Storm surge

{{short description|Rise of water associated with a low-pressure weather system}} thumb|Storm surge of the North Sea on February 9, 2014, as seen on the South Beach (Südstrand) in Wilhelmshaven, Germany. {{other uses}} {{Tropicalcyclone}} {{Weather}} A '''storm surge''' is a coastal flood or tsunami-like phenomenon of rising water commonly associated with low-pressure weather systems, such as tropical cyclones. Alternatively, it may be known as a '''storm flood''', '''tidal surge''', or '''storm tide'''. It is measured as the rise in water level above the normal tidal level, and does not include waves.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|title=Storm Surge Overview|url=https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/surge/|access-date=2023-11-08|website=nhc.noaa.gov|archive-date=2011-05-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110525234621/https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/surge/|url-status=live}}</ref>

The main meteorological factor contributing to a storm surge is high-speed wind pushing water towards the coast over a long fetch.<ref>Yin, Jianjun, et al. "Response of Storm-Related Extreme Sea Level along the US Atlantic Coast to Combined Weather and Climate Forcing". Journal of Climate 33.9 (2020): 3745–3769.</ref> Other factors affecting storm surge severity include the shallowness and orientation of the water body in the storm path, the timing of tides, and the atmospheric pressure drop due to the storm.

As extreme weather becomes more intense and the sea level rises due to climate change, storm surges are expected to cause more risk to coastal populations.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last1=Collins|first1=M.|title=IPCC SROCC|last2=Sutherland|first2=M.|last3=Bouwer|first3=L.|last4=Cheong|first4=S.-M.|last5=Frölicher|first5=T.|last6=Jacot Des Combes|first6=H.|last7=Koll Roxy|first7=M.|last8=Losada|first8=I. J.|last9=McInnes|first9=K.|year=2019|pages=589–655|chapter=Chapter 6: Extremes, Abrupt Changes and Managing Risks|display-authors=4|chapter-url=https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/3/2019/11/10_SROCC_Ch06_FINAL.pdf|first10=B.|last10=Ratter|first11=E.|last11=Rivera-Arriaga|first12=R. D.|last12=Susanto|first13=D.|last13=Swingedouw|first14=L.|last14=Tibig|access-date=2021-01-31|archive-date=2019-12-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191220151131/https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/3/2019/11/10_SROCC_Ch06_FINAL.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Communities and governments can adapt by building hard infrastructure, like flood barriers, soft infrastructure, like coastal dunes or mangroves, improving coastal construction practices and building social strategies such as early warning, education and evacuation plans.<ref name=":1"/>

==Mechanics== At least five processes can be involved in altering tide levels during storms.<ref name="Har63" />

===Direct wind effect=== [[File:Baybay Boulevard during Typhoon Kalmaegi (Tino).jpg|left|thumb|Baybay Boulevard having storm surge during Typhoon Kalmaegi (Tino) on November 3, 2025.]] Wind stresses cause a phenomenon referred to as wind setup, which is the tendency for water levels to increase at the downwind shore and to decrease at the upwind shore. Intuitively, this is caused by the storm blowing the water toward one side of the basin in the direction of its winds. Strong surface winds cause surface currents at a 45° angle to the wind direction, by an effect known as the Ekman spiral. Because the Ekman spiral effects spread vertically through the water, the effect is proportional to depth. The surge will be driven into bays in the same way as the astronomical tide.<ref name="Har63" />

===Atmospheric pressure effect=== The pressure effects of a tropical cyclone will cause the water level in the open ocean to rise in regions of low atmospheric pressure and fall in regions of high atmospheric pressure. The rising water level will counteract the low atmospheric pressure such that the total pressure at some plane beneath the water surface remains constant. This effect is estimated at a {{convert|10|mm|in|abbr=on}} increase in sea level for every millibar (hPa) drop in atmospheric pressure.<ref name="Har63" /> For example, a major storm with a 100 millibar pressure drop would be expected to have a {{convert|1.0|m|ft|abbr=on}} water level rise from the pressure effect.

