Spruce

{{about|the tree}} {{Short description|Genus of coniferous evergreen trees}} {{good article}} {{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}} {{Use British English|date=September 2025}} {{Automatic taxobox | fossil_range = {{fossil range|Valanginian|Recent}} | image = Picea abies.jpg | image_alt = Norway spruce | image_caption = ''Picea abies'', Norway spruce | parent_authority = Frankis | taxon = Picea | type_species = ''Picea abies'' | type_species_authority = (L.) H. Karst. | authority = Dietrich | subdivision_ranks = Species | subdivision = About 37; see text. | synonyms = * ''Veitchia'' Lindley }}

A '''spruce''' is a tree of the genus '''''Picea''''', a genus of some 37 species of coniferous evergreen trees in the family Pinaceae, found in the northern temperate and boreal (taiga) regions of the Northern Hemisphere. ''Picea'' is treated either in the subfamily Pinoideae, or the sole genus in its own subfamily '''Piceoideae'''.

Spruces can be distinguished from other genera of the family Pinaceae by their needles (leaves), which are four-sided and attached singly to small persistent peg-like structures (pulvini) on the twigs. The needles are shed when 4–10 years old, leaving the twigs rough with the retained pegs. Pests of spruce forestry include green spruce aphid, eastern spruce budworm, European spruce bark beetle, and great spruce bark beetle.

Spruce is a major producer of timber for construction, and of pulp for paper. It is the standard material for the soundboards of stringed instruments like acoustic guitars. Native Americans use the roots of some species for weaving baskets. The Norway spruce is widely used for Christmas trees. Artists including Augustin Hirschvogel in the 16th century, Edvard Munch around 1900, and Eija-Liisa Ahtila in the 21st century have depicted spruces in etchings, oil paintings, and video installations.

== Etymology == The scientific name derives from Latin "pix", pitch, which was obtained from the resin of ''Picea abies''.<ref name="Huxley">{{cite book | last1=Huxley | first1=Anthony | title=Royal Horticultural Society Dictionary of Gardening | publisher=Macmillan Press | publication-place=London : New York | date=1992 | isbn=1-56159-001-0 |volume=3 | pages=570–573 }}</ref> ''Spruce'', from Middle English ''{{not a typo|spruse}}'' or ''{{not a typo|Sprws}}'' appears originally to have denoted goods, including wooden objects, imported from Prussia. The Middle English word is in turn from Old French {{lang|fro|Pruce}}, "Prussia".<ref>{{cite web |title=spruce - Origin and meaning of spruce by Online Etymology Dictionary |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/spruce#etymonline_v_21904 |access-date=9 September 2025 |website=www.etymonline.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=spruce noun |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/spruce |publisher=Merriam-Webster |access-date=10 September 2025 |quote=Noun obsolete ''Spruce'' Prussia, from Middle English, alteration of ''Pruce'', from Anglo-French}}</ref>

== Description == Spruces differ from other Pinaceae in two distinctive characters. Firstly, they have a pulvinus (plural, pulvini), a small peg-like structure at the base of each needle, that remains when the needle falls. Secondly, they have evergreen needle-like leaves that are more or less square in cross-section. The needles stay on the tree for between four and ten years.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Young |first1=Curtis E. |title=Is It Pine, Spruce, or Fir? |url=https://ohioline.osu.edu/factsheet/anr-80 |publisher=Ohio State University Extension |access-date=7 September 2025}}</ref>

The tree usually has a straight trunk, though can become bushy or irregular if damaged by wind exposure or biotic factors like browsing or insect damage. Spruces are resinous, and monoecious, with separate male and female cones on the same tree. Young trees have a conical crown; in older trees, this tends to become a roughly cylindrical column; mature heights vary from 10–20 m in the smaller species like ''Picea mariana'', up to a maximum of 100 m in ''Picea sitchensis''. Branches grow from the trunk in regular whorls; the lower branches are mostly soon lost, except when the tree is open-grown in full sun. Young branches rise above the horizontal, but older branches do not. The needles range from 0.6–0.8 cm in ''Picea orientalis'' up to 3.5–5 cm in ''Picea smithiana''.<ref name=Vidaković>{{cite book |last1=Vidaković |first1=Mirko |author1-link=Mirko Vidaković |title=Conifers |date=1991 |publisher=Grafički Zavod Hrvatske |location=Croatia |pages=286–372 |edition=English}}</ref> The cones have leaflike bracts that appear at the time of pollination, but unlike ''Abies'' (fir cones), these are generally later covered by the seed scales. When mature, the cones range from 2–3.5 cm in ''Picea mariana'', up to 10–20 cm in ''Picea abies'', and nearly as long but stouter and heavier, in ''Picea smithiana''.<ref name=Vidaković/><ref name="Rushforth">{{cite book | last=Rushforth | first=Keith | title=Conifers | publisher=Christopher Helm Publishers, Incorporated | publication-place=London | date=1987-01-01 | isbn=0-7470-2801-X | pages=145–157}}</ref> Each seed sits with its lower half in a cup on the seed scale; the seeds have a large wing.<ref name="International Dendrology Society"/>

