{{Short description|Sweet-tasting, water-soluble carbohydrates}} {{About|the class of sweet-flavoured substances used as food|common table sugar|Sucrose||Sugar (disambiguation)}} {{Good article}} {{Pp-pc|reason=COI, SPA sanitation and other disruptive and POV issues. Feel free to reduce, but I don't see an end, thus the long term protection.|small=yes}} {{Use dmy dates|date=September 2024}} {{Use British English|date=September 2024}} {{cs1 config|name-list-style=vanc|display-authors=3}} [[File:Sucre blanc cassonade complet rapadura.jpg|thumb|Sugars (clockwise from top-left): white refined, unrefined, brown, unprocessed cane sugar ]]

<!--Definition--> '''Sugar''' is a class of sweet-tasting, soluble carbohydrates, many of which are used in food. Simple sugars, also called monosaccharides, include glucose, fructose and galactose. Compound sugars, also called disaccharides or double sugars, are molecules made of two bonded monosaccharides; common examples are sucrose (glucose + fructose), lactose (glucose + galactose) and maltose (two molecules of glucose). White sugar is almost pure sucrose. During digestion, compound sugars are hydrolysed into simple sugars.

Longer chains of saccharides are not regarded as sugars, and are called oligosaccharides or polysaccharides. Starch is a glucose polymer found in plants &ndash; the most abundant source of energy in human food. Some other chemical substances, such as ethylene glycol, glycerol and sugar alcohols, may have a sweet taste, but are not classified as sugar.

<!--Sources--> Sugars are found in the tissues of most plants. Honey and fruits are abundant natural sources of simple sugars. Sucrose is especially concentrated in sugarcane and sugar beet, making them efficient for commercial extraction to make refined sugar. In 2016 the combined world production of those two crops was about two billion tonnes. Maltose may be produced by malting grain. Lactose is the only sugar that cannot be extracted from plants, as it occurs only in milk, including human breast milk, and in some dairy products. A cheap source of sugar is corn syrup, industrially produced by converting corn starch into sugars, such as maltose, fructose and glucose.

<!--Uses--> Sucrose is used in prepared foods (e.g., cookies and cakes), is added to commercially available ultra-processed food and beverages, and is used as a sweetener for foods (e.g., toast and cereal) and beverages (e.g., coffee and tea). Globally, on average, a person consumes about {{convert|24|kg|abbr=off}} of sugar each year. North and South Americans consume up to {{convert|50|kg|abbr=on}}, and Africans consume under {{convert|20|kg|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite web |date=2019 |title=OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook 2020–2029 – Sugar |url=http://www.fao.org/3/ca8861en/Sugar.pdf |access-date=15 February 2021 |website= |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization |archive-date=17 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417223937/http://www.fao.org/3/ca8861en/Sugar.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

<!--Health--> The use of added sugar in food and beverage manufacturing is a concern for elevated calorie intake, which is associated with an increased risk of several diseases, such as obesity, diabetes and cardiovascular disorders.<ref name="huang">{{cite journal |vauthors=Huang Y, Chen Z, Chen B, Li J, Yuan X, Li J, Wang W, Dai T, Chen H, Wang Y, Wang R, Wang P, Guo J, Dong Q, Liu C, Wei Q, Cao D, Liu L |title=Dietary sugar consumption and health: umbrella review |journal=BMJ |volume=381 |issue= |article-number=e071609 |date=April 2023 |pmid=37019448 |pmc=10074550 |doi=10.1136/bmj-2022-071609}}</ref> In 2015 the World Health Organization recommended that adults and children should reduce their intake of free sugars to less than 10% of their total energy intake, encouraging a reduction to below 5%.<ref name="who-nlm">{{cite book |chapter=Executive summary |chapter-url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK285538/ |title=Guideline: Sugars Intake for Adults and Children |date=2015 |publisher=World Health Organization |isbn=978-92-4-154902-8 }}</ref>

==Etymology== The etymology of ''sugar'' reflects the commodity's spread. From Sanskrit ''{{Lang|sa-latn|śarkarā}}'', meaning "ground or candied sugar", came Persian ''{{Lang|fa-latn|shakar}}'' and Arabic ''sukkar''. The Arabic word was borrowed in Medieval Latin as ''succarum'', whence came the 12th-century Old French ''sucre'' and the English ''sugar''. Sugar was introduced into Europe by the Arabs in Sicily and Spain.<ref name="oed">{{OEtymD|Sugar}}</ref>

The English word ''jaggery'', a coarse brown sugar made from date palm sap or sugarcane juice, has a similar etymological origin: Portuguese ''{{Lang|pt|jágara}}'' from the Malayalam ''{{Lang|ml-latn|cakkarā}}'', which is from the Sanskrit ''{{Lang|sa-latn|śarkarā}}''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/jaggery |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121001000114/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/jaggery |archive-date=1 October 2012 |title=Jaggery |publisher=Oxford Dictionaries |access-date=17 August 2012}}</ref>

== History == {{Main|History of sugar}}

[[File:Canaviais Sao Paulo 01 2008 06.jpg|thumb|Sugar cane plantation]] Sugar was first produced from sugar cane in the Indian subcontinent.<ref name="Moxham2002">{{cite book |last1=Moxham |first1=Roy |title=The Great Hedge of India: The Search for the Living Barrier that Divided a People |date=2002 |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-0-7867-0976-2 }}{{pn|date=April 2026}}</ref> Diverse species of sugar cane seem to have originated from India (''Saccharum barberi'' and ''S. edule'') and New Guinea (''S. officinarum'').<ref name=Kiple>{{cite book |last1=Galloway |first1=J. H. |chapter=Sugar |pages=437–449 |editor-first1=Kenneth F. |editor-first2=Kriemhild Coneè |editor-last1=Kiple |editor-last2=Ornelas |title=The Cambridge World History of Food |date=2000 |doi=10.1017/CHOL9780521402149 |isbn=978-1-139-05863-6 }}</ref><ref name=Sharpe>{{cite web |url=http://www.ethnoleaflets.com//leaflets/sugar.htm |title=Sugar Cane: Past and Present |work=Illinois: Southern Illinois University |author=Sharpe, Peter |year=1998 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110710203319/http://www.ethnoleaflets.com//leaflets/sugar.htm |archive-date=10 July 2011}}</ref> Sugarcane is described in Chinese manuscripts dating to the 8th century BCE, which state that the use of sugarcane originated in India.<ref name=gr1>{{cite book |title=Something about sugar: its history, growth, manufacture and distribution |first=George |last=Rolph |year=1873 |url=https://archive.org/details/somethingaboutsu00rolprich|location=San Francisco|publisher= J.J. Newbegin }}</ref>

Nearchus (admiral of Alexander the Great), the Greek physician Pedanius Dioscorides and the Roman Pliny the Elder also described sugar.<ref name=faas>{{cite book | last1=Faas | first1=P. | last2=Whiteside | first2=S. | title=Around the Roman Table: Food and Feasting in Ancient Rome | publisher=University of Chicago Press | year=2005 | isbn=978-0-226-23347-5 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YXGlAr17oekC&pg=PA149 | page=149}}</ref> In the mid-15th century, sugar was introduced into Madeira and the Canary Islands, where it was mass-produced. Christopher Columbus introduced it to the New World, leading to sugar industries in Cuba and Jamaica by the 1520s.<ref name="duke">{{cite book | title=The Repeating: The Caribbean and the Postmodern Perspective | publisher=Duke University Press |author=Antonio Benítez Rojo |others=James E. Maraniss (translation) |year=1996|isbn=0-8223-1865-2 |page=93}}</ref> The Portuguese took sugar cane to Brazil.