===Effect of the Earth's rotation=== The Earth's rotation causes the Coriolis effect, which bends currents to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. When this bend brings the currents into more perpendicular contact with the shore, it can amplify the surge, and when it bends the current away from the shore it has the effect of lessening the surge.<ref name="Har63" />

===Effect of waves=== The effect of waves, while directly powered by the wind, is distinct from a storm's wind-powered currents. Powerful wind whips up large, strong waves in the direction of its movement.<ref name="Har63" /> Although these surface waves are responsible for very little water transport in open water, they may be responsible for significant transport near the shore. When waves are breaking on a line more or less parallel to the beach, they carry considerable water shoreward. As they break, the water moving toward the shore has considerable momentum and may run up a sloping beach to an elevation above the mean water line, which may exceed twice the wave height before breaking.<ref name="Granthem 1953" />

===Rainfall effect=== The rainfall effect is experienced predominantly in estuaries. Hurricanes may dump as much as {{convert|12|in|abbr=on|order=flip}} of rainfall in 24 hours over large areas and higher rainfall densities in localized areas. As a result, surface runoff can quickly flood streams and rivers. This can increase the water level near the head of tidal estuaries as storm-driven waters surging in from the ocean meet rainfall flowing downstream into the estuary.<ref name="Har63" />

===Sea depth and topography=== In addition to the above processes, storm surge and wave heights on shore are also affected by the flow of water over the underlying topography, i.e. the shape and depth of the ocean floor and coastal area. A narrow shelf, with deep water relatively close to the shoreline, tends to produce a lower surge but higher and more powerful waves. A wide shelf, with shallower water, tends to produce a higher storm surge with relatively smaller waves.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Storm Surge Overview|url=https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/surge/?os=av&ref=app|access-date=2024-09-28|website=nhc.noaa.gov}}</ref>

For example, in Palm Beach on the southeast coast of Florida, the water depth reaches {{convert|91|m|ft}} {{convert|3|km|mi|abbr=on}} offshore, and {{convert|180|m|ft|abbr=on}} {{convert|7|km|mi|abbr=on}} out. This is relatively steep and deep; storm surge is not as great but the waves are larger compared to the west coast of Florida.<ref name="Lane 1980" /> Conversely, on the Gulf side of Florida, the edge of the Floridian Plateau can lie more than {{convert|160|km|mi}} offshore. Florida Bay, lying between the Florida Keys and the mainland, is very shallow with depths between {{convert|0.3|m|ft|abbr=on}} and {{convert|2|m|ft|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Lane 1981" /> These shallow areas are subject to higher storm surges with smaller waves. Other shallow areas include much of the Gulf of Mexico coast, and the Bay of Bengal.

The difference is due to how much flow area the storm surge can dissipate to. In deeper water, there is more area and a surge can be dispersed down and away from the hurricane. On a shallow, gently sloping shelf, the surge has less room to disperse and is driven ashore by the wind forces of the hurricane.<ref name=":0" />

The topography of the land surface is another important element in storm surge extent. Areas, where the land lies less than a few meters above sea level, are at particular risk from storm surge inundation.<ref name="Har63" />

===Storm size=== The size of the storm also affects the surge height; this is due to the storm's area not being proportional to its perimeter. If a storm doubles in diameter, its perimeter also doubles, but its area quadruples. As there is proportionally less perimeter for the surge to dissipate to, the surge height ends up being higher.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1175/2008JPO3727.1|title=The Influence of Storm Size on Hurricane Surge|journal=Journal of Physical Oceanography|volume=38|issue=9|pages=2003–2013|year=2008|last1=Irish|first1=Jennifer L.|last2=Resio|first2=Donald T.|last3=Ratcliff|first3=Jay J.|bibcode=2008JPO....38.2003I|s2cid=55061204|doi-access=free}}</ref> [[File:Hurricane Ike Gilchrist damage.jpg|thumb|right|230px|Hurricane Ike storm surge damage in Gilchrist, Texas in 2008.]]

==Extratropical storms== Similar to tropical cyclones, extratropical cyclones cause an offshore rise of water. However, unlike most tropical cyclone storm surges, extratropical cyclones can cause higher water levels across a large area for longer periods of time, depending on the system.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Introduction to Storm Surge|url=https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/surge/surge_intro.pdf|access-date=6 May 2023|website=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|archive-date=27 May 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230527195634/https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/surge/surge_intro.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