[[File:495 Picea abies (cropped).jpg|thumb|center|upright=1.3|''Picea abies'' botany. 1:young female cone; 2:male cones; 3:mature female cone; 4:pulvinus at leaf base; 5:squarish cross-section of leaf; 6:top of scale; 7:underside of scale; 10:winged seed]]

The structure of the cone scales, including length, width, immature colour, shape of the apex, and how much of the scale is free, is the most useful feature for identifying species of spruce.<ref name="Douglas-1975">Douglas, G.W. (1975). Spruce (''Picea'') hybridization in west-central British Columbia. B.C. Min. For., Forest Science, Smithers B. C., unpublished report, cited by Coates, K. D.; Haeussler, S.; Lindeburgh, S.; Pojar, R.; Stock, A. J. (1994). "Ecology and silviculture of interior spruce in British Columbia". Canada/British Columbia Partnership Agreement For. Resour. Devel., Victoria, British Columbia, FRDA Rep. 220. 182 p.</ref><ref name="Daubenmire-1974">{{cite journal |last=Daubenmire |first=R. |year=1974 |title=Taxonomic and ecologic relationships between ''Picea glauca'' and ''Picea engelmannii''|journal=Canadian Journal of Botany |volume=52|issue=7|pages=1545–1560|doi=10.1139/b74-203|bibcode=1974CaJB...52.1545D }}</ref><ref name="Taylor-1959">{{cite journal |last=Taylor |first=T.M.C. |year=1959|title= The taxonomic relationship between ''Picea glauca'' (Moench) Voss and ''P. engelmannii'' Parry |journal=Madroño |jstor=41422994|volume=15|issue=4|pages=111–115}} (Cited in Coates et al. 1994).</ref> While ''Picea glauca'' and ''Picea engelmannii'', for example, differ in shoot and needle characteristics, those with cones present are most easily identified.<ref name="Horton-1956">Horton, K.W. (1956). A taxonomic and ecological study of ''Picea glauca'' and ''Picea engelmannii'' in North America. Diploma thesis, Oxford University.</ref><ref name="Horton-1959">Horton, K.W. (1959). Characteristics of subalpine spruce in Alberta. Canadian Department of Northern Affairs and National Resources, Forestry Branch, Forest Resources Division, Ottawa, Ontario, Technical Note 76.</ref><ref name="Coupé-1982">Coupé, R.; Ray, C. A.; Comeau, A.; Ketcheson, M. V.; Annas, R. M. (1982). A guide to some common plants of the Skeena area, British Columbia. B. C. Mining and Forestry, Resources Branch, Victoria, British Columbia.</ref>

Spruces are generally of moderate lifespan, ranging from 100 to 600 years; the oldest reported age for a single tree is 852 years for a specimen of ''Picea engelmannii''.<ref name="GD">{{cite web | title=''Picea'' (spruce) description | website=The Gymnosperm Database | date=2025-10-30 | url=https://www.conifers.org/pi/Picea.php | access-date=2025-11-08}}</ref> Clonal reproduction can extend this; a Norway spruce ''P. abies'' clonal group in Dalarna, Sweden, nicknamed "Old Tjikko" has reproduced by layering, reaching a claimed age of 9,550 years for the clone as a whole, though not for the small trees that are part of it.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sciam.com/podcast/episode.cfm?id=2AA00080-0AD4-55E1-EA50BC7A36A218C4& |title=Swedish Spruce Is World's Oldest Tree |publisher=Scientific American |date=27 May 2008 |access-date=21 August 2016}}</ref>

