitelijkheden.nl/Uploads/.../CF-186-fycotoxinen.pdf |title=Natuurlijke toxinen in voedingsmiddelen |access-date=2010-10-04 |archive-date=2016-03-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160308123044/http://www.chemischefeitelijkheden.nl/Uploads/.../CF-186-fycotoxinen.pdf }}</ref>
Shellfish are filter feeders and, therefore, accumulate toxins produced by microscopic algae, such as dinoflagellates and diatoms, and cyanobacteria. There are four syndromes called shellfish poisoning which can result in humans, sea mammals and seabirds from the ingestion of toxic shellfish. These are primarily associated with bivalve molluscs, such as mussels, clams, oysters and scallops.<ref>{{Citation | title=Protecting Ourselves from Shellfish Poisoning | first1=Mary Wilcox | last1=Silver | journal=American Scientist | volume=94 | issue=4 | year=2006 | pages=316–325 | doi=10.1511/2006.60.316}}</ref> Fish like anchovies can also concentrate toxins such as domoic acid.<ref>[http://www.nwfsc.noaa.gov/hab/habs_toxins/marine_biotoxins/da/index.html Domoic Acid Poisoning] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120213100745/http://www.nwfsc.noaa.gov/hab/habs_toxins/marine_biotoxins/da/index.html |date=2012-02-13 }} Northwest Fisheries Science Center, ''NOAA''. Retrieved 16 July 2012.</ref> If suspected, medical attention should be sought.
{| class="wikitable" |+ Fish and Shellfish poisoning |- ! style="width:64px;"| ! style="width:90px;"| Poisoning type ! Symptoms ! Duration ! Toxin ! Antidote ! Sources |- ! rowspan=4 | Fish | align=right | Ciguatera | Nausea, vomiting and diarrhea, usually followed by headaches, muscle aches, paresthesia, numbness, ataxia, vertigo and hallucinations. | Weeks to years | Ciguatoxin and similar: maitotoxin, scaritoxin and palytoxin | None known | align=center | <ref name="Swift-1993">{{cite journal |vauthors=Swift A, Swift T |title=Ciguatera |journal=J. Toxicol. Clin. Toxicol. |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=1–29 |year=1993 |pmid=8433404 |doi=10.3109/15563659309000371|s2cid=222017205 }}</ref><ref name=uhm/> |- | align=right | Scombroid<br />food<br />poisoning | Skin flushing, throbbing headache, oral burning, abdominal cramps, nausea, diarrhea, palpitations, sense of unease, and, rarely, collapse or loss of vision. Symptoms occur usually within 10–30 minutes of ingesting spoiled fish. | Usually four to six hours | Histamine, possibly others | Oral anti-histamines | align=center | <ref name=uhm/><ref>{{cite journal |author=Guss DA |title=Scombroid fish poisoning: successful treatment with cimetidine |journal=Undersea Hyperb Med |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=123–5 |year=1998 |pmid=9670438 |url=http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/2294 |access-date=2008-08-12 |archive-date=2011-08-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811180205/http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/2294 |url-status=usurped }}</ref> |- | align=right | Haff disease | Rhabdomyolysis, that is, a swelling and breakdown of skeletal muscle (with a risk of acute kidney failure) within 24 hours after consuming fish | | A toxic cause is suspected but has not been proven | None known | align=center | <ref name="Buchholz">{{cite journal|vauthors=Buchholz U, Mouzin E, Dickey R, Moolenaar R, Sass N, Mascola L |title=Haff disease: from the Baltic Sea to the U.S. shore |journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=192–5 |year=2000 |pmid=10756156 |doi=10.3201/eid0602.000215 |pmc=2640861}}</ref> |- | align=right | Ichthyo-<br />allyeinotoxism | Vivid auditory and visual hallucinations similar in some aspects to LSD. | Can last for several days | | | align=center | <ref> {{cite journal | author = de Haro, L. |author2=Pommier, P. | title = Hallucinatory fish poisoning (ichthyoallyeinotoxism): two case reports from the Western Mediterranean and literature review. | journal = Clinical Toxicology | year = 2006 | volume = 44 | issue = 2 | pages = 185–8 | pmid = 16615678 | doi=10.1080/15563650500514590|s2cid=41191477 }} </ref> |- ! rowspan=4 | Shellfish | align=right | Amnesic | Permanent short-term memory loss and brain damage | Fatal in severe cases | Domoic acid, which acts as a neurotoxin | None known | align=center | <ref name=uhm>{{cite journal | author1 = Clark, R. F. | author2 = Williams, S. R. | author3 = Nordt, S. P. | author4 = Manoguerra, A. S. | title = A Review of Selected Seafood Poisonings | journal = Undersea and Hyperbaric Medicine | year = 1999 | volume = 26 | issue = 3 | pages = 175–184 | pmid = 10485519 | url = http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/2314 | access-date = 2012-07-14 | archive-date = 2011-08-11 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110811180444/http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/2314 | url-status = usurped }}</ref> |- | align=right | Diarrheal | Diarrhea and possibly nausea, vomiting and cramps. | Symptoms usually set in within half an hour and last about a day | Okadaic acid, which inhibits intestinal cellular de-phosphorylation. | | align=center | <ref>{{cite journal|last=Dawson|first=JF|author2=Holmes CF|title=Molecular mechanisms underlying inhibition of protein phosphatases by marine toxins.|journal=Frontiers in Bioscience |date=Oct 1999|volume=4|pages=D646–58|pmid=10502549|doi=10.2741/dawson|issue=1–3|doi-access=free}}<!