In North America, extratropical storm surges may occur on the Pacific and Alaska coasts, and north of 31°N on the Atlantic Coast. Coasts with sea ice may experience an "ice tsunami" causing significant damage inland.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Meyer|first1=Robinson|title=The 'Ice Tsunami' That Buried a Whole Herd of Weird Arctic Mammals|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2018/01/the-ice-tsunami-that-entombed-the-arctics-weirdest-mammal/550808/|access-date=19 January 2018|work=The Atlantic|date=18 January 2018|archive-date=19 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180119192859/https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2018/01/the-ice-tsunami-that-entombed-the-arctics-weirdest-mammal/550808/|url-status=live}}</ref> Extratropical storm surges may be possible further south for the Gulf coast mostly during the wintertime, when extratropical cyclones affect the coast, such as in the 1993 Storm of the Century.<ref name="superstorm-march-1993">{{cite web|title=Superstorm of March 1993|author=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|url=https://www.weather.gov/media/publications/assessments/Superstorm_March-93.pdf|access-date=January 31, 2018|year=1994|publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180131201527/https://www.weather.gov/media/publications/assessments/Superstorm_March-93.pdf|archive-date=January 31, 2018|url-status=live|author-link=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration}}</ref>

November 9–13, 2009, marked a significant extratropical storm surge event on the United States east coast when the remnants of Hurricane Ida developed into a nor'easter off the southeast U.S. coast. During the event, winds from the east were present along the northern periphery of the low-pressure center for a number of days, forcing water into locations such as Chesapeake Bay. Water levels rose significantly and remained as high as {{convert|8|ft|m|order=flip}} above normal in numerous locations throughout the Chesapeake for a number of days as water was continually built-up inside the estuary from the onshore winds and freshwater rains flowing into the bay. In many locations, water levels were shy of records by only {{convert|0.1|ft|cm|0|order=flip}}.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Storm Surge Overview|url=https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/surge/|access-date=2023-05-07|website=nhc.noaa.gov|archive-date=2011-05-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110525234621/https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/surge/|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Measuring surge== Surge can be measured directly at coastal tidal stations as the difference between the forecast tide and the observed rise of water.<ref name="VIMS" /> Another method of measuring surge is by the deployment of pressure transducers along the coastline just ahead of an approaching tropical cyclone. This was first tested for Hurricane Rita in 2005.<ref name="USGS" /> These types of sensors can be placed in locations that will be submerged and can accurately measure the height of water above them.<ref name="HOBO" />

After surge from a cyclone has receded, teams of surveyors map high-water marks (HWM) on land, in a rigorous and detailed process that includes photographs and written descriptions of the marks. HWMs denote the location and elevation of floodwaters from a storm event. When HWMs are analyzed, if the various components of the water height can be broken out so that the portion attributable to surge can be identified, then that mark can be classified as storm surge. Otherwise, it is classified as storm tide. HWMs on land are referenced to a vertical datum (a reference coordinate system). During the evaluation, HWMs are divided into four categories based on the confidence in the mark; in the U.S., only HWMs evaluated as "excellent" are used by the National Hurricane Center in the post-storm analysis of the surge.<ref name="Katrina-surge" />

Two different measures are used for storm tide and storm surge measurements. Storm tide is measured using a geodetic vertical datum (NGVD 29 or NAVD 88). Since storm surge is defined as the rise of water beyond what would be expected by the normal movement caused by tides, storm surge is measured using tidal predictions, with the assumption that the tide prediction is well-known and only slowly varying in the region subject to the surge. Since tides are a localized phenomenon, storm surge can only be measured in relationship to a nearby tidal station. Tidal benchmark information at a station provides a translation from the geodetic vertical datum to mean sea level (MSL) at that location, then subtracting the tidal prediction yields a surge height above the normal water height.<ref name="VIMS" /><ref name="Katrina-surge" />

==SLOSH== {{See also|Tropical cyclone forecasting}} thumb|right|Example of a SLOSH run The U.S. National Hurricane Center forecasts storm surge using the SLOSH model, which is an abbreviation for Sea, Lake and Overland Surges from Hurricanes. The model is accurate to within 20 percent.<ref name="NHC_SLOSH_model" /> SLOSH inputs include the central pressure of a tropical cyclone, storm size, the cyclone's forward motion, its track, and maximum sustained winds. Local topography, bay and river orientation, depth of the sea bottom, astronomical tides, as well as other physical features, are taken into account in a predefined grid referred to as a SLOSH basin. Overlapping SLOSH basins are defined for the southern and eastern coastline of the continental U.S.<ref name="SLOSH_map" /> Some storm simulations use more than one SLOSH basin; for instance, Hurricane Katrina SLOSH model runs used both the Lake Pontchartrain / New Orleans basin, and the Mississippi Sound basin, for the northern Gulf of Mexico landfall. The final output from the model run will display the maximum envelope of water, or MEOW, that occurred at each location.