<gallery class=center mode=nolines widths=200 heights=200> File:2020 year. Herbarium. Picea abies. img-007 (cropped).jpg|Leaf arrangement. ''Picea abies'' File:Picea abies Nadelkissen (cropped).jpg|The squarish needle has a peg-like base, the pulvinus. ''Picea abies'' File:Picea glauca twig Denali NP AK.jpg|Pulvini remain after the needles fall. ''Picea glauca'' File:Picea abies young female cone - Keila.jpg|Young female cone of ''Picea abies'', bracts visible File:Picea engelmannii UGA1 (cropped).jpg|Resinous mature female cone of ''Picea engelmannii'', bracts no longer visible File:Picea sitchensis3.jpg|Exceptionally, the bracts can be just slightly exserted in mature cones of ''Picea sitchensis'' </gallery>

== Evolution ==

=== Fossil history === {{further|List of fossil Picea species}} [[File:Picea ugoana National Museum of Nature and Science, Japan (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|Fossilised winged seeds of ''Picea ugoana''. Early Miocene, Niigata Prefecture, Japan]] The ''Picea'' lineage begins in the fossil record around 130 million years ago (mya). The oldest record of spruce that has been found in the fossil record is from the Early Cretaceous (Valanginian) of western Canada, around 136 million years old.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Ashley A. Klymiuk |author2=Ruth A. Stockey |name-list-style=amp |year=2012 |title=A Lower Cretaceous (Valanginian) seed cone provides the earliest fossil record for Picea (Pinaceae) |journal=American Journal of Botany |volume=99 |issue=6 |pages=1069–1082 |doi=10.3732/ajb.1100568 |pmid=22623610 |bibcode=2012AmJB...99.1069K |doi-access=free}}</ref>

The only surviving branch of the lineage, however, diverged only around 30 mya, meaning that the rest of the crown group has no living descendants. That, in turn, means that the biogeography and ecology of the crown group cannot be inferred from living members of the genus.<ref name="Leslie-2018">{{cite journal |last1=Leslie |first1=Andrew B. |last2=Beaulieu |first2=Jeremy |last3=Holman |first3=Garth |last4=Campbell |first4=Christopher S. |last5=Mei |first5=Wenbin |last6=Raubeson |first6=Linda R. |last7=Mathews |first7=Sarah |display-authors=5 |title=An overview of extant conifer evolution from the perspective of the fossil record |journal=American Journal of Botany |volume=105 |issue=9 |date=2018 |doi=10.1002/ajb2.1143 |doi-access=free |pages=1531–1544 |pmid=30157290 }}</ref> For example, middle Eocene spruce fossils have been found in the Buchanan Lake Formation of Canada (46.2–40.4 mya).<ref>{{cite journal |last=LePage |first=Ben A. |date=2001-02-01 |title=New species of Picea A. Dietrich (Pinaceae) from the middle Eocene of Axel Heiberg Island, Arctic Canada |url=https://academic.oup.com/botlinnean/article-abstract/135/2/137/2557144 |journal=Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society |volume=135 |issue=2 |pages=137–167 |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8339.2001.tb01088.x}}</ref>

=== External phylogeny ===

Based on a transcriptome analysis, ''Picea'' is most closely related to the genus ''Cathaya''; those form a clade, sister to the genus ''Pinus''. These genera, with douglas-firs and larches, form the pinoid clade of the Pinaceae.<ref name="Stull-2021">{{Cite journal |last1=Stull |first1=Gregory W. |last2=Qu |first2=Xiao-Jian |last3=Parins-Fukuchi |first3=Caroline |last4=Yang |first4=Ying-Ying |last5=Yang |first5=Jun-Bo |last6=Yang |first6=Zhi-Yun |last7=Hu |first7=Yi |last8=Ma |first8=Hong |last9=Soltis |first9=Pamela S. |last10=Soltis |first10=Douglas E. |last11=Li |first11=De-Zhu |display-authors=5 |date=19 July 2021 |title=Gene duplications and phylogenomic conflict underlie major pulses of phenotypic evolution in gymnosperms |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41477-021-00964-4 |journal=Nature Plants |volume=7 |issue=8 |pages=1015–1025 |doi=10.1038/s41477-021-00964-4 |pmid=34282286 |bibcode=2021NatPl...7.1015S |s2cid=236141481 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