Beet sugar, the starting point for the modern sugar industry,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Andreas Sigismund Marggraf {{!}} German chemist |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Andreas-Sigismund-Marggraf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200329175917/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Andreas-Sigismund-Marggraf |archive-date=29 March 2020 |website=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> was a German invention.<ref>{{cite book |author=Marggraf |year=1747 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lJQDAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA79 |chapter=Experiences chimiques faites dans le dessein de tirer un veritable sucre de diverses plantes, qui croissent dans nos contrées |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221231160304/https://books.google.com/books?id=lJQDAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA79 |archive-date=31 December 2022 |trans-chapter=Chemical experiments made with the intention of extracting real sugar from diverse plants that grow in our lands |title=Histoire de l'académie royale des sciences et belles-lettres de Berlin |pages= 79–90 |language=fr}}</ref><ref name="TUBe">{{Cite web |date=23 November 2004 |title=Festveranstaltung zum 100 jährigen Bestehen des Berliner Institut für Zuckerindustrie |url=http://www2.tu-berlin.de/~zuckerinstitut/museum.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070824035034/http://www2.tu-berlin.de/~zuckerinstitut/museum.html |archive-date=24 August 2007 |publisher=Technische Universität Berlin}}</ref> Beet sugar was first produced industrially in 1801 in Cunern, Prussia.<ref name=TUBe />

Sugar became a household item by the 19th century, and this evolution of taste and demand for sugar as an essential food ingredient resulted in major economic and social changes.<ref name="mintz">{{cite book |title= Sweetness and Power: The Place of Sugar in Modern History |first= Sidney |last= Mintz |isbn= 978-0-14-009233-2 |year= 1986 |publisher= Penguin |url= https://archive.org/details/sweetnesspowerpl00mint }}</ref>{{Page needed|date=October 2025}} Demand drove, in part, the colonisation and industrialisation of previously under-developed lands. It was also intimately associated with slavery.<ref name="mintz"/>{{Page needed|date=October 2025}} World consumption increased more than 100 times from 1850 to 2000, led by the United Kingdom, where it increased from about 2 pounds per head per year in 1650 to 90 pounds by the early 20th century.

== Chemistry == [[File:Saccharose2.svg|frame|Sucrose: a disaccharide of glucose (left) and fructose (right)]] Scientifically, ''sugar'' loosely refers to a number of compounds typically with the formula (CH<sub>2</sub>O)<sub>n</sub>. Some large classes of sugars, ranked in increasing order of molecular weight are monosaccharides, disaccharides, or oligosaccharides. === Monosaccharides === {{main|monosaccharide}}

Monosaccharides are also called "simple sugars", the most important being glucose. Most monosaccharides have a formula that conforms to {{chem|C|n|H|2n|O|n}} with n between 3 and 7 (deoxyribose being an exception). Glucose has the molecular formula {{chem|C|6|H|12|O|6}}. The names of typical sugars end with -''ose'', as in "glucose" and "fructose". Such labels may also refer to any types of these compounds. Fructose, galactose and glucose are all simple sugars, monosaccharides, with the general formula {{chem2|C6H12O6}}. They have five hydroxyl groups (−OH) and a carbonyl group (C=O) and are cyclic when dissolved in water. They each exist as several isomers with dextro- and laevo-rotatory forms that cause polarised light to diverge to the right or the left.<ref name=Manual>{{cite book |title=Manual of Nutrition; Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food |last=Buss |first=David |author2=Robertson, Jean |year=1976 |publisher=Her Majesty's Stationery Office |location=London |pages=5–9 }}</ref>

* Fructose, or fruit sugar, occurs naturally in fruits, some root vegetables, cane sugar and honey and is the sweetest of the sugars. It is one of the components of sucrose or table sugar. It is used as a high-fructose syrup, which is manufactured from hydrolysed corn starch that has been processed to yield corn syrup, with enzymes then added to convert part of the glucose into fructose.<ref>{{cite book |first=Norman |last=Kretchmer |author2=Claire B. Hollenbeck |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vFUYelP6ht0C |title=Sugars and Sweeteners |year=1991 |isbn=978-0-8493-8835-4 |publisher=CRC Press, Inc.}}</ref> * Galactose generally does not occur in the free state but is a constituent with glucose of the disaccharide lactose or milk sugar. It is less sweet than glucose. It is a component of the antigens found on the surface of red blood cells that determine blood groups.<ref name="Raven and Johnson">{{cite book |title=Understanding Biology |edition=3rd |first=Peter H. |last=Raven |author2=George B. Johnson|page=203 |isbn=978-0-697-22213-8 |year=1995 |editor=Carol J. Mills |publisher=WM C. Brown}}</ref> * Glucose occurs naturally in fruits and plant juices and is the primary product of photosynthesis. Starch is converted into glucose during digestion, and glucose is the form of sugar that is transported around the bodies of animals in the bloodstream. Although in principle there are two enantiomers of glucose (mirror images one of the other), naturally occurring glucose is D-glucose. This is also called ''dextrose'', or ''grape sugar'' because drying grape juice produces crystals of dextrose that can be sieved from the other components.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Teller|first=George L.|date=January 1918|title=Sugars Other Than Cane or Beet|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kynnAAAAMAAJ|journal=The American Food Journal|pages=23–24|access-date=19 March 2023|archive-date=15 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230415074234/https://books.google.com/books?id=kynnAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref>

The acyclic monosaccharides (and disaccharides) contain either aldehyde groups or ketone groups. These carbon-oxygen double bonds (C=O) are the reactive centres. All saccharides with more than one ring in their structure result from two or more monosaccharides joined by glycosidic bonds with the resultant loss of a molecule of water ({{chem|H|2|O}}) per bond.<ref name=Pigman>{{cite book |last=Pigman |first=Ward |author2=Horton, D. |title=The Carbohydrates: Chemistry and Biochemistry Vol 1A |editor=Pigman and Horton |edition=2nd |year=1972 |publisher=Academic Press |location=San Diego |isbn=978-0-12-556352-9 |pages=1–67}}</ref>

=== Disaccharides === {{main|disaccharide}}

Lactose, maltose and sucrose are disaccharides, also called "compound sugars". They share the formula {{chem2|C12H22O11}}. They are formed by the condensation of two monosaccharide molecules with the expulsion of a molecule of water.<ref name=Manual/>

* Lactose is the naturally occurring sugar found in milk. A molecule of lactose is formed by the combination of a molecule of galactose with a molecule of glucose. It is broken down when consumed into its constituent parts by the enzyme lactase during digestion. Children have this enzyme, but some adults no longer form it and they are unable to digest lactose.<ref>{{britannica|id=327315 |title=Lactase }}</ref> * Maltose is formed during the germination of certain grains, the most notable being barley, which is converted into malt, the source of the sugar's name. A molecule of maltose is formed by the combination of two molecules of glucose. It is less sweet than glucose, fructose or sucrose.<ref name=Manual/> It is formed in the body during the digestion of starch by the enzyme amylase and is itself broken down during digestion by the enzyme maltase.<ref>{{britannica|id=360586 |title=Maltase }}</ref> * Sucrose is found in the stems of sugarcane and roots of sugar beet. It also occurs naturally alongside fructose and glucose in other plants, in particular fruits and some roots such as carrots. The different proportions of sugars found in these foods determines the range of sweetness experienced when eating them.<ref name=Manual/> A molecule of sucrose is formed by the combination of a molecule of glucose with a molecule of fructose. After being eaten, sucrose is split into its constituent parts during digestion by a number of enzymes known as sucrases.<ref>{{britannica|id=571354 |title=Sucrase }}</ref>

===Polysaccharides=== {{main|polysaccharides}}

Longer than disaccharides are oligosaccharides and polysaccharides. Cellulose and chitin are polymers, often crystalline, found in diverse plants and insects, respectively. Cellulose cannot be digested directly by animals. Starch is an amorphous polymer of glucose that is found in many plants and is widely used in the sugar industry.