To allow for track or forecast uncertainties, usually several model runs with varying input parameters are generated to create a map of MOMs or Maximum of Maximums.<ref name="PC Weather Products" /> For hurricane evacuation studies, a family of storms with representative tracks for the region, and varying intensity, eye diameter, and speed are modeled to produce worst-case water heights for any tropical cyclone occurrence. The results of these studies are typically generated from several thousand SLOSH runs. These studies have been completed by the United States Army Corps of Engineers, under contract to the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), for several states and are available on their Hurricane Evacuation Studies (HES) website.<ref name="HESHOME" /> They include coastal county maps, shaded to identify the minimum category of hurricane that will result in flooding, in each area of the county.<ref name="HES_Jackson" />

== Impacts == {{More citations needed|section|date=May 2023}} Storm surge is responsible for significant property damage and loss of life as part of cyclones.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Dangers of Storm Surge and Flooding {{!}} NOAA's Office of Response & Restoration Blog |url=https://blog.response.restoration.noaa.gov/dangers-storm-surge-and-flooding |access-date=2024-12-27 |website=blog.response.restoration.noaa.gov}}</ref> Storm surge both destroys built infrastructure, like roads, and undermines foundations and building structures.<ref name=":2" />

Unexpected flooding in estuaries and coastal areas can catch populations unprepared, causing loss of life. The deadliest storm surge on record was the 1970 Bhola cyclone.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Deadliest Tropical Cyclone on Record Killed 300,000 People {{!}} Weather.com |url=https://weather.com/storms/hurricane/news/2019-05-01-deadliest-tropical-cyclone-bhola-cyclone-bay-of-bengal-bangladesh |access-date=2024-11-21 |website=The Weather Channel |language=en-US}}</ref>

Additionally, storm surge can cause or transform human-utilized land through other processes, hurting soil fertility, increasing saltwater intrusion, hurting wildlife habitat, and spreading chemical or other contaminants from human storage.<ref name=":2" />

==Mitigation== Although meteorological surveys alert about hurricanes or severe storms, in the areas where the risk of coastal flooding is particularly high, there are specific storm surge warnings. These have been implemented, for instance, in the Netherlands,<ref name="Rijkswaterstaat" /> Spain,<ref name="Forcast system" /><ref name="Gobierno" /> the United States,<ref name="Stevens Institute" /><ref name="Franklin" /> and the United Kingdom.<ref name="Environment Agency" /> Similarly educating coastal communities and developing local evacuation plans can reduce the relative impact on people.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://nap.nationalacademies.org/read/12628/chapter/6 |title=Read "Tsunami Warning and Preparedness: An Assessment of the U.S. Tsunami Program and the Nation's Preparedness Efforts" at NAP.edu |date=2011 |doi=10.17226/12628 |isbn=978-0-309-13753-9 |language=en}}</ref>

A prophylactic method introduced after the North Sea flood of 1953 is the construction of dams and storm-surge barriers (flood barriers).<ref>{{cite web |title=The North Sea Flood of 1953 |url=https://www.environmentandsociety.org/arcadia/north-sea-flood-1953 |website=Environment & Society Portal |access-date=2026-05-21}}</ref> They are open and allow free passage, but close when the land is under threat of a storm surge. Major storm surge barriers are the Oosterscheldekering and Maeslantkering in the Netherlands, which are part of the Delta Works project; the Thames Barrier protecting London; and the Saint Petersburg Dam in Russia.

Another modern development (in use in the Netherlands) is the creation of housing communities at the edges of wetlands with floating structures, restrained in position by vertical pylons.<ref name="San Francisco Chronicle" /> Such wetlands can then be used to accommodate runoff and surges without causing damage to the structures while also protecting conventional structures at somewhat higher low-lying elevations, provided that dikes prevent major surge intrusion.