{{clade |label1=Pinaceae |1={{clade |label1=Abietoideae |sublabel1=(firs, cedars, hemlocks) |1=60px |label2=Pinoideae |2={{clade |label1=Lariceae |1={{clade |label1=''Pseudotsuga'' |sublabel1=(douglas-firs) |1=50px |label2=''Larix'' |sublabel2=(larches) |2=60px }} |label2=Pineae |2={{clade |1={{clade |label1=''Cathaya'' |sublabel1=(1 sp.) |1=50px |label2='''''Picea''''' |sublabel2=(spruces) |2=50px }} |label2=''Pinus'' |sublabel2=(pines) |2=50px }} }} }} }}

Another study produced broadly similar results, but with ''Cathaya'' sister to [''Picea'' + ''Pinus'']:<ref name="Lockwood-2013">{{cite journal |last1=Lockwood |first1=Jared D. |last2=Aleksić |first2=Jelena M. |last3=Zou |first3=Jiabin |last4=Wang |first4=Jing |last5=Liu |first5=Jianquan |last6=Renner |first6=Susanne S. |title=A new phylogeny for the genus Picea from plastid, mitochondrial, and nuclear sequences |journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution |volume=69 |issue=3 |date=2013 |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2013.07.004 |pages=717–727 |pmid=23871916 |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1055790313002819 |access-date=2025-11-07}}</ref>

{{clade |label1=Pineae |1={{clade |1={{clade |label1=''Pinus'' |sublabel1=(pines) |1=50px |label2='''''Picea''''' |sublabel2=(spruces) |2=50px }} |label2=''Cathaya'' |sublabel2=(1 sp.) |2=50px }} }}

=== Internal phylogeny ===

DNA analyses have often conflicted with traditional classifications based on the morphology of needle and cone, but also conflict markedly between studies, with more proposed phylogenies than there are studies, and no consensus by 2015 on the relationships within the genus. In particular there is major discordance between phylogenies based on mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and those based on chloroplast DNA (cpDNA),<ref name="Bouillé-2011">{{cite journal |last1=Bouillé |first1=Marie |last2=Senneville |first2=Sauphie |last3=Bousquet |first3=Jean |title=Discordant mtDNA and cpDNA phylogenies indicate geographic speciation and reticulation as driving factors for the diversification of the genus ''Picea'' |journal=Tree Genetics & Genomes |volume=7 |issue=3 |date=2011 |doi=10.1007/s11295-010-0349-z |pages=469–484 |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s11295-010-0349-z |access-date=2025-11-08|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name="Ran-2015">{{cite journal |last1=Ran |first1=Jin-Hua |last2=Shen |first2=Ting-Ting |last3=Liu |first3=Wen-Juan |last4=Wang |first4=Pei-Pei |last5=Wang |first5=Xiao-Quan |title=Mitochondrial introgression and complex biogeographic history of the genus ''Picea'' |journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution |volume=93 |date=2015 |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2015.07.020 |pages=63–76 |pmid=26232548 |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1055790315002249 |access-date=2025-11-08|url-access=subscription }}</ref> and there is strong evidence for a history of reticulate evolution involving extensive hybrid introgression in the genus,<ref name="Bouillé-2011"/><ref name="Sullivan-2017">{{cite journal |last1=Sullivan |first1=Alexis R. |last2=Schiffthaler |first2=Bastian |last3=Thompson |first3=Stacey Lee |last4=Street |first4=Nathaniel R. |last5=Wang |first5=Xiao-Ru |title=Interspecific Plastome Recombination Reflects Ancient Reticulate Evolution in ''Picea'' (Pinaceae) |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |volume=34 |issue=7 |date=2017 |pmid=28383641 |pmc=5455968 |doi=10.1093/molbev/msx111 |doi-access=free |pages=1689–1701 |url=https://academic.oup.com/mbe/article-pdf/34/7/1689/17653064/msx111.pdf |access-date=2025-11-08}}</ref> which is continuing between several species, such as between ''Picea abies'' and ''Picea obovata'' (''Picea × fennica''),<ref name="Krutovskii">{{cite journal |last1=Krutovskii |first1=Konstantin V |last2=Bergmann |first2=Fritz |title=Introgressive hybridization and phylogenetic relationships between Norway, Picea abies (L.) Karst., and Siberian, P. obovata Ledeb., spruce species studied by isozyme loci |journal=Heredity |publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC |volume=74 |issue=5 |year=1995 |doi=10.1038/hdy.1995.67 |doi-access=free |pages=464–480 |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/hdy199567.pdf |access-date=2025-11-08}}</ref> and between ''Picea glauca'' and ''Picea engelmannii'' (''Picea × albertiana'').<ref name="bc">{{cite web |title=''Picea × albertiana'' |url=https://a100.gov.bc.ca/pub/eswp/speciesSummary.do;jsessionid=4iIltqH4bdlMhIoHNmupDs78cOodG8KcbtkMaFlm04l908Ajmv6z!-1764546934?id=20909 |website=BC Conservation Data Centre: Species Summary |publisher=B.C. Minist. of Environment. |access-date=8 November 2025}}</ref>