--|access-date=May 22, 2011--></ref> |- | align=right | Neurotoxic | Vomiting and nausea and a variety of neurological symptoms such as slurred speech. Not fatal though it may require hospitalization. | | Brevetoxins or brevetoxin analogs | | align=center | <ref>{{ cite journal |author1=Watkins, S. M. |author2=Reich, A. |author3=Fleming, L. E. |author4=Hammond, R. | title = Neurotoxic shellfish poisoning | journal = Marine Drugs | year = 2008 | volume = 6 | issue = 3 | pages = 431–455 | pmid = 19005578 | pmc = 2579735 | doi = 10.3390/md20080021 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{ cite journal | author = Landsberg, J. H. | title = The Effects of Harmful Algal Blooms on Aquatic Organisms | journal = Reviews in Fisheries Science | year = 2002 | volume = 10 | issue = 2 | pages = 113–390 | doi = 10.1080/20026491051695 | bibcode = 2002RvFS...10..113L | s2cid = 86185142 }}</ref> |- | align=right | Paralytic | Includes nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, and tingling or burning sensations. Other symptoms also possible. | Occasionally fatal | Principal toxin saxitoxin | 4-Aminopyridine has been used in non-human animals.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Benton | first1 = B. J. | last2 = Keller | first2 = S. A. | last3 = Spriggs | first3 = D. L. | last4 = Capacio | first4 = B. R. | last5 = Chang | first5 = F. C. | title = Recovery from the lethal effects of saxitoxin: A therapeutic window for 4-aminopyridine (4-AP) | journal = Toxicon | volume = 36 | issue = 4 | pages = 571–588 | year = 1998 | pmid = 9643470 | doi=10.1016/s0041-0101(97)00158-x| bibcode = 1998Txcn...36..571B }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1006/faat.1997.2328 | last1 = Chang | first1 = F. C. | last2 = Spriggs | first2 = D. L. | last3 = Benton | first3 = B. J. | last4 = Keller | first4 = S. A. | last5 = Capacio | first5 = B. R. | title = 4-Aminopyridine reverses saxitoxin (STX)- and tetrodotoxin (TTX)-induced cardiorespiratory depression in chronically instrumented guinea pigs | journal = Fundamental and Applied Toxicology | volume = 38 | issue = 1 | pages = 75–88 | year = 1997 | pmid = 9268607| s2cid = 17185707 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Chen | first1 = H. | last2 = Lin | first2 = C. | last3 = Wang | first3 = T. | doi = 10.1006/taap.1996.0258 | title = Effects of 4-Aminopyridine on Saxitoxin Intoxication | journal = Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology | volume = 141 | issue = 1 | pages = 44–48 | year = 1996 | pmid = 8917674 }}</ref> | align=center | <ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Clark RF, Williams SR, Nordt SP, Manoguerra AS |title=A review of selected seafood poisonings |journal=Undersea Hyperb Med |volume=26 |issue=3 |pages=175–84 |year=1999 |pmid=10485519 |url=http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/2314 |access-date=2008-08-12 |archive-date=2011-08-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811180444/http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/2314 |url-status=usurped }}</ref> |}
The toxins responsible for most shellfish and fish poisonings, including ciguatera and scombroid poisoning, are heat-resistant to the point where conventional cooking methods do not eliminate them.<ref name="Swift-1993" />
===Mercury and other toxic metals=== {{Main|Mercury in fish}} Fish products, especially those from apex and higher-order consumers up the food chain, have been shown to contain varying amounts of heavy or toxic metals due to biomagnification. Toxicity is a function of solubility, and insoluble compounds often exhibit negligible toxicity. Organometallic forms such as dimethyl mercury and tetraethyl lead can be extremely toxic.<ref name="pmc">{{cite journal |last1=Bernhoft |first1=Robin |title=Mercury Toxicity and Treatment: A Review of the Literature |year=2011 |volume=2012 |article-number=460508 |journal=Journal of Environmental and Public Health |ref=3253456 |doi=10.1155/2012/460508|pmid=22235210 |pmc=3253456 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable collapsible" |+Mercury/omega-3 levels<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Smith | first1 = KL | last2 = Guentzel | first2 = JL | year = 2010 | title = Mercury concentrations and omega-3 fatty acids in fish and shrimp: Preferential consumption for maximum health benefits | journal = Marine Pollution Bulletin | volume = 60 | issue = 9| pages = 1615–1618 | doi = 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2010.06.045 | pmid = 20633905 | bibcode = 2010MarPB..60.1615S }}</ref> ! Mercury level ! style="width:140px;"| Low<br />< 0.04 ppm ! style="width:140px;"| Medium<br />0.04–0.40 ppm ! style="width:140px;"| High<br />> 0.40 ppm |- !style="background:#FFFFCC;"|Omega-3!!colspan=3| |- ! valign=top style="background:#FFFFCC;" | High<br />> 1.0% | style="vertical-align:top; background:#e8fff8;"| salmon<br />sardine | style="vertical-align:top; background:#f1f1fa;"| Atlantic mackerel<br />flatfish<br />halibut<br />herring | style="vertical-align:top; background:#e8e8f8;"| Spanish mackerel<br />swordfish<br />tilefish |- ! valign=top style="background:#FFFFCC;" | Medium<br />0.4–1.0% | style="vertical-align:top; background:#e8f8e8;"| pollock | style="vertical-align:top; background:#f3eaea;"| hoki<br />tuna | style="vertical-align:top; background:#f0e0f0;"| king mackerel<br />shark |- ! valign=top style="background:#FFFFCC;" | Low<br />< 0.4% | style="vertical-align:top; background:#ddf8dd;"| catfish<br />shrimp | style="vertical-align:top; background:#e8f0d8;"| cod<br />snapper<br />tuna canned light | style="vertical-align:top; background:#f0e0e0;"| grouper<br />orange roughy |}