== Sources == The sugar contents of common fruits and vegetables are presented in Table 1.

{|class="wikitable sortable" |+Table 1. Sugar content of selected common plant foods (g/100g)<ref name="www.nal.usda.gov">Use [https://web.archive.org/web/20190403171801/https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/ link to FoodData Central (USDA)] and then search for the particular food, and click on "SR Legacy Foods".</ref> |- !Food item !Total<br />carbohydrate{{ref|2|A}}<br />including<br />dietary fiber !Total<br />sugars !Free<br />fructose !Free<br />glucose !Sucrose !Fructose/<br />(Fructose+Glucose)<br />ratio{{ref|1|B}} !Sucrose<br />as a % of<br />total sugars |- !''Fruits''||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | Apple|| 13.8|| 10.4|| 5.9|| 2.4|| 2.1|| 0.67|| 20 |- | Apricot|| 11.1|| 9.2|| 0.9|| 2.4|| 5.9|| 0.42|| 64 |- | Banana|| 22.8|| 12.2|| 4.9|| 5.0|| 2.4|| 0.5|| 20 |- | Fig, dried|| 63.9|| 47.9|| 22.9|| 24.8|| 0.9|| 0.48||1.9 |- | Grapes|| 18.1|| 15.5|| 8.1|| 7.2|| 0.2|| 0.53|| 1 |- | Navel orange|| 12.5|| 8.5|| 2.25|| 2.0|| 4.3|| 0.51|| 51 |- | Peach|| 9.5|| 8.4|| 1.5|| 2.0|| 4.8|| 0.47|| 57 |- | Pear|| 15.5|| 9.8|| 6.2|| 2.8|| 0.8|| 0.67|| 8 |- | Pineapple|| 13.1|| 9.9|| 2.1|| 1.7|| 6.0|| 0.52|| 61 |- | Plum|| 11.4|| 9.9|| 3.1|| 5.1|| 1.6|| 0.40|| 16 |- | Strawberry|| 7.68|| 4.89|| 2.441|| 1.99|| 0.47|| 0.55||10 |- !''Vegetables''||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | Beet, red|| 9.6|| 6.8|| 0.1|| 0.1|| 6.5||0.50|| 96 |- | Carrot|| 9.6|| 4.7|| 0.6|| 0.6|| 3.6|| 0.50|| 77 |- | Corn, sweet|| 19.0|| 6.2|| 1.9|| 3.4|| 0.9|| 0.38|| 15 |- | Red pepper, sweet|| 6.0|| 4.2|| 2.3|| 1.9|| 0.0|| 0.55|| 0 |- | Onion, sweet|| 7.6|| 5.0|| 2.0|| 2.3|| 0.7|| 0.47|| 14 |- | Sweet potato||20.1|| 4.2|| 0.7|| 1.0|| 2.5|| 0.47|| 60 |- | Yam|| 27.9|| 0.5|| tr|| tr|| tr|| na|| tr |- | Sugar cane|| || 13–18|| 0.2–1.0|| 0.2–1.0|| 11–16|| 0.50|| high |- | Sugar beet|| || 17–18|| 0.1–0.5|| 0.1–0.5||16–17|| 0.50|| high |} : {{note|2|A}} The carbohydrate figure is calculated in the United States Department of Agriculture database and does not always correspond to the sum of the sugars, the starch, and the dietary fibre.{{why|date=September 2023}} : {{note|1|B}} The fructose to fructose plus glucose ratio is calculated by including the fructose and glucose coming from the sucrose.

== Production == {{see also|List of sugars}}

Due to rising demand, sugar production in general increased some 14% over the period 2009 to 2018.<ref name="usda17">{{cite web |url=https://apps.fas.usda.gov/psdonline/circulars/Sugar.pdf |title=Sugar: World Markets and Trade |publisher=Foreign Agricultural Service, US Department of Agriculture |date=November 2017 |access-date=20 May 2018 |archive-date=23 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181123144029/https://apps.fas.usda.gov/psdonline/circulars/Sugar.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> The largest importers were China, Indonesia, and the United States.<ref name="usda17" />

===Sugar=== In 2022–23 world production of sugar was 186 million tonnes, and in 2023–2024 an estimated 194 million tonnes – a surplus of 5 million tonnes, according to Ragus.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ragus.co.uk/global-sugar-market-report-april-2024 |title=Global sugar market report April 2024 |work=Ragus |last=Eastick |first=Ben |date=4 April 2024 |access-date=15 January 2025}}</ref>

=== Sugarcane === {{Table alignment}} {| class="wikitable floatright col2right" |- ! colspan=2|Sugarcane production – 2022<br /> (millions of tonnes) |- | {{BRA}} || 724.4 |- | {{IND}} || 439.4 |- | {{CHN}} || 103.4 |- | {{THA}} || 92.1 |- | '''World''' || '''1,922.1''' |- |colspan=2 |<small>Source: FAO<ref name="faostat-sc22">{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC|title=Sugar beet production in 2022, Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity/Year (pick lists)|date=2024|publisher=UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT)|access-date=10 June 2024}}</ref></small> |}

Sugar cane accounted for around 21% of the global crop production over the 2000–2021 period. The Americas was the leading region in the production of sugar cane (52% of the world total).<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://openknowledge.fao.org/handle/20.500.14283/cc8166en |title=World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2023 |date=2023 |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization |isbn=978-92-5-138262-2 |language=English |doi=10.4060/cc8166en}}</ref> Global production of sugarcane in 2022 was 1.9&nbsp;billion tonnes, with Brazil producing 38% of the world total and India 23% (table).