Other soft adaptation methods can include changing structures so that they are elevated to avoid flooding directly,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Protect Your Property from Storm Surge |url=https://www.fema.gov/sites/default/files/documents/fema_protect-your-property-storm-surge.pdf |access-date=November 21, 2024 |website=FEMA}}</ref> or increasing natural protections like mangroves or dunes.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Huynh |first1=Lam Thi Mai |last2=Su |first2=Jie |last3=Wang |first3=Quanli |last4=Stringer |first4=Lindsay C. |last5=Switzer |first5=Adam D. |last6=Gasparatos |first6=Alexandros |date=2024-04-09 |title=Meta-analysis indicates better climate adaptation and mitigation performance of hybrid engineering-natural coastal defence measures |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=2870 |doi=10.1038/s41467-024-46970-w |pmid=38594246 |issn=2041-1723|pmc=11004181 |bibcode=2024NatCo..15.2870H }}</ref>

For mainland areas, storm surge is more of a threat when the storm strikes land from seaward, rather than approaching from landward.<ref name="fl100527" />

==Reverse storm surge== Water can also be sucked away from shore prior to a storm surge. This was the case on the western Florida coast in 2017, just before Hurricane Irma made landfall, uncovering land usually underwater.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.cnn.com/2017/09/10/us/shorelines-drained-hurricane-irma-storm-surge/index.html|title=Shorelines drained in eerie effect of Hurricane Irma|author=Ray Sanchez|publisher=CNN|date=10 September 2017|access-date=2017-09-11|archive-date=2017-09-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911003048/http://www.cnn.com/2017/09/10/us/shorelines-drained-hurricane-irma-storm-surge/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref> This phenomenon is known as a '''reverse storm surge''',<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.miamiherald.com/news/weather/hurricane/article172746766.html|title=Irma's powerful winds cause eerie retreat of ocean waters, stranding manatees and boats|work=Miami Herald|first=Linda|last=Robertson|date=11 September 2017|access-date=14 September 2017|archive-date=5 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200805014807/https://www.miamiherald.com/news/weather/hurricane/article172746766.html|url-status=live}}</ref> or a '''negative storm surge'''.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/learning/learn-about-the-weather/weather-phenomena/storm-surge|title=Storm Surge|work=Met Office|access-date=14 September 2017|archive-date=2 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180202143710/https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/learning/learn-about-the-weather/weather-phenomena/storm-surge}}</ref>

== Historic storm surges == thumb|Elements of a storm tide at high tide The deadliest storm surge on record was the 1970 Bhola cyclone, which killed up to 500,000 people in the area of the Bay of Bengal. The low-lying coast of the Bay of Bengal is particularly vulnerable to surges caused by tropical cyclones.<ref name="NASA" /> The deadliest storm surge in the twenty-first century was caused by Cyclone Nargis, which killed more than 138,000 people in Myanmar in May 2008. The next deadliest in this century was caused by Typhoon Haiyan (Yolanda), which killed more than 6,000 people in the central Philippines in 2013.<ref>[https://www.unicefusa.org/mission/emergencies/hurricanes/2013-philippines-typhoon-haiyan Haiyan brought immense destruction, but hope is returning to the Philippines] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160403090505/https://www.unicefusa.org/mission/emergencies/hurricanes/2013-philippines-typhoon-haiyan |date=2016-04-03 }} ''Unicef USA''. Retrieved 2016-04-11</ref><ref>CBS/AP (2013-11-14). [https://archive.today/20131114191253/http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-202_162-57612291/philippines-typhoon-dead-buried-in-mass-grave-in-hard-hit-tacloban-as-aid-begins-to-pour-in/?pageNum=2 "Philippines typhoon dead buried in mass grave in hard-hit Tacloban as aid begins to pour in"] CBS News. Retrieved 2013-11-14.</ref><ref>Brummitt, Chris (2013-11-13). [http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/11/13/disaster-death-toll_n_4266605.html "After Disasters Like Typhoon Haiyan, Calculating Death Toll Often Difficult"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131113211241/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/11/13/disaster-death-toll_n_4266605.html |date=2013-11-13 }}. Associated Press, ''HuffPost''. Retrieved 2013-11-14.</ref> and resulted in economic losses estimated at $14 billion (USD).<ref>Yap, Karl Lester M.; Heath, Michael (2013-11-12). [http://www.businessmirror.com.ph/index.php/en/news/top-news/22731-yolanda-s-economic-cost-p600-billion "Yolanda's Economic Cost P600 billion"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140812204906/http://www.businessmirror.com.ph/index.php/en/news/top-news/22731-yolanda-s-economic-cost-p600-billion |date=2014-08-12 }}. Bloomberg News, ''BusinessMirror.com.ph''. Retrieved 2013-11-14.</ref>