{| class="wikitable sortable collapsible collapsed" |- ! colspan="8" style="width:540px;"| mercury/omega-3 levels in commercial fish and shellfish |- ! class="unsortable" | ! species ! mercury<ref name=FDA>The mercury levels in the table, unless otherwise indicated, are taken from: [https://web.archive.org/web/20090602034804/http://www.fda.gov/Food/FoodSafety/Product-SpecificInformation/Seafood/FoodbornePathogensContaminants/Methylmercury/ucm115644.htm Mercury Levels in Commercial Fish and Shellfish (1990–2010)] U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Accessed 8 January 2012.</ref><br />(mean ppm) ! omega-3<ref name="ahao3">{{cite web | url = http://www.americanheart.org/presenter.jhtml?identifier=3013797 | title = Fish, Levels of Mercury and Omega-3 Fatty Acids | publisher = American Heart Association | access-date = October 6, 2010 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100709203304/http://www.americanheart.org/presenter.jhtml?identifier=3013797 | archive-date = July 9, 2010 }}</ref><ref name="KrisEtherton2002">{{Cite journal | last = Kris-Etherton | first = Penny M. |author2=William S. Harris |author3=Lawrence J. Appel | title = Fish Consumption, Fish Oil, Omega-3 Fatty Acids, and Cardiovascular Disease | journal = Circulation | volume = 106 | issue = 21 | pages = 2747–2757 | year = 2002 | doi = 10.1161/01.CIR.0000038493.65177.94 | url = http://circ.ahajournals.org/cgi/content/full/106/21/2747 | pmid=12438303| s2cid = 6547417 | doi-access = | url-access = subscription }}</ref><br />(mean percent) ! habitat ! notes ! trophic<br />level<ref name=TL>Trophic levels and maximum ages are, unless otherwise indicated, taken from the relevant species pages on Rainer Froese and Daniel Pauly (Eds) (2012) [http://www.fishbase.org/home.htm FishBase] January 2012 version. Where a group has more than one species, the average of the principal commercial species is used</ref> ! max age<br />(years)<ref name=TL /> |- | style="background:#ff54ff;"| | Tilefish | style="text-align:center;"| 1.450 | style="text-align:center;"| 1.06 | style="text-align:center;"| pelagic | | style="text-align:center;"| 3.6 | style="text-align:center;"| 35 |- | style="background:#ff56ff;"| | Swordfish | style="text-align:center;"| 0.995 | style="text-align:center;"| 1.14 | style="text-align:center;"| pelagic | | style="text-align:center;"| 4.5 | style="text-align:center;"| 15 |- | style="background:#ff58ff;"| | Shark | style="text-align:center;"| 0.979 | style="text-align:center;"| 0.98 | style="text-align:center;"| pelagic | | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| |- | style="background:#ff5bff;"| | King mackerel | style="text-align:center;"| 0.730 | style="text-align:center;"| 0.42 | style="text-align:center;"| pelagic | | style="text-align:center;"| 4.5 | style="text-align:center;"| 14 |- | style="background:#ff60ff;"| | Orange roughy | style="text-align:center;"| 0.571 | style="text-align:center;"| 0.033 | style="text-align:center;"| demersal | | style="text-align:center;"| 4.3 | style="text-align:center;"| 149 |- | style="background:#ff62ff;"| | Marlin | style="text-align:center;"| 0.485 * | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| pelagic | | style="text-align:center;"| 4.5 | style="text-align:center;"| |- | style="background:#ff64ff;"| | Mackerel (Spanish) | style="text-align:center;"| 0.454 | style="text-align:center;"| 1.65 | style="text-align:center;"| pelagic | | style="text-align:center;"| 4.5 | style="text-align:center;"| 5 |- | style="background:#f6f;"| | Grouper | style="text-align:center;"| 0.448 | style="text-align:center;"| 0.27 | style="text-align:center;"| demersal | | style="text-align:center;"| 4.2 | style="text-align:center;"| |- | style="background:#ff68ff;"| | Tuna | style="text-align:center;"| 0.391 | style="text-align:center;"| 0.77 | style="text-align:center;"| pelagic | All species, fresh/frozen | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| |- | style="background:#ff72ff;"| | Patagonian toothfish | style="text-align:center;"| 0.354 | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| demersal | | style="text-align:center;"| 4.0 | style="text-align:center;"| 50+<ref>Collins MA, Brickle P, Brown J and Belchier M (2010) [https://books.google.com/books?id=iwF-jNVj41gC&dq=%22The+Patagonian+toothfish%3A+biology%2C+ecology+and+fishery%22&pg=PA227 "The Patagonian toothfish: biology, ecology and fishery"] In: M Lesser (Ed.) ''Advances in Marine Biology'', Volume 58, pp. 229–289, Academic Press. {{ISBN|978-0-12-381015-1}}.</ref> |- | style="background:#ff7bff;"| | Halibut | style="text-align:center;"| 0.241 | style="text-align:center;"| 1.01 | style="text-align:center;"| demersal | | style="text-align:center;"| 4.3 | style="text-align:center;"| |- | style="background:#ff86ff;"| | Snapper | style="text-align:center;"| 0.166 | style="text-align:center;"| 0.26 | style="text-align:center;"| demersal | | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| |- | style="background:#ff88ff;"| | Bass | style="text-align:center;"| 0.152 | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| demersal | | style="text-align:center;"| 3.9 | style="text-align:center;"| |- | style="background:#ff8bff;"| | Perch | style="text-align:center;"| 0.150 | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| freshwater | | style="text-align:center;"| 4.0 | style="text-align:center;"| |- | style="background:#ffa6ff;"| | Tuna | style="text-align:center;"| 0.128 | style="text-align:center;"| 0.24 | style="text-align:center;"| pelagic | All species, canned, light | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| |- | style="background:#ffa8ff;"| | Perch (ocean) | style="text-align:center;"| 0.121 * | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| demersal | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| |- | style="background:#ffa0ff;"| | Cod | style="text-align:center;"| 0.111 | style="text-align:center;"| 0.23 | style="text-align:center;"| demersal | | style="text-align:center;"| 3.9 | style="text-align:center;"| 22 |- | style="background:#ffabff;"| | Carp | style="text-align:center;"| 0.110 | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| freshwater | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| |- | style="background:#ffadff;"| | Lobster (American) | style="text-align:center;"| 0.107 | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| demersal | | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| |- | style="background:#ffb2ff;"| | Lobster (spiny) | style="text-align:center;"| 0.093 | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| demersal | | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| |- | style="background:#ffb4ff;"| | Whitefish | style="text-align:center;"| 0.089 | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| demersal | | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| |- | style="background:#ffb8ff;"| | Herring | style="text-align:center;"| 0.084 | style="text-align:center;"| 1.94 | style="text-align:center;"| pelagic | | style="text-align:center;"| 3.2 | style="text-align:center;"| 21 |- | style="background:#ffc0ff;"| | Trout | style="text-align:center;"| 0.071 | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| freshwater | | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| |- | style="background:#ffc2ff;"| | Crab | style="text-align:center;"| 0.065 | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| demersal | Blue, king and snow crab | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| |- | style="background:#ffc4ff;"| | Hoki (blue grenadier) | style="text-align:center;"| 0.058 | style="text-align:center;"| 0.48 | style="text-align:center;"| demersal | | style="text-align:center;"| 3.5 | style="text-align:center;"| |- | style="background:#ffc6ff;"| | Flatfish | style="text-align:center;"| 0.056 * | style="text-align:center;"| 0.56 | style="text-align:center;"| demersal | Flounder, plaice and sole | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| |- | style="background:#ffc8ff;"| | Haddock | style="text-align:center;"| 0.055 | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| demersal | Atlantic | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| |- | style="background:#ffcdff;"| | Atlantic mackerel | style="text-align:center;"| 0.050 | style="text-align:center;"| 1.64 | style="text-align:center;"| pelagic | | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| |- | style="background:#ffd2ff;"| | Mullet | style="text-align:center;"| 0.050 | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| pelagic | | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| |- | style="background:#ffd8ff;"| | Pollock | style="text-align:center;"| 0.031 | style="text-align:center;"| 0.53 | style="text-align:center;"| demersal | | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| |- | style="background:#ffd0ff;"| | Catfish | style="text-align:center;"| 0.025 | style="text-align:center;"| 0.31 | style="text-align:center;"| demersal | | style="text-align:center;"| 3.9 | style="text-align:center;"| 24 |- | style="background:#ffdbff;"| | Squid | style="text-align:center;"| 0.023 | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| pelagic | | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| |- | style="background:#fdf;"| | Salmon | style="text-align:center;"| 0.022 * | style="text-align:center;"| 1.76 | style="text-align:center;"| pelagic | Fresh/frozen | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| |- | style="background:#ffe0ff;"| | Anchovies | style="text-align:center;"| 0.017 | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| pelagic | | style="text-align:center;"| 3.1 | style="text-align:center;"| |- | style="background:#ffe2ff;"| | Sardine | style="text-align:center;"| 0.013 | style="text-align:center;"| 1.94 | style="text-align:center;"| pelagic | | style="text-align:center;"| 2.7 | style="text-align:center;"| |- | style="background:#ffe4ff;"| | Tilapia * | style="text-align:center;"| 0.013 | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| freshwater | | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| |- | style="background:#ffe6ff;"| | Oyster | style="text-align:center;"| 0.012 | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| demersal | | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| |- | style="background:#ffe8ff;"| | Clam * | style="text-align:center;"| 0.009 | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| demersal | | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| |- | style="background:#ffe0ff;"| | Salmon | style="text-align:center;"| 0.008 * | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| pelagic | Canned | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| |- | style="background:#ffebff;"| | Scallop | style="text-align:center;"| 0.003 | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| demersal | | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| |- | style="background:#ffgbff;"| | Shrimp | style="text-align:center;"| 0.001 * | style="text-align:center;"| 0.12 | style="text-align:center;"| demersal | | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| 6.5<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nefsc.noaa.gov/faq/ |title=A bouillabaisse of fascinating facts about fish |publisher=NOAA: National Marine Fisheries Service |access-date=October 22, 2009}}</ref> |- | style="background:#fff;"| | Greenshell mussel | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| 0.35 | style="text-align:center;"| demersal | | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| |- | style="background:#fff;"| | Sydney rock oyster | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| 1.11 | style="text-align:center;"| demersal | | style="text-align:center;"| | style="text-align:center;"| |- class="sortbottom" | colspan="8" style="text-align:center;"| * indicates methylmercury only was analyzed (all other results are for total mercury) |}
According to the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the risk from mercury by eating fish and shellfish is not a health concern for most people.<ref name=FDA_rec>{{cite web|url=http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/admehg3.html |title=What You Need to Know About Mercury in Fish and Shellfish |publisher=Cfsan.fda.gov |date=2009-09-17 |access-date=2011-10-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090519200853/http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/admehg3.html |archive-date=2009-05-19 }}</ref> However, certain seafood contains sufficient mercury to harm an unborn baby or young child's developing nervous system. The FDA makes three recommendations for child-bearing women and young children: # Do not eat shark, swordfish, king mackerel, or tilefish because they contain high levels of mercury. # Eat up to 12 ounces (2 average meals) a week of a variety of fish and shellfish that are lower in mercury. Four of the most commonly eaten fish that are low in mercury are canned light tuna, salmon, pollock, and catfish. Another commonly eaten fish, albacore ("white tuna") has more mercury than canned light tuna. So, when choosing your two meals of fish and shellfish, you may eat up to 6 ounces (one average meal) of albacore tuna per week. # Check local advisories about the safety of fish caught by family and friends in your local lakes, rivers, and coastal areas. If no advice is available, eat up to 6 ounces (one average meal) per week of fish you catch from local waters, but do not consume any other fish during that week.
These recommendations are also advised when feeding fish and shellfish to young children, but in smaller portions.<ref name=FDA_rec/>
===Mislabelling=== When the ocean conservation organization Oceana examined over 1,200 seafood samples of seafood sold in the U.S. between 2010 and 2012, they found one-third were mislabelled. The highest rate of mislabelling occurred with snapper at 87 percent, followed by tuna at 57 percent.<ref>Warner K, Timme W, Lowell B and Hirshfield M (2013) [http://oceana.org/sites/default/files/reports/National_Seafood_Fraud_Testing_Results_FINAL.pdf Oceana Study Reveals Seafood Fraud Nationwide] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211012064734/https://oceana.org/sites/default/files/reports/National_Seafood_Fraud_Testing_Results_FINAL.pdf |date=2021-10-12 }} ''Oceana''.</ref>
===Persistent organic pollutants=== {{See also|Marine pollution#Toxins}}
If fish and shellfish inhabit polluted waters, they can accumulate other toxic chemicals, particularly fat-soluble pollutants containing chlorine or bromine, dioxins or PCBs.
===Parasites=== {{See also|Fish diseases and parasites}} [[File:Symptoms of Raw fish infection.png|thumb|Differential symptoms of parasite infections by raw fish. All have gastrointestinal, but otherwise distinct, symptoms.<ref>For Chlonorchiasis: [http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/msds-ftss/msds34e-eng.php Public Health Agency of Canada > Clonorchis sinensis – Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS)] Retrieved on April 14, 2009</ref><ref>For Anisakiasis: [http://www.wrongdiagnosis.com/a/anisakiasis/symptoms.htm WrongDiagnosis: Symptoms of Anisakiasis] Retrieved on April 14, 2009</ref><ref>For Diphyllobothrium: [https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/001375.htm MedlinePlus > Diphyllobothriasis] Updated by: Arnold L. Lentnek, MD. Retrieved on April 14, 2009</ref><ref>For symptoms of diphyllobothrium due to vitamin B12-deficiency [http://www.umm.edu/blood/aneper.htm University of Maryland Medical Center > Megaloblastic (Pernicious) Anemia] Retrieved on April 14, 2009</ref>]] Parasites in fish are a common natural occurrence. Though not a health concern in thoroughly cooked fish, parasites are a concern when consumers eat raw or lightly preserved fish such as sashimi, sushi, ceviche and gravlax. The popularity of such raw fish dishes makes it important for consumers to be aware of this risk. Raw fish should be frozen to an internal temperature of {{cvt|-20|C}} for at least 7 days to kill parasites; home freezers may not be cold enough.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://seafood.ucdavis.edu/Pubs/parasite.htm |title=''Parasites in Marine Fishes'' University of California Food Science & Technology Department Sea Grant Extension Program |publisher=Seafood.ucdavis.edu |date=1990-08-07 |access-date=2011-10-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927063512/http://seafood.ucdavis.edu/Pubs/parasite.htm |archive-date=2011-09-27 }}</ref><ref>[http://seafooduniversity.com/?p=16 Vaughn M. ''Sushi and Sashimi Safety''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080927064827/http://seafooduniversity.com/?p=16 |date=2008-09-27 }}</ref>