Sugarcane is any of several species, or their hybrids, of giant grasses in the genus ''Saccharum'' in the family Poaceae. They have been cultivated in tropical climates in the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia over centuries for the sucrose found in their stems.<ref name="Moxham2002"/> left|thumb|World production of raw sugar, main producers<ref>{{cite book |title=World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2021 |url=https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/cb4477en/|access-date=2021-12-13 |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization |via=www.fao.org |year=2021 |doi=10.4060/cb4477en |isbn=978-92-5-134332-6 |s2cid=240163091 |archive-date=3 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211103083611/https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/cb4477en/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Sugar cane requires a frost-free climate with sufficient rainfall during the growing season to make full use of the plant's substantial growth potential. The crop is harvested mechanically or by hand, chopped into lengths and conveyed rapidly to the processing plant (commonly known as a sugar mill) where it is either milled and the juice extracted with water or extracted by diffusion.<ref name="skil2">{{cite web |title=How Cane Sugar is Made – the Basic Story |url=http://www.sucrose.com/lcane.html |publisher=Sugar Knowledge International |access-date=24 September 2018 |archive-date=22 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180922144828/http://www.sucrose.com/lcane.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The juice is clarified with lime and heated to destroy enzymes. The resulting thin syrup is concentrated in a series of evaporators, after which further water is removed. The resulting supersaturated solution is seeded with sugar crystals, facilitating crystal formation and drying.<ref name=skil2/> Molasses is a by-product of the process and the fibre from the stems, known as bagasse,<ref name=skil2/> is burned to provide energy for the sugar extraction process. The crystals of raw sugar have a sticky brown coating and either can be used as they are, can be bleached by sulfur dioxide, or can be treated in a carbonatation process to produce a whiter product.<ref name=skil2/> About {{convert|2500|L|usgal}} of irrigation water is needed for every {{convert|1|kg|lb|abbr=off|spell=in}} of sugar produced.<ref>{{cite web |first=Kerry |last=Flynn |url=http://www.ibtimes.com/india-drought-2016-may-lead-29-35-drop-sugar-output-2016-17-season-report-2358604 |title=India Drought 2016 May Lead 29–35% Drop In Sugar Output For 2016–17 Season: Report |newspaper=International Business Times |date=23 April 2016 |access-date=27 October 2016 |archive-date=9 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161009123021/http://www.ibtimes.com/india-drought-2016-may-lead-29-35-drop-sugar-output-2016-17-season-report-2358604 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Sugar beet === {{Table alignment}} {| class="wikitable floatright col2right" |- ! colspan=2|Sugar beet production – 2022<br />(millions of tonnes) |- | {{RUS}} || 48.9 |- | {{FRA}} || 31.5 |- | {{USA}} || 29.6 |- | {{DEU}} || 28.2 |- | '''World''' || '''260''' |- |colspan=2 |<small>Source: FAO<ref name="faostat-sc22"/></small> |}

In 2022 global production of sugar beets was 260 million tonnes, led by Russia with 18.8% of the world total (table).

Sugar beet became a major source of sugar in the 19th century when methods for extracting the sugar became available. It is a biennial plant,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gmo-compass.org/eng/safety/environmental_safety/184.sugar_beet.html |title=Biennial beet |publisher=GMO Compass |access-date=26 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202202007/http://www.gmo-compass.org/eng/safety/environmental_safety/184.sugar_beet.html |archive-date=2 February 2014 }}</ref> a cultivated variety of ''Beta vulgaris'' in the family Amaranthaceae, the tuberous root of which contains a high proportion of sucrose. It is cultivated as a root crop in temperate regions with adequate rainfall and requires a fertile soil. The crop is harvested mechanically in the autumn and the crown of leaves and excess soil removed. The roots do not deteriorate rapidly and may be left in the field for some weeks before being transported to the processing plant where the crop is washed and sliced, and the sugar extracted by diffusion.<ref name="skil">{{cite web |url=http://www.sucrose.com/lbeet.html |title=How Beet Sugar is Made |publisher=Sugar Knowledge International |access-date=22 March 2012 |archive-date=21 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120321063949/http://www.sucrose.com/lbeet.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Milk of lime is added to the raw juice with calcium carbonate. After water is evaporated by boiling the syrup under a vacuum, the syrup is cooled and seeded with sugar crystals. The white sugar that crystallises can be separated in a centrifuge and dried, requiring no further refining.<ref name=skil/>

=== Refining ===

{{See also|Sugar refinery|Non-centrifugal cane sugar|White sugar}}

Refined sugar is made from raw sugar that has undergone a refining process to remove the molasses.<ref name="agrifinasi">{{cite web |title=Tantangan Menghadapi Ketergantungan Impor Gula Rafinasi |publisher=Asosiasi Gula Rafinasi Indonesia |url=http://www.agrirafinasi.org/tentang-kami/swasembada |access-date=9 April 2014 |language=id |archive-date=13 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140413155338/http://www.agrirafinasi.org/tentang-kami/swasembada }}</ref><ref name="kompas">{{cite web |title=Rafinasi Vs Gula Kristal Putih |publisher=Kompas Gramedia |url=http://bisniskeuangan.kompas.com/read/2011/07/29/02442655/Rafinasi.Vs.Gula.Kristal.Putih |access-date=9 April 2014 |language=id |date=29 July 2011 |archive-date=13 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140413155126/http://bisniskeuangan.kompas.com/read/2011/07/29/02442655/Rafinasi.Vs.Gula.Kristal.Putih |url-status=live }}</ref> Raw sugar is sucrose which is extracted from sugarcane or sugar beet. While raw sugar can be consumed, the refining process removes unwanted tastes and results in refined sugar or white sugar.<ref name="western">{{cite web |title=Refining and Processing Sugar |publisher=The Sugar Association |access-date=16 April 2014 |url=http://westernsugar.com/pdf/Refining%20and%20Processing%20Sugar.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150221031555/http://westernsugar.com/pdf/Refining%20and%20Processing%20Sugar.pdf |archive-date=21 February 2015 }}</ref><ref name="tebu">{{cite book |title=Ketika Tebu Mulai Berbunga |chapter=Bagaimana Gula Dimurnikan – Proses Dasar |editor1=Pakpahan, Agus |editor2=Supriono, Agus |year=2005 |publisher=Sugar Observer |location=Bogor |isbn=978-979-99311-0-8 |language=id}}</ref>

The sugar may be transported in bulk to the country where it will be used and the refining process often takes place there. The first stage is known as affination and involves immersing the sugar crystals in a concentrated syrup that softens and removes the sticky brown coating without dissolving them. The crystals are then separated from the liquor and dissolved in water. The resulting syrup is treated either by a carbonatation or by a phosphatation process. Both involve the precipitation of a fine solid in the syrup and when this is filtered out, many of the impurities are removed at the same time. Removal of colour is achieved by using either a granular activated carbon or an ion-exchange resin. The sugar syrup is concentrated by boiling and then cooled and seeded with sugar crystals, causing the sugar to crystallise out. The liquor is spun off in a centrifuge and the white crystals are dried in hot air and ready to be packaged or used. The surplus liquor is made into refiners' molasses.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sucrose.com/lref.html |title=How Sugar is Refined |publisher=SKIL |access-date=22 March 2012 |archive-date=22 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120322085837/http://www.sucrose.com/lref.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

The International Commission for Uniform Methods of Sugar Analysis sets standards for the measurement of the purity of refined sugar, known as ICUMSA numbers; lower numbers indicate a higher level of purity in the refined sugar.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Deulgaonkar |first=Atul |date= 12–25 March 2005 |title=A case for reform |journal=Frontline |volume=22 |issue=8 |url=http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl2208/stories/20050422000804500.htm |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728040727/http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl2208/stories/20050422000804500.htm |archive-date=28 July 2011 }}</ref>

Refined sugar is widely used for industrial needs for higher quality. Refined sugar is purer (ICUMSA below 300) than raw sugar (ICUMSA over 1,500).<ref name="tebu 2">{{cite book |title=Ketika Tebu Mulai Berbunga |chapter=Industri Rafinasi Kunci Pembuka Restrukturisasi Industri Gula Indonesia |editor1=Pakpahan, Agus |editor2=Supriono, Agus |year=2005 |publisher=Sugar Observer |location=Bogor |isbn=978-979-99311-0-8 |pages=70–72 |language=id}}</ref> The level of purity associated with the colours of sugar, expressed by standard number ICUMSA, the smaller ICUMSA numbers indicate the higher purity of sugar.<ref name="tebu 2"/>

== Forms and uses ==

=== Crystal size ===

{{See also|Rock candy|Sucrose|Powdered sugar}}

{{multiple image | align = right | total_width = 400 | image1 = Misri.JPG | caption1 = Misri crystals | image2 = Rock-Candy-Closeup.jpg | caption2 = Rock candy coloured with green dye }}