One of the earliest genetic studies used chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) to infer that ''P. breweriana'' is sister to all other ''Picea'' species, with ''P. sitchensis'' sister to those remaining species.<ref name="Jin-Hua Ran-2006">{{cite journal |author1=Jin-Hua Ran |author2=Xiao-Xin Wei |author3=Xiao-Quan Wang |year=2006 |title=Molecular phylogeny and biogeography of ''Picea'' (Pinaceae): implications for phylogeographical studies using cytoplasmic haplotypes |url=http://lseb.ibcas.ac.cn/oldzjxx/wangxq/pdf/Picea.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution |volume=41 |issue=2 |pages=405–419 |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2006.05.039 |pmid=16839785 |bibcode=2006MolPE..41..405R |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120424225243/http://lseb.ibcas.ac.cn/oldzjxx/wangxq/pdf/Picea.pdf |archive-date=24 April 2012}}</ref> However, subsequent studies have shown very different results, with both nuclear DNA and mtDNA placing ''P. sitchensis'' in a small clade with what had always been presumed from morphology to be its close relatives, ''P. glauca'' and ''P. engelmannii'', with the cpDNA result anomalous;<ref name="Lo-2024">{{cite journal |last1=Lo |first1=Theodora |last2=Coombe |first2=Lauren |last3=Gagalova |first3=Kristina K |last4=Marr |first4=Alex |last5=Warren |first5=René L |last6=Kirk |first6=Heather |last7=Pandoh |first7=Pawan |last8=Zhao |first8=Yongjun |last9=Moore |first9=Richard A |last10=Mungall |first10=Andrew J |last11=Ritland |first11=Carol |last12=Pavy |first12=Nathalie |last13=Jones |first13=Steven J M |last14=Bohlmann |first14=Joerg |last15=Bousquet |first15=Jean |last16=Birol |first16=Inanç |last17=Thomson |first17=Ashley |display-authors=5 |title=Assembly and annotation of the black spruce genome provide insights on spruce phylogeny and evolution of stress response |journal=G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics |volume=14 |issue=1 |date=29 December 2023 |pmid=37875130 |pmc=10755193 |doi=10.1093/g3journal/jkad247 |doi-access=free |url=https://academic.oup.com/g3journal/advance-article-pdf/doi/10.1093/g3journal/jkad247/52463307/jkad247.pdf |access-date=2025-11-08 |article-number=jkad247 }}</ref><ref name="Ran-2015"/><ref name="Sullivan-2017"/><ref name="Zou-2016">{{cite journal |last1=Zou |first1=Jiabin |last2=Yue |first2=Wei |last3=Li |first3=Lili |last4=Wang |first4=Xi |last5=Lu |first5=Jing |last6=Duan |first6=Bingbing |last7=Liu |first7=Jianquan |title=DNA barcoding of recently diversified tree species: a case study on spruces based on 20 DNA fragments from three different genomes |journal=Trees |volume=30 |issue=3 |date=2016 |doi=10.1007/s00468-015-1337-6 |pages=959–969 |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00468-015-1337-6 |access-date=2025-11-08|url-access=subscription }}</ref> likewise, while ''P. breweriana'' has still been recovered as sister to all other species by some studies,<ref name="Sullivan-2017"/> it was recovered as deeply embedded in the genus by a study using a large set of nuclear, cp, and mtDNA.<ref name="Lockwood-2013"/><ref name="Zou-2016"/> A further problem with several studies before 2013 was a combination of misidentified samples and contaminated DNA.<ref name="Lockwood-2013"/>