Historically, fish that live all or part of their lives in fresh water were considered unsuitable for sashimi due to the possibility of parasites (see Sashimi article). Parasitic infections from freshwater fish are a serious problem in some parts of the world, particularly Southeast Asia{{Citation needed|date=July 2010}}. Fish that spend part of their life cycle in brackish or fresh water, like salmon (an anadromous coastalfish closely related to trout), are a particular problem. A study in Seattle, Washington showed that 100% of wild salmon had roundworm larvae capable of infecting people. In the same study farm-raised salmon did not have any roundworm larvae.<ref>{{Cite journal |volume = 25 |issue = 3 |pages = 416–419 |last = Deardorff |first = TL |author2 = ML Kent |title = Prevalence of larval Anisakis simplex in pen-reared and wild-caught salmon (Salmonidae) from Puget Sound, Washington |journal = Journal of Wildlife Diseases |date = 1989-07-01 |pmid = 2761015 |doi = 10.7589/0090-3558-25.3.416 |doi-access= free }}</ref>
Parasite infection from raw fish is rare in the developed world (fewer than 40 cases per year in the United States{{citation needed|date=March 2013}}), and involves mainly three kinds of parasites: ''Clonorchis sinensis'' (a trematode/fluke), ''Anisakis'' (a nematode/roundworm) and ''Diphyllobothrium'' (a cestode/tapeworm). Infection risk of ''Anisakis'' is particularly high in fish which may have lived in a river or estuary, such as salmon (''sa ke'' in Japanese cuisine) or mackerel (''sa ba'' in Japanese cuisine). Such parasite infections can generally be avoided by boiling, grilling, preserving in salt or vinegar, or deep-freezing. In Japan, it is common to eat raw salmon and ''ikura'' (roe), but these foods are frozen overnight prior to eating to prevent infections from parasites, particularly ''Anisakis''.{{Citation needed|date=March 2021}}
==Pescetarianism== {{See also|Pescetarianism}}
[[File:Bali Hai seared ahi.jpg|thumb|left|Hawaiian food: Seared ahi and wasabi beurre blanc sauce]]
The neologism "pescetarian" covers those who eat fish and other seafood, but not mammals and birds.<ref name="Merriam-Webster (2009)">The Merriam-Webster dictionary dates the origin of the term ''pescetarian'' to 1993 and defines it as "one whose diet includes fish but no other meat". Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. 2009. ''s.v.'' pescatarian.<nowiki>[</nowiki>Online<nowiki>]</nowiki> Merriam Webster, Inc. Available at [http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/pescatarian http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/pescatarian] <nowiki>[</nowiki>Accessed 17 July 2009<nowiki>]</nowiki></ref>
A 1999 metastudy combined data from five studies from western countries. The metastudy reported mortality ratios, where lower numbers indicated fewer deaths, for pescetarians to be 0.82, vegetarians to be 0.84, and occasional meat eaters to be 0.84. Regular meat eaters and vegans shared the highest mortality ratio of 1.00. However, the "lower mortality was due largely to the relatively low prevalence of smoking in these [vegetarian] cohorts".<ref name="AJCN metastudy">{{Cite journal|title= Mortality in vegetarians and non-vegetarians: detailed findings from a collaborative analysis of 5 prospective studies|journal= American Journal of Clinical Nutrition|volume= 70|issue=3|pages=516S–524S|date = September 1999|url=http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/full/70/3/516S|access-date=30 October 2009|author1=Timothy J Key |author2=Gary E Fraser |author3=Margaret Thorogood |author4=Paul N Appleby |author5=Valerie Beral |author6=Gillian Reeves |author7=Michael L Burr |author8=Jenny Chang-Claude |author9=Rainer Frentzel-Beyme |author10=Jan W Kuzma |author11=Jim Mann |author12=Klim McPherson |pmid= 10479225|doi=10.1079/phn19980006|doi-access=free |url-access=subscription }}</ref>
Since fish is animal flesh, the Vegetarian Society has stated that vegetarian diets cannot contain fish.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.vegsoc.org/sslpage.aspx?pid=531 |title=The Vegetarian Society, Fact Sheet |access-date=2017-10-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180702064455/https://www.vegsoc.org/sslpage.aspx?pid=531 |archive-date=2018-07-02 }}</ref>
==In religion== {{See also|Kosher fish}} {{multiple image|perrow=1/2|total_width=300|caption_align=center | image1 = Boyal Macher Jhol.jpg|caption1=Machher jhol is a spicy fish stew in Bengali and Odia cuisines in the eastern Indian subcontinent. | image2 = Smoked Salmon.jpg|caption2=A plate of smoked salmon }} Religious rites and rituals regarding food also tend to classify the birds of the air and the fish of the sea separately from land-bound mammals.<ref>Regensteinn J M and Regensteinn C E (2000) [https://books.google.com/books?id=OFKLk3S0fzgC&dq=%22Religious+food+laws+and+the+seafood+industry%22&pg=PR8 "Religious food laws and the seafood industry"] In: R E Martin, E P Carter, G J Flick Jr and L M Davis (Eds) (2000) ''Marine and freshwater products handbook'', CRC Press. {{ISBN|9781566768894}}.