The 1900 Galveston hurricane, a Category 4 hurricane that struck Galveston, Texas, drove a devastating surge ashore; between 6,000 and 12,000 people died, making it the deadliest natural disaster ever to strike the United States.<ref name="Herbert 1983" />

The highest storm tide noted in historical accounts was produced by the 1899 Cyclone Mahina, estimated at almost {{convert|44|ft|m|2|order=flip}} at Bathurst Bay, Australia, but research published in 2000 concluded that the majority of this likely was wave run-up because of the steep coastal topography.<ref name="Nott and Hayne" /> However, much of this storm surge was likely due to Mahina's extreme intensity, as computer modeling required an intensity of {{convert|880|mbar|inHg}} (the same intensity as the lowest recorded pressure from the storm) to produce the recorded storm surge.<ref name="bid">{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2014-12-26/cyclone-mahina/5964342|title=Tropical Cyclone Mahina: Bid to have deadly March 1899 weather event upgraded in record books|last=Kerr|first=Jack|date=26 December 2014|publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation|access-date=6 March 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402202458/http://www.abc.net.au/news/2014-12-26/cyclone-mahina/5964342|archive-date=2 April 2015}}</ref> In the United States, one of the greatest recorded storm surges was generated by Hurricane Katrina on August 29, 2005, which produced a maximum storm surge of more than {{convert|28|ft|m|2|order=flip}} in southern Mississippi, with a storm surge height of {{convert|27.8|ft|m|2|order=flip}} in Pass Christian.<ref name="FEMA1">{{cite web|author=FEMA|publisher=Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)|date=2006-05-30|access-date=2008-08-11|title=Hurricane Katrina Flood Recovery (Mississippi)|url=http://www.fema.gov/hazard/flood/recoverydata/katrina/katrina_ms_methods.shtm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080917203942/http://www.fema.gov/hazard/flood/recoverydata/katrina/katrina_ms_methods.shtm|archive-date=2008-09-17}}</ref><ref name="KatrinaTCR" /> Another record storm surge occurred in this same area from Hurricane Camille in 1969, with a storm tide of {{convert|24.6|ft|m|2|order=flip}}, also at Pass Christian.<ref name="Simpson, 1969" /> A storm surge of {{convert|14|ft|m|2|order=flip}} occurred in New York City during Hurricane Sandy in October 2012.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2024-09-28|title=Superstorm Sandy {{!}} Path & Facts {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Superstorm-Sandy|access-date=2024-09-28|website=Encyclopædia Britannica|language=en}}</ref>

==See also== {{Portal|Weather|Tropical cyclones|Oceans}} *Coastal flooding *Ishiguro Storm Surge Computer *Meteotsunami *Rogue wave *Tsunami-proof building

==Notes== {{reflist|refs= <ref name="Herbert 1983">Hebert, 1983</ref>

<ref name="Har63">Harris 1963, [http://www.csc.noaa.gov/hes/images/pdf/CHARACTERISTICS_STORM_SURGE.pdf "Characteristics of the Hurricane Storm Surge"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130516215010/http://www.csc.noaa.gov/hes/images/pdf/CHARACTERISTICS_STORM_SURGE.pdf |date=2013-05-16 }}</ref>

<ref name="Granthem 1953">Granthem 1953</ref>

<ref name="VIMS">{{cite web|author=John Boon|publisher=Virginia Institute of Marine Science, College of William and Mary|year=2007|access-date=2008-08-11|title=Ernesto: Anatomy of a Storm Tide|url=http://www.vims.edu/physical/research/ernesto.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080706185220/http://www.vims.edu/physical/research/ernesto.pdf|archive-date=2008-07-06}}</ref>

<ref name="USGS">{{cite web|publisher=United States Geological Survey|date=2006-10-11|access-date=2008-08-11|title=Hurricane Rita Surge Data, Southwestern Louisiana and Southeastern Texas, September to November 2005|url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/ds/2006/220/|archive-date=2008-09-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080922191852/http://pubs.usgs.gov/ds/2006/220/|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="HOBO">{{cite web|author=Automated|publisher=Onset Corp|year=2008|access-date=2008-08-10|title=U20-001-01-Ti: HOBO Water Level Logger Specification|url=http://www.onsetcomp.com/products/data-loggers/u20-001-01-ti%23tabs1-2|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080808135404/http://www.onsetcomp.com/products/data-loggers/u20-001-01-Ti|archive-date=2008-08-08}}</ref>