* Coarse-grain sugar, also known as sanding sugar, composed of reflective crystals with grain size of about 1 to 3&nbsp;mm, similar to kitchen salt. Used atop baked products and candies, it will not dissolve when subjected to heat and moisture.<ref name=TSA>{{cite web |url=https://www.sugar.org/sugar/types/ |title=Sugar types |publisher=The sugar association |access-date=23 September 2019 |archive-date=6 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200106232829/https://www.sugar.org/sugar/types/ |url-status=live }}</ref> * Granulated sugar (about 0.6&nbsp;mm crystals), also known as table sugar or regular sugar, is used at the table, to sprinkle on foods and to sweeten hot drinks (coffee and tea), and in home baking to add sweetness and texture to baked products (cookies and cakes) and desserts (pudding and ice cream). It is also used as a preservative to prevent micro-organisms from growing and perishable food from spoiling, as in candied fruits, jams, and marmalades.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sugarnutrition.org.uk/types-and-uses.aspx |title=Types and uses |publisher=Sugar Nutrition UK |access-date=23 March 2012 |archive-date=5 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120805014855/http://www.sugarnutrition.org.uk/types-and-uses.aspx |url-status=dead }}</ref> * Milled sugars such as powdered sugar (icing sugar) are ground to a fine powder. They are used for dusting foods and in baking and confectionery.<ref name=BS>{{cite web |url=http://www.britishsugar.co.uk/Journey-of-Sugar.aspx |title=The journey of sugar |publisher=British Sugar |access-date=23 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110326144355/http://www.britishsugar.co.uk/Journey-of-Sugar.aspx |archive-date=26 March 2011 }}</ref><ref name=TSA /> * Screened sugars such as caster sugar are crystalline products separated according to the size of the grains. They are used for decorative table sugars, for blending in dry mixes and in baking and confectionery.<ref name=BS/>

===Densities=== The densities of culinary sugars varies owing to differences in particle size and inclusion of moisture:<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.powderandbulk.com/resources/bulk_density/material_bulk_density_chart_s.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021027094329/http://www.powderandbulk.com/resources/bulk_density/material_bulk_density_chart_s.htm |archive-date=27 October 2002 |title=Engineering Resources – Bulk Density Chart |work=Powder and Bulk}}</ref> * Beet sugar 0.80 g/mL * Dextrose sugar 0.62 g/mL ( = 620&nbsp;kg/m^3) * Granulated sugar 0.70 g/mL * Powdered sugar 0.56 g/mL

=== Shapes === thumb|Sugar cubes

* Cube sugar (sometimes called sugar lumps) are white or brown granulated sugars lightly steamed and pressed together in block shape. They are used to sweeten drinks.<ref name=BS/> * Sugarloaf was the usual cone-form in which refined sugar was produced and sold until the late 19th century.<ref>{{cite book |last=David |first=Elizabeth |author-link=Elizabeth David |title=English Bread and Yeast Cookery |publisher=Penguin Books |year=1977 |page=139}}</ref>

===Brown sugars===

{{Main|Brown sugar}}

thumb|Brown sugar examples: Muscovado (top), dark brown (left), light brown (right)

Brown sugars are granulated sugars, either containing residual molasses, or with the grains deliberately coated with molasses to produce a light- or dark-coloured sugar such as muscovado and turbinado. They are used in baked goods, confectionery, and toffees.<ref name=BS/> Their darkness is due to the amount of molasses they contain. They may be classified based on their darkness or country of origin.<ref name=TSA />

=== Liquid sugars ===

[[File:Runny hunny.jpg|thumb|upright|A jar of honey with a dipper and a biscuit ]] *Glucose syrup and corn syrup are widely used in the manufacture of foodstuffs. They manufactured from starch by enzymatic hydrolysis.<ref>{{Ullmann |author=Schenck, Fred W. |title=Glucose and Glucose-Containing Syrups |doi=10.1002/14356007.a12_457.pub2 }}</ref> For example, corn syrup, which is produced commercially by breaking down maize starch, is one common source of purified dextrose.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Code of Federal Regulations Title 21 |url=https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=184.1857 |access-date=12 September 2020 |website=AccessData, US Food and Drug Administration |archive-date=6 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200906163303/https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=184.1857}}</ref> Such syrups are use in producing beverages, hard candy, ice cream, and jams.<ref name=BS/> * Inverted sugar syrup, commonly known as invert syrup or invert sugar, is a mixture of two simple sugars – glucose and fructose – that is made by heating granulated sugar in water. It is used in breads, cakes and beverages for adjusting sweetness, aiding moisture retention and avoiding crystallisation of sugars.<ref name=BS/> * Molasses and treacle are obtained by removing sugar from sugarcane or sugar beet juice, as a byproduct of sugar production. They may be blended with the above-mentioned syrups to enhance sweetness and used in a range of baked goods and confectionery including toffees and licorice.<ref name=BS/> * In winemaking, fruit sugars are converted into alcohol by a fermentation process. If the must formed by pressing the fruit has a low sugar content, additional sugar may be added to raise the alcohol content of the wine in a process called chaptalisation. In the production of sweet wines, fermentation may be halted before it has run its full course, leaving behind some residual sugar that gives the wine its sweet taste.<ref name="Oxford pg 665-666">{{cite book |title=The Oxford Companion to Wine |edition=3rd |last=Robinson |first=Jancis |year=2006 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-860990-2 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00janc/page/665 665–66] |url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00janc/page/665 }}</ref>

===Burnt sugars and caramels=== Heating sugar to near 200 °C for several minutes yields a product called burnt sugar. Often additives are used to modify the resulting caramels, e.g. alkali or sulfites. Several volatile products evolve in the heating process including butanone, several furans (2-Acetylfuran, furanone, hydroxymethyl furfural), and levoglucosan and more.<ref name=UllmannSugar>{{cite book |last1=Schiweck |first1=Hubert |last2=Clarke |first2=Margaret |last3=Pollach |first3=Günter |title=Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry |chapter=Sugar |date=2007 |doi=10.1002/14356007.a25_345.pub2 |isbn=978-3-527-30385-4 }}</ref>

Because sugars burn easily when exposed to flame, the handling of sugar powders risks dust explosion.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vmsoDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT120|title=The Science of Sugar Confectionery|last=Edwards|first=William P.|date=9 November 2015|publisher=Royal Society of Chemistry|isbn=978-1-78262-609-1|page=120|language=en}}</ref> The 2008 Georgia Imperial sugar refinery explosion, which killed 14 people and injured 36, and destroyed most of the refinery, was caused by the ignition of sugar dust.<ref>{{cite news|title=CSB Releases New Safety Video, "Inferno: Dust Explosion at Imperial Sugar"|date=7 October 2009|work=U.S. Chemical Safety and Hazard Investigation Board|location=Washington, D.C.|access-date=17 May 2021|url=https://www.csb.gov/csb-releases-new-safety-video-inferno-dust-explosion-at-imperial-sugar/|archive-date=24 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200424011424/https://www.csb.gov/csb-releases-new-safety-video-inferno-dust-explosion-at-imperial-sugar/|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Other sweeteners ===

{{see also|Saccharin}}

* Low-calorie sweeteners are often made of maltodextrin with added sweeteners. Maltodextrin is an easily digestible synthetic polysaccharide consisting of short chains of three or more glucose molecules and is made by the partial hydrolysis of starch.<ref>{{cite journal|pmc=4940893|year=2015|last1=Hofman|first1=D. L|title=Nutrition, Health, and Regulatory Aspects of Digestible Maltodextrins|journal=Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition|volume=56|issue=12|pages=2091–2100|last2=Van Buul|first2=V. J|last3=Brouns|first3=F. J|pmid=25674937|doi=10.1080/10408398.2014.940415}}</ref> Strictly, maltodextrin is not classified as sugar as it contains more than two glucose molecules, although its structure is similar to maltose, a molecule composed of two joined glucose molecules. * Polyols are sugar alcohols and are used in chewing gums where a sweet flavour is required that lasts for a prolonged time in the mouth.<ref name=Union1990>{{cite web |title=Council Directive on nutrition labelling for foodstuffs |url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CONSLEG:1990L0496:20081211:EN:PDF |year=1990 |author=European Parliament and Council |work=Council Directive of 24 September 1990 on nutrition labelling for foodstuffs |page=4 |access-date=28 September 2011 |archive-date=3 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111003093749/http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CONSLEG:1990L0496:20081211:EN:PDF |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Consumption == Worldwide sugar provides 10% of the daily calories (based on a 2000 kcal diet).<ref>{{cite web |title=Food Balance Sheets |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |year=2007 |url=http://faostat.fao.org/site/368/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=368#ancor |access-date=28 March 2012 |archive-date=9 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161009115932/http://faostat.fao.org/site/368/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=368#ancor |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1750 the average Briton got 72 calories a day from sugar. In 1913 this had risen to 395. In 2015, sugar still provided around 14% of the calories in British diets.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Otter |first1=Chris |title=Diet for a large planet |date=2020 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=USA |isbn=978-0-226-69710-9 |page=22 }}</ref> According to one source, ''per capita'' consumption of sugar in 2016 was highest in the United States, followed by Germany and the Netherlands.<ref>{{cite web|author1=Amber Pariona|title=Top Sugar Consuming Nations In The World|url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/top-sugar-consuming-nations-in-the-world.html|publisher=World Atlas|access-date=20 May 2018|date=25 April 2017|archive-date=22 June 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220622135129/https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/top-sugar-consuming-nations-in-the-world.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Nutrition and flavour === {{nutritionalvalue | name = Sugar (sucrose), brown (with molasses) | kJ = 1576 | protein = 0 g | fat = 0 g | carbs = 97.33 g | sugars = 96.21 g | fiber = 0 g | thiamin_mg = 0.008 | riboflavin_mg = 0.007 | niacin_mg = 0.082 | folate_ug = 1 | vitB6_mg = 0.026 | calcium_mg = 85 | iron_mg = 1.91 | magnesium_mg = 29 | phosphorus_mg = 22 | potassium_mg = 133 | sodium_mg = 39 | zinc_mg = 0.18 | water = 1.77 g | note = [https://web.archive.org/web/20130328062217/http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/6318 Full link to USDA database entry] }} {{nutritionalvalue | name = Sugar (sucrose), granulated | kJ = 1619 | protein = 0 g | fat = 0 g | carbs = 99.98 g | sugars = 99.91 g | fiber = 0 g | riboflavin_mg = 0.019 | calcium_mg = 1 | iron_mg = 0.01 | potassium_mg = 2 | water = 0.03 g | right = | note = [https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/food-details/746784/nutrients Full link to USDA database entry] }}

Brown and white granulated sugar are 97% to nearly 100% carbohydrates, respectively, with less than 2% water, and no dietary fibre, protein or fat (table).<ref>{{cite web |title=Sugars, granulated (sucrose) in 4 grams (from pick list) |url=http://nutritiondata.self.com/facts/sweets/5592/2 |publisher=Conde Nast for the USDA National Nutrient Database, version SR-21 |access-date=13 May 2017 |date=2014 |archive-date=7 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150307044435/http://nutritiondata.self.com/facts/sweets/5592/2 |url-status=live }}</ref> Because brown sugar contains 5–10% molasses reintroduced during processing, its value to some consumers is a richer flavour than white sugar.<ref>{{cite news |author1=O'Connor, Anahad |title=The Claim: Brown Sugar Is Healthier Than White Sugar |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/06/12/health/nutrition/12real.html |newspaper=The New York Times |access-date=13 May 2017 |date=12 June 2007 |archive-date=13 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170513094025/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/06/12/health/nutrition/12real.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Health effects == The World Health Organization and other clinical associations recommend that reducing the consumption of ''free sugar'' (sugar sources added during manufacturing) to less than 10% of total energy needs can help to lower disease risk.<ref name=huang/><ref name=who-nlm/> This amount of sugar consumption is equivalent to about {{cvt|50|g}} or 12 teaspoons of added sugar per day.<ref name="diab-can">{{cite web |title=Sugar and diabetes |url=https://www.diabetes.ca/advocacy---policies/our-policy-positions/sugar---diabetes |publisher=Diabetes Canada |access-date=3 October 2025 |date=2025}}</ref> {{As of|2025}}, the American Heart Association recommends that free sugar intake should be limited to 6% of total daily energy needs, or {{cvt|36|g}} (9 teaspoons) for adult males, and {{cvt|25|g}} (6 teaspoons) for women.<ref name="aha-add">{{cite web |title=Added sugars |url=https://www.heart.org/en/healthy-living/healthy-eating/eat-smart/sugar/added-sugars |publisher=American Heart Association |access-date=3 October 2025 |date=2025}}</ref> In many countries, the source and amount of added sugars can be viewed among ingredients on the labels of packaged foods.<ref name=aha-add/> Added sugars provide no nutritional benefit, but are a source of excess calories that can lead to overweight and increased disease risk.<ref name=huang/><ref name=who-nlm/><ref name=diab-can/><ref name=aha-add/>

=== Obesity and metabolic syndrome === {{main|Diet and obesity#Sugar consumption}}

A 2003 technical report by the World Health Organization provided evidence that high intake of sugary drinks (including fruit juice) increases the risk of obesity by adding to overall energy intake.<ref name="WHO2003">{{cite book |title=Diet, nutrition and the prevention of chronic diseases: report of a joint WHO |date=2003 |publisher=World Health Organization |isbn=978-92-4-120916-8 |hdl=10665/42665 |hdl-access=free }}{{pn|date=April 2026}}</ref> By itself, sugar is not a factor causing obesity and metabolic syndrome, but rather its excessive consumption adds to caloric burden, which meta-analyses showed could increase the risk of developing type 2 diabetes and metabolic syndrome in adults and children.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Sugar-Sweetened Beverages and Risk of Metabolic Syndrome and Type 2 Diabetes: A meta-analysis |doi=10.2337/dc10-1079 |year=2010 |last1=Malik |first1=V. S. |last2=Popkin |first2=B. M. |last3=Bray |first3=G. A. |last4=Despres |first4=J.-P. |last5=Willett |first5=W. C. |last6=Hu |first6=F. B. |journal=Diabetes Care |volume=33 |issue=11 |pages=2477–83 |pmid=20693348 |pmc=2963518}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Malik |first1=Vasanti S. |last2=Pan |first2=An |last3=Willett |first3=Walter C. |last4=Hu |first4=Frank B. |date=October 2013 |title=Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis |journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition |language=en |volume=98 |issue=4 |pages=1084–1102 |doi=10.3945/ajcn.113.058362 |pmc=3778861 |pmid=23966427}}</ref>

=== Cancer === Sugar consumption does not directly cause cancer.<ref name="Australia">{{Cite web|date=2021|title=Does sugar cause cancer?|url=https://www.cancer.org.au/iheard/does-sugar-cause-cancer|website=Cancer Council Australia|language=en-GB|archive-date=28 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328003849/https://www.cancer.org.au/iheard/does-sugar-cause-cancer|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2021|title=Does Sugar Cause Cancer?|url=https://www.cancer.net/blog/2021-11/does-sugar-cause-cancer|website=American Society of Clinical Oncology|language=en-GB|archive-date=1 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231001021316/https://www.cancer.net/blog/2021-11/does-sugar-cause-cancer}}</ref><ref name="CRUK">{{Cite web|date=2023|title=Sugar and cancer – what you need to know|url=https://news.cancerresearchuk.org/2023/08/16/sugar-and-cancer-what-you-need-to-know/|website=Cancer Research UK|language=en-GB|archive-date=6 January 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240106023109/https://news.cancerresearchuk.org/2023/08/16/sugar-and-cancer-what-you-need-to-know/|url-status=live}}</ref> Cancer Council Australia have stated that "there is no evidence that consuming sugar makes cancer cells grow faster or cause cancer".<ref name="Australia"/> There is an indirect relationship between sugar consumption and obesity-related cancers through increased risk of excess body weight.<ref name="CRUK"/><ref name="Australia"/><ref>{{Cite web|date=2016|title=The Sugar and Cancer Connection|url=https://www.aicr.org/news/the-sugar-cancer-connection/|website=American Institute for Cancer Research|language=en-GB|archive-date=20 January 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240120123107/https://www.aicr.org/news/the-sugar-cancer-connection/|url-status=live}}</ref>

The American Institute for Cancer Research and World Cancer Research Fund recommend that people should limit sugar consumption.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2015|title=Curbing global sugar consumption|url=https://www.wcrf.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/Curbing-global-sugar-consumption.pdf|website=World Cancer Research Fund International|language=en-GB|archive-date=29 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329020750/https://www.wcrf.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/Curbing-global-sugar-consumption.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|vauthors= Clinton SK, Giovannucci EL, Hursting SD|year=2020|title=The World Cancer Research Fund/American Institute for Cancer Research Third Expert Report on Diet, Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Cancer: Impact and Future Directions|journal=The Journal of Nutrition|volume=150|issue=4|pages=663–671|doi=10.1093/jn/nxz268|pmid=31758189|pmc=7317613}}</ref>

=== Cognition === Despite some studies suggesting that sugar consumption causes hyperactivity, the quality of evidence is low<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Del-Ponte |first1=Bianca |last2=Quinte |first2=Gabriela Callo |last3=Cruz |first3=Suélen |last4=Grellert |first4=Merlen |last5=Santos |first5=Iná S. |title=Dietary patterns and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): A systematic review and meta-analysis |journal=Journal of Affective Disorders |date=June 2019 |volume=252 |pages=160–173 |doi=10.1016/j.jad.2019.04.061 |pmid=30986731 |hdl=10923/18896 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> and it is generally accepted within the scientific community that the notion of children's "sugar rush" is a myth.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mantantzis |first1=Konstantinos |last2=Schlaghecken |first2=Friederike |last3=Sünram-Lea |first3=Sandra I. |last4=Maylor |first4=Elizabeth A. |title=Sugar rush or sugar crash? A meta-analysis of carbohydrate effects on mood |journal=Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews |date=June 2019 |volume=101 |pages=45–67 |doi=10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.03.016 |pmid=30951762 |url=https://eprints.lancs.ac.uk/id/eprint/134426/1/NeuroBioRev_paper_final_accepted_version_in_press_.pdf }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wolraich |first1=Mark L. |title=The Effect of Sugar on Behavior or Cognition in Children: A Meta-analysis |journal=JAMA |date=22 November 1995 |volume=274 |issue=20 |pages=1617–1621 |doi=10.1001/jama.1995.03530200053037 |pmid=7474248 }}</ref> A 2019 meta-analysis found that sugar consumption does not improve mood, but can lower alertness and increase fatigue within an hour of consumption.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mantantzis |first1=Konstantinos |last2=Schlaghecken |first2=Friederike |last3=Sünram-Lea |first3=Sandra I. |last4=Maylor |first4=Elizabeth A. |title=Sugar rush or sugar crash? A meta-analysis of carbohydrate effects on mood |journal=Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews |date=June 2019 |volume=101 |pages=45–67 |doi=10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.03.016 |pmid=30951762 |url=https://eprints.lancs.ac.uk/id/eprint/134426/1/NeuroBioRev_paper_final_accepted_version_in_press_.pdf }}</ref> One review of low-quality studies of children consuming high amounts of energy drinks showed association with higher rates of unhealthy behaviours, including smoking and excessive alcohol use, and with hyperactivity and insomnia, although such effects could not be specifically attributed to sugar over other components of those drinks such as caffeine.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Visram |first1=Shelina |last2=Cheetham |first2=Mandy |last3=Riby |first3=Deborah M |last4=Crossley |first4=Stephen J |last5=Lake |first5=Amelia A |title=Consumption of energy drinks by children and young people: a rapid review examining evidence of physical effects and consumer attitudes |journal=BMJ Open |date=October 2016 |volume=6 |issue=10 |article-number=e010380 |doi=10.1136/bmjopen-2015-010380 |pmid=27855083 |pmc=5073652 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Tooth decay ===

The WHO, Action on Sugar and the Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition (SACN) state dental caries, also known as tooth decay/cavities, "can be prevented by avoiding dietary free sugars".<ref name=who-nlm/><ref name="WHO 2017">{{Cite web|date=2017|title=Sugars and dental caries|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/sugars-and-dental-caries|website=World Health Organization|language=en-GB|archive-date=11 August 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240811044111/https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/sugars-and-dental-caries|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2019|title=Sugars and tooth decay|url=https://www.actiononsugar.org/sugar-and-health/sugars-and-tooth-decay/|website=Action on Sugar|language=en-GB|archive-date=24 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240724031923/https://www.actiononsugar.org/sugar-and-health/sugars-and-tooth-decay/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2015|title=SACN Carbohydrates and Health Report|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/sacn-carbohydrates-and-health-report|website=Public Health England|language=en-GB|archive-date=21 August 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240821161928/https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/sacn-carbohydrates-and-health-report|url-status=live}}</ref>

A review of human studies showed that the incidence of caries is lower when sugar intake is less than 10% of total energy consumed.<ref>{{cite journal|pmc=3872848|year=2014|last1=Moynihan|first1=P. J|title=Effect on Caries of Restricting Sugars Intake: Systematic Review to Inform WHO Guidelines|journal=Journal of Dental Research|volume=93|issue=1|pages=8–18|last2=Kelly|first2=S. A|pmid=24323509|doi=10.1177/0022034513508954}}</ref> Sugar-sweetened beverage consumption is associated with an increased risk of tooth decay.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Valenzuela MJ, Waterhouse B, Aggarwal VR, Bloor K, Doran T|year=2021|title=Effect of sugar-sweetened beverages on oral health: a systematic review and meta-analysis|journal=Eur J Public Health|url=|volume=31|issue=1|pages=122–129|doi=10.1093/eurpub/ckaa147|pmid=32830237}}</ref>

=== Nutritional displacement ===

The "empty calories" argument states that a diet high in added (or 'free') sugars will reduce consumption of foods that contain essential nutrients.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Marriott BP, Olsho L, Hadden L, Connor P |title=Intake of added sugars and selected nutrients in the United States, National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2003–2006 |journal=Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr |volume=50 |issue=3 |pages=228–58 |year=2010 |pmid=20301013 |doi=10.1080/10408391003626223 }}</ref> This nutrient displacement occurs if sugar makes up more than 25% of daily energy intake,<ref name="dietary_reference">{{cite book |title=Dietary reference intakes for energy, carbohydrate, fiber, fat, fatty acids, cholesterol, protein, and amino acids |author1=Panel on Macronutrients |author2=Panel on the Definition of Dietary Fiber |author3=Subcommittee on Upper Reference Levels of Nutrients |author4=Subcommittee on Interpretation and Uses of Dietary Reference Intakes |author5=the Standing Committee on the Scientific Evaluation of Dietary Reference Intakes |author6=Food and Nutrition Board |author7=Institute of Medicine of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering and Medicine |author8-link=National Research Council (United States) |author8=National Research Council |date=2005 |publisher=National Academies Press |location=Washington, DC |isbn=978-0-309-08525-0 |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780309085250 |access-date=4 December 2018 |quote=Although there were insufficient data to set a UL [Tolerable Upper Intake Levels] for added sugars, a maximal intake level of 25 percent or less of energy is suggested to prevent the displacement of foods that are major sources of essential micronutrients }}</ref> a proportion associated with poor diet quality and risk of obesity.<ref name=who-nlm/> Displacement may occur at lower levels of consumption.<ref name="dietary_reference"/>

=== Recommended dietary intake ===

The WHO recommends that both adults and children reduce the intake of free sugars to less than 10% of total energy intake.<ref name=who-nlm/> "Free sugars" include monosaccharides and disaccharides added to foods, and sugars found in fruit juice and concentrates, as well as in honey and syrups.<ref name=who-nlm/><ref name=aha-add/>

On 20 May 2016, the United States Food and Drug Administration announced changes to the Nutrition Facts panel displayed on all foods, to be effective by July 2018. New to the panel is a requirement to list "added sugars" by weight and as a percentage of Daily Value (DV). For vitamins and minerals, the intent of DVs is to indicate how much should be consumed. For added sugars, the guidance is that 100% DV should not be exceeded. 100% DV is defined as 50 grams. For a person consuming 2000 calories a day, 50 grams is equal to 200 calories and thus 10% of total calories – the same guidance as the WHO.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fda.gov/food/guidanceregulation/guidancedocumentsregulatoryinformation/labelingnutrition/ucm385663.htm|title=Labeling & Nutrition – Changes to the Nutrition Facts Label|first=Center for Food Safety and Applied|last=Nutrition|website=www.fda.gov|date=22 February 2021|access-date=10 March 2017|archive-date=1 November 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141101031958/https://www.fda.gov/Food/GuidanceRegulation/GuidanceDocumentsRegulatoryInformation/LabelingNutrition/ucm385663.htm}}</ref> To put this in context, most {{convert|12|USfloz||0|adj=on}} cans of soda contain 39 grams of sugar. In the United States, a government survey on food consumption in 2013–14 reported that, for men and women aged 20 and older, the average total sugar intakes – naturally occurring in foods and added – were, respectively, 125 and 99 grams per day.<ref>[https://www.ars.usda.gov/ARSUserFiles/80400530/pdf/1314/Table_1_NIN_GEN_13.pdf What We Eat In America, NHANES 2013–2014] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170224042515/https://www.ars.usda.gov/ARSUserFiles/80400530/pdf/1314/Table_1_NIN_GEN_13.pdf |date=24 February 2017 }}.</ref> The American Heart Association recommends even lower daily consumption of added sugars: 36 grams for men and 25 grams for women.<ref name=aha-add/>

== Society and culture ==

Manufacturers of sugary products, such as soft drinks and candy, and the Sugar Research Foundation have been accused of trying to influence consumers and medical associations in the 1960s and 1970s by creating doubt about the potential health hazards of sucrose overconsumption, while promoting saturated fat as the main dietary risk factor in cardiovascular diseases.<ref name="jama2016"/> In 2016, the criticism led to recommendations that diet policymakers emphasise the need for high-quality research that accounts for multiple biomarkers on development of cardiovascular diseases.<ref name="jama2016">{{cite journal|pmc=5099084|year=2016|vauthors=Kearns CE, Schmidt LA, Glantz SA |title=Sugar Industry and Coronary Heart Disease Research: A Historical Analysis of Internal Industry Documents|journal=JAMA Internal Medicine|volume=176|issue=11|pages=1680–85|doi=10.1001/jamainternmed.2016.5394 |pmid=27617709}}</ref>

Originally, no sugar was white; the anthropologist Sidney Mintz writes that white likely became understood as the ideal after groups who associated the colour white with purity transferred their value to sugar.<ref name="Mintz-2015">{{Cite book |last=Mintz |first=Sidney |author-link=Sidney Mintz |title=The Oxford Companion to Sugar and Sweets |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-19-931339-6 |editor-last=Goldstein |editor-first=Darra |editor-link=Darra Goldstein |location= |chapter=Foreword}}</ref> In India, sugar frequently appears in religious observances. For ritual purity, such sugar cannot be white.<ref name="Mintz-2015" />

== Gallery ==

<gallery mode=packed> File:Sa brownsugar.jpg|Brown sugar crystals File:Vollrohrzucker Dattelpalme.JPG|Whole date sugar File:Vollrohrzucker grau.JPG|Whole cane sugar (grey), vacuum-dried File:Vollrohrzucker braun.JPG|Whole cane sugar (brown), vacuum-dried File:Raw sugar closeup.jpg|alt=raw sugar closeup|Raw crystals of unrefined, unbleached sugar |60px </gallery>

== See also == {{div col|colwidth=30em}} * {{Annotated link|Barley sugar}} * {{Annotated link|Blood sugar level}} * {{Annotated link|Caramelization}} * {{Annotated link|Glycemic load}} * {{Annotated link|Glycome}} * {{Annotated link|Insulin}} * {{Annotated link|List of unrefined sweeteners}} {{div col end}}

== References == {{Reflist}}

==Sources== {{Free-content attribution | title = World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2023 | author = FAO | publisher = FAO | documentURL = https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en?details=cc8166en | license statement URL = https://commons.wikimedia.org/whttps://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:World_Food_and_Agriculture_-_Statistical_Yearbook_2023.pdf | license = CC BY-SA IGO 3.0 }}

== Further reading ==

* {{Cite book |author1=Barrett, Duncan |author2=Calvi, Nuala |title=The Sugar Girls |publisher=Collins |date=2012 |isbn=978-0-00-744847-0|title-link=The Sugar Girls }} * {{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Sugar}} * Frankopan, Peter, ''The Silk Roads: A New History of the World'', 2016, Bloomsbury, {{ISBN|9781408839997}} * {{cite web |author=Saulo, Aurora A. |date=March 2005 |title=Sugars and Sweeteners in Foods |url=http://www.ctahr.hawaii.edu/oc/freepubs/pdf/FST-16.pdf |publisher=College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources}} * Strong, Roy (2002), ''Feast: A History of Grand Eating'', Jonathan Cape, {{ISBN|0224061380}}

== External links ==

{{Commons category|Sugars}} {{wiktionary}} * [https://www.nhs.uk/live-well/eat-well/how-does-sugar-in-our-diet-affect-our-health/ Sugar] at the National Health Service

{{Sugar}} {{Carbohydrates}} {{Commodity}} {{Food science}} {{Orexigenics}} {{Authority control}}

Category:Sugar Category:Carbohydrates Category:Excipients Category:Indian inventions