</ref> Sea-bound mammals are often treated as fish under religious laws – as in Jewish dietary law, which forbids the eating of cetacean meat, such as whale, dolphin or porpoise, because they are not "fish with fins and scales"; nor, as mammals, do they chew their cud and have cloven hooves, as required by {{Bibleverse||Leviticus|11:9–12}}. Jewish (kosher) practice treats fish differently from other animal foods. The distinction between fish and "meat" is codified by the Jewish dietary law of ''kashrut'', regarding the mixing of milk and meat, which does not forbid the mixing of milk and fish. Modern Jewish legal practice (''halakha'') on ''kashrut'' classifies the flesh of both mammals and birds as "meat"; fish are considered to be ''parve'', neither meat nor a dairy food. (The preceding portion refers only to the halakha of Ashkenazi Jews; Sephardic Jews do not mix fish with dairy.){{Citation needed|date=March 2021}} Fish has traditionally been a significant Shabbat dish, as noted by the 1st century Roman satirist Persius and reflected in Talmudic accounts that describe the efforts of the poor to obtain fish for Shabbat and festivals.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Broshi |first=Magen |title=Bread, Wine, Walls and Scrolls |date=2001 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing PLC |isbn=978-1-84127-201-6 |series=The Library of Second Temple Studies |location=London |page=134}}</ref>
Ichthys has become a symbol of Christianity since ancient times. In the New Testament Luke 24 – Jesus's eating of a fish <sup>[{{Bibleverse|Luke|24|41–43}}]</sup> and Jesus telling his disciples where to catch fish, before cooking it for them to eat. Seasonal religious prohibitions against eating meat do not usually include fish. For example, non-fish meat was forbidden during Lent and on all Fridays of the year in pre-Vatican II Roman Catholicism, but fish was permitted (as were eggs). (See Fasting in Catholicism.) In Eastern Orthodoxy, fish is permitted on some fast days when other meat is forbidden, but stricter fast days also prohibit fish with spines, while permitting invertebrate seafood such as shrimp and oysters, considering them "fish without blood".{{Citation needed|date=October 2008}}
Some Buddhists and Hindus (Brahmins of West Bengal, Odisha and Saraswat Brahmins of the Konkan) abjure meat that is not fish. Muslim (halal) practice also treats fish differently from other animal foods, as it can be eaten without requiring the ritualistic slaughter that is prescribed for other halal animals.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Halal Seafood {{!}} ISA |url=https://www.isahalal.com/news-events/blog/halal-seafood |access-date=2024-04-29 |website=Islamic Services of America |language=en}}</ref>
==Environmental impact of fish consumption== {{Main|Environmental impact of fishing}} {{Further|Overfishing|Bycatch|Marine debris|Environmental impact of fisheries subsidies}}
==Taboos on eating fish== {{See also|Taboo food and drink#Fish}}
Among the Somali people, most clans have a taboo against the consumption of fish, and do not intermarry with the few occupational clans that do eat it.<ref>Frederick J. Simoons, ''Northwest Ethiopia: peoples and economy?'', (University of Wisconsin Press: 1960), p.158</ref><ref name="Simoons">Frederick J. Simoons, ''Eat not this flesh: food avoidances from prehistory to the present'', 1994, p. 261–265, {{ISBN|0-299-14254-X}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=JwGZTQunH00C&pg=PA262 Google Books]</ref>
There are taboos on eating fish among many upland pastoralists and agriculturalists (and even some coastal peoples) inhabiting parts of southeastern Egypt, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Somalia, Kenya, and northern Tanzania. This is sometimes referred to as the "Cushitic fish-taboo", as Cushitic speakers are believed to have been responsible for the introduction of fish avoidance to East Africa, though not all Cushitic groups avoid fish. The zone of the fish taboo roughly coincides with the area where Cushitic languages are spoken, and as a general rule, speakers of Nilo-Saharan and Semitic languages do not have this taboo, and indeed many are watermen.<ref name="Simoons"/><ref>{{cite journal | jstor=180989 | title=The Aquatic Civilization of Middle Africa | last1=Sutton | first1=J. E. G. | journal=The Journal of African History | date=1974 | volume=15 | issue=4 | pages=527–546 | doi=10.1017/S0021853700013864 | s2cid=162456183 }}</ref> The few Bantu and Nilotic groups in East Africa that do practice fish avoidance also reside in areas where Cushites appear to have lived in earlier times. Within East Africa, the fish taboo is found no further than Tanzania. This is attributed to the local presence of the tsetse fly and in areas beyond, which likely acted as a barrier to further southern migrations by wandering pastoralists, the principal fish-avoiders. Zambia and Mozambique's Bantus were therefore spared subjugation by pastoral groups, and they consequently nearly all consume fish.<ref name="Simoons"/>
There is also another center of fish avoidance in Southern Africa, among mainly Bantu speakers. It is not clear whether this disinclination developed independently or whether it was introduced. It is certain, however, that no avoidance of fish occurs among southern Africa's earliest inhabitants, the Khoisan. Nevertheless, since the Bantu of southern Africa also share various cultural traits with the pastoralists further north in East Africa, it is believed that, at an unknown date, the taboo against the consumption of fish was similarly introduced from East Africa by cattle-herding peoples who somehow managed to get their livestock past the aforementioned tsetse fly endemic regions.<ref name="Simoons"/>