<ref name="Katrina-surge">{{cite web|author=URS Group, Inc.|publisher=Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)|date=2006-04-03|access-date=2008-08-10|title=High Water Mark Collection for Hurricane Katrina in Alabama|url=https://www.fema.gov/pdf/hazard/flood/recoverydata/katrina/katrina_al_hwm_public.pdf|archive-date=2008-08-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080808113033/http://www.fema.gov/pdf/hazard/flood/recoverydata/katrina/katrina_al_hwm_public.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="KatrinaTCR">{{cite web|last=Knabb|first=Richard D|author2=Rhome, Jamie R.|author3=Brown, Daniel P|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/data/tcr/AL122005_Katrina.pdf|title=Tropical Cyclone Report: Hurricane Katrina: 23–30 August 2005|publisher=National Hurricane Center|date=2005-12-20|access-date=2008-10-11|archive-date=2015-10-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151002011705/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/data/tcr/AL122005_Katrina.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="Nott and Hayne">{{cite web|author=Jonathan Nott and Matthew Hayne|publisher=Emergency Management Australia|year=2000|access-date=2008-08-11|title=How high was the storm surge from Tropical Cyclone Mahina? North Queensland, 1899|url=http://www.ema.gov.au/agd/EMA/rwpattach.nsf/viewasattachmentpersonal/(C86520E41F5EA5C8AAB6E66B851038D8)~How_high_was_the_storm_surge_from_Tropical_Cyclone_Mahina.pdf/$file/How_high_was_the_storm_surge_from_Tropical_Cyclone_Mahina.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080625203948/http://www.ema.gov.au/agd/EMA/rwpattach.nsf/viewasattachmentpersonal/%28C86520E41F5EA5C8AAB6E66B851038D8%29~How_high_was_the_storm_surge_from_Tropical_Cyclone_Mahina.pdf/%24file/How_high_was_the_storm_surge_from_Tropical_Cyclone_Mahina.pdf|archive-date=June 25, 2008}}</ref>

<ref name="Simpson, 1969">Simpson, 1969</ref>

<ref name="NASA">{{cite web|url=http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/scitech/display.cfm?ST_ID=1350|title=Solar System Exploration: Science & Technology: Science Features: Remembering Katrina – Learning and Predicting the Future|publisher=Solarsystem.nasa.gov|access-date=2012-03-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120928201934/http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/scitech/display.cfm?ST_ID=1350|archive-date=2012-09-28}}</ref>

<ref name="NHC_SLOSH_model">{{cite web|author=National Hurricane Center|publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|year=2008|access-date=2008-08-10|title=SLOSH Model|url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/HAW2/english/surge/slosh.shtml|author-link=National Hurricane Center|archive-date=2008-09-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080913202900/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/HAW2/english/surge/slosh.shtml|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="SLOSH_map">{{cite web|author=NOAA|publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|title=SLOSH Model Coverage|date=1999-04-19|access-date=2008-08-11|url=http://www.nws.noaa.gov/mdl/marine/Basin.htm|archive-date=2008-06-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080617162056/http://www.nws.noaa.gov/mdl/marine/Basin.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="PC Weather Products">{{cite web|author=George Sambataro|publisher=PC Weather Products|year=2008|access-date=2008-08-11|title=Slosh Data... what is it|url=http://www.pcwp.com/whatisslosh.html|archive-date=2008-10-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081015000645/http://www.pcwp.com/whatisslosh.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="HESHOME">{{cite web|author=U.S. Army Corps of Engineers|publisher=Federal Emergency Management Agency|year=2008|access-date=2008-08-10|title=National Hurricane Study Home Page|url=http://chps.sam.usace.army.mil/USHESdata/HESHOME.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080731051117/http://chps.sam.usace.army.mil/USHESdata/HESHOME.htm|archive-date=2008-07-31}}</ref>

<ref name="HES_Jackson">{{cite web|author=U.S. Army Corps of Engineers|publisher=Federal Emergency Management Agency|year=2008|access-date=2008-08-10|title=Jackson County, MS HES surge maps|url=http://chps.sam.usace.army.mil/USHESdata/Mississippi/Jacksonsurgemapspage.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080611062344/http://chps.sam.usace.army.mil/USHESdata/Mississippi/Jacksonsurgemapspage.htm|archive-date=2008-06-11}}</ref>