=== Taxonomy === ==== Taxonomic history ==== In 1824, Albert Dietrich set up the genus ''Picea''. In 1887, the German botanist Heinrich Moritz Willkomm revised the genus using vegetative characteristics of the trees, rather than of the cones. His classification was followed in 1890 by that of the German botanist Heinrich Mayr, and again in 1982 by that of the Taiwanese biologist Leroy Liu on a similar basis.<ref name="International Dendrology Society">{{cite web |title=Picea A. Dietr. |url=https://www.treesandshrubsonline.org/articles/picea/ |publisher=International Dendrology Society |access-date=7 September 2025}}</ref> In 1989 Peter A. Schmidt classified the species in the genus using mainly seed cone characteristics.<ref name="International Dendrology Society"/><ref name="Schmidt-1989">{{cite journal |last=Schmidt |first=Peter A. |title=Beitrag zur Systematik und Evolution der Gattung Picea A. Dietr.1)1Herm Prof. Dr. H. Meusel zum 80. Geburtstag |journal=Flora |volume=182 |issue=5–6 |date=1989 |doi=10.1016/S0367-2530(17)30431-0 |pages=435–461 |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0367253017304310 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

==== Species ==== {{As of|2025|September}}, Plants of the World Online accepted 37 species.<ref name="POWO">{{cite web |title=''Picea'' A.Dietr. |work=Plants of the World Online |publisher=Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew|url=https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:30005648-2 |access-date=8 September 2025 }}</ref> As no consensus has emerged on relationships from genetic studies, they are listed below in alphabetical order:

* ''Picea abies'' – Norway spruce, Europe; important in forestry, the original Christmas tree * ''Picea alcoquiana'' – (syn. ''P. bicolor'') Alcock's spruce, central Japan (mountains) * ''Picea asperata'' – dragon spruce, western China; several varieties * ''Picea aurantiaca'' Mast. (doubtfully distinct from ''P. asperata'') * ''Picea austropanlanica'' Silba (doubtfully distinct from ''P. purpurea'') * ''Picea brachytyla'' – Sargent's spruce, southwest China * ''Picea breweriana'' – Brewer's spruce, Klamath Mountains, North America; local endemic * ''Picea chihuahuana'' – Chihuahua spruce, northwest Mexico (rare, endangered) * ''Picea crassifolia'' – Qinghai spruce, China * ''Picea engelmannii'' – Engelmann spruce, western North American mountains; important in forestry * ''Picea farreri'' – Burmese spruce, northeast Burma, southwest China (Yunnan) * ''Picea glauca'' (syn. ''P. laxa'') – white spruce, northern North America; important in forestry * ''Picea glehnii'' – Glehn's spruce, northern Japan, Sakhalin * ''Picea jezoensis'' – Jezo spruce, northeast Asia and Kamchatka south to Japan * ''Picea koraiensis'' – Korean spruce, Korea, northeast China * ''Picea koyamae'' – Koyama's spruce, Japan (mountains) * ''Picea likiangensis'' – Likiang spruce, southwest China * ''Picea linzhiensis'' (W.C.Cheng & L.K.Fu) Rushforth (syn. ''P. likiangensis'' var. ''linzhiensis'') – Linzhi spruce, southeast Tibet (Yarlung Tsangpo valley) * ''Picea mariana'' – black spruce, northern North America * ''Picea martinezii'' – Martinez spruce, northeast Mexico (very rare, endangered) * ''Picea maximowiczii'' – Maximowicz spruce, Japan (rare, mountains) * ''Picea meyeri'' – Meyer's spruce, northern China (from Inner Mongolia to Gansu) * ''Picea morrisonicola'' – Taiwan spruce, Taiwan (high mountains) * ''Picea neoveitchii'' – Veitch's spruce, northwest China (rare, critically endangered) * ''Picea obovata'' – Siberian spruce, north Scandinavia, Siberia; sometimes treated as a subspecies of ''P. abies'' (and hybridises with it), but has distinct cones * ''Picea omorika'' – Serbian spruce, Serbia and Bosnia; local endemic; important in horticulture * ''Picea orientalis'' – Caucasian spruce or Oriental spruce, Caucasus, northeast Turkey * ''Picea polita'' (syn. ''P. torano'') – tiger-tail spruce, Japan * ''Picea pungens'' – blue spruce or Colorado spruce, Rocky Mountains, North America; important in horticulture * ''Picea purpurea'' – purple cone spruce, western China * ''Picea retroflexa'' – green dragon spruce, China * ''Picea rubens'' – red spruce, northeastern North America; important in forestry * ''Picea schrenkiana'' – Schrenk's spruce, mountains of central Asia * ''Picea sitchensis'' – Sitka spruce, Pacific coast of North America; the largest species, to 95 m tall; important in forestry * ''Picea smithiana'' – morinda spruce, western Himalaya, eastern Afghanistan, northern and northwest India * ''Picea