Certain species of fish are also forbidden in Judaism such as the freshwater eel (Anguillidae) and all species of catfish. Although they live in water, they appear to have no fins or scales (except under a microscope) (see Leviticus 11:10–13<ref>{{bibleverse||Leviticus|11:10–13|HE}}</ref>). Sunni Muslim laws are more flexible in this and catfish and shark are generally seen as halal as they are special types of fish. Eel is generally considered permissible in the four Sunni ''madh'hab'', but the Ja'fari jurisprudence followed by most Shia Muslims forbids it.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.albalagh.net/qa/sea_food_madhahib.shtml |access-date=2007-02-16|title=Sea Food in the Four Madhahib}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.shariahprogram.ca/eat-halal-foods/catfish-halal.shtml |access-date=2007-02-16|title=Is Catfish Halal?}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.shariahprogram.ca/eat-halal-foods/shark-meat-halal.shtml |access-date=2007-02-16|title=Is Shark Meat Halal?}}</ref>
Many tribes of the Southwestern United States, including the Navaho, Apache, and Zuñi, have a taboo against fish and other water-related animals, including waterfowl.<ref>{{cite journal | jstor=533215 | last1=Matthews | first1=Washington | title=Ichthyophobia | journal=The Journal of American Folklore | date=1898 | volume=11 | issue=41 | pages=105–112 | doi=10.2307/533215 }}</ref>
==Dishes== {{Main|List of fish dishes}} {{div col|colwidth=18em}} * Bokkoms * Bouillabaisse * Bourdeto * Ceviche * Cioppino * Crab stick * Crappit heid * Croquette * Curanto * Dressed herring * Fish and chips * Fish ball * Fish chowder * Fishcake * Fishstick * Gefilte fish * Kamaboko * Kipper * Lox * Machher Jhol * Paella * Pempek * Poke (Hawaii) * Pompano en Papillote * Quenelles Lyonnaises * Rakfisk * Remoulade * Rissole * Sashimi * Seafood birdsnest * Smoked salmon * Soused herring * Stargazy pie * Surimi * Surströmming * Sushi * Tuna fish sandwich * Ukha {{div col end}}
==See also== <div style="float:right"> {{Portal|Fish|Food}} </div> {{div col|colwidth=22em}} * Anisakis * Boneless Fish * Boning knife * Fish head * Fish products * Fishmonger * Got Mercury? * Ichthyoallyeinotoxism * Kudoa thyrsites * List of fish dishes * Lists of foods * List of commercially important fish species * List of seafood dishes * Oily fish * Maguro bōchō * Pescetarianism * Phosphatidylserine * Seafood Watch {{div col end}}
==References== {{Reflist|35em}}
===Bibliography=== * Aquamedia, ''"Consumption of Fishery Products"'' retrieved from https://web.archive.org/web/20060223203558/http://www.feap.info/economics/Tradebalance_en.asp on 2007-09-17. * Paston-Williams, Sara (2006) [https://books.google.com/books?id=aJoDxN4T-eEC&dq=%22Arbroath+smokie%22&pg=PA132 ''Fish: Recipes from a Busy Island''] National Trust Books. {{ISBN|9781905400072}}. * Sweetser, Wendy (2009) [https://books.google.com/books?id=eHrvJQGiObEC&dq=%22Arbroath+smokie%22&pg=PA194 ''The Connoisseur's Guide to Fish & Seafood''] Sterling Publishing Company,. {{ISBN|9781402770517}}. * {{cite journal | pmc = 1084135 | year = 2001 | last1 = Tidwell | first1 = J. H. | title = Fish as food: Aquaculture's contribution: Ecological and economic impacts and contributions of fish farming and capture fisheries | journal = EMBO Reports | volume = 2 | issue = 11 | pages = 958–963 | last2 = Allan | first2 = G. L. | doi = 10.1093/embo-reports/kve236 | pmid = 11713181 }} * University of Michigan Health System, ''"Fish & Seafood"'' retrieved from https://web.archive.org/web/20070526011755/http://www.med.umich.edu/umim/clinical/pyramid/fish.htm on 2007-09-17. * VegDining.com, ''"Frequently Asked Questions-Definitions"'' retrieved from http://www.ivu.org/faq/definitions.html on 2007-09-17. * ''The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2000'', 2000, retrieved from [https://web.archive.org/web/20061122184857/http://www.who.int/nutrition/topics/3_foodconsumption/en/index5.html] on 2007-11-17. World Health Organization. * {{Free-content attribution | title = In brief, The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture, 2018 | author = FAO | publisher = FAO | page numbers = | source = | documentURL = http://www.fao.org/3/ca0191en/ca0191en.pdf | license statement URL = https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:In_brief,_The_State_of_World_Fisheries_and_Aquaculture,_2018.pdf | license = CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO }}
==External links== {{Commons and category|Fish (food)}} {{Cookbook|Fish}} * [https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/10/061018094758.htm Science Daily] Benefits Of Eating Fish Greatly Outweigh The Risks, New Study Says * [https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2003/02/030210080251.htm Science Daily] Experts Say Consumers Can Eat Around Toxins In Fish * [http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa003&articleID=4CD31D31E16AC873F5F421D5880E88D6 Scientific American] Soy and fish protect from cancer: study. * {{Cite NIE|wstitle=Fish as Food|short=x}}
{{Seafood|state=expanded}} {{Fisheries and fishing}} {{Meat}} {{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Fish (Food)}} Category:Fish as food Category:Types of food Category:Surimi Category:Fish products