<ref name="Rijkswaterstaat">{{cite web|author=Rijkswaterstaat|date=2008-07-21|access-date=2008-08-10|title=Storm Surge Warning Service|url=http://www.svsd.nl/index.cfm?taal=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080310185750/http://www.svsd.nl/index.cfm?taal=en|archive-date=2008-03-10}}</ref>

<ref name="Forcast system">{{cite web|url=http://www.puertos.es/externo/clima/Nivmar/nivmareng.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928011940/http://www.puertos.es/externo/clima/Nivmar/nivmareng.html|archive-date=2007-09-28|title=Storm surge forecast system|access-date=2007-04-14|date=1999-03-01|publisher=Government of Spain|author=Ports of the State}}</ref>

<ref name="Gobierno">{{cite web|publisher=Gobierno de España|author=Puertos del Estado|date=1999-03-01|access-date=2008-08-10|title=Sistema de previsión del mar a corto plazo|language=es|url=http://www.puertos.es/externo/clima/Nivmar/nivinht.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080508045100/http://www.puertos.es/externo/clima/Nivmar/nivinht.html|archive-date=2008-05-08}}</ref>

<ref name="Stevens Institute">{{cite web|author=Stevens Institute of Technology|publisher=New Jersey Office of Emergency Management|date=2008-08-10|access-date=2008-08-11|title=Storm Surge Warning System|url=http://hudson.dl.stevens-tech.edu/SSWS/|archive-date=2008-08-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080815195350/http://hudson.dl.stevens-tech.edu/SSWS/}}</ref>

<ref name="Franklin">{{cite web|author=Donna Franklin|publisher=National Weather Service|date=2008-08-11|access-date=2008-08-11|title=NWS StormReady Program, Weather Safety, Disaster, Hurricane, Tornado, Tsunami, Flash Flood...|url=http://www.stormready.noaa.gov|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080809073945/http://www.stormready.noaa.gov/|archive-date=2008-08-09}}</ref>

<ref name="Environment Agency">{{cite web|url=http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk/subjects/flood/floodwarning/|title=Current Flooding Situation|date=2007-04-14|author=National Flood Risk Systems Team|publisher=Environment Agency|access-date=2007-07-07|archive-date=2007-05-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070502021215/http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk/subjects/flood/floodwarning/?|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="San Francisco Chronicle">[https://www.sfgate.com/homeandgarden/article/Floating-houses-built-to-survive-Netherlands-2596567.php Floating houses built to survive Netherlands floods] ''San Francisco Chronicle''.</ref>

<ref name="fl100527">{{cite news|first=Matt|last=Read|title=Prepare for storm evacuations|url=http://www.floridatoday.com/article/20100527/COLUMNISTS0207/5270331/Lay-Prepare-for-storm-evacuations-tar-balls|newspaper=Florida Today|location=Melbourne, Florida|pages=1B|date=27 May 2010|access-date=29 May 2010|archive-date=3 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150503025731/http://www.floridatoday.com/article/20100527/COLUMNISTS0207/5270331/Lay-Prepare-for-storm-evacuations-tar-balls|url-status=live}}</ref> |2}}

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==External links== {{commons category|Storm surges}} * [http://www.storm-surge.info/ European Space Agency storm Surge Project home pages] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210503165922/http://www.storm-surge.info/ |date=2021-05-03 }} * {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929033405/http://nirapad.org/care_nirapad/Home/Magazine/chronology/currentissue/html/news8.html |date=September 29, 2007 |title=Data on Bangladesh disasters }} from NIRAPAD disaster response organisation. * [http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/surge/ NOAA NWS National Hurricane Center storm surge page] * {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090202233503/http://www.bbc.co.uk/weather/features/understanding/1953_flood.shtml |date=February 2, 2009 |title=The 1953 English East Coast Floods }} * [http://www.deltawerken.com/89 DeltaWorks.Org] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190502134210/http://www.deltawerken.com/89 |date=2019-05-02 }} North Sea Flood of 1953, includes images, video, and animations. * UK storm surge model outputs and real-time tide gauge information from the [https://web.archive.org/web/20060702233951/http://www.pol.ac.uk/ntslf/ National Tidal and Sea Level Facility]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Storm Surge}} Category:Flood Category:Water waves Category:Tropical cyclone meteorology Category:Severe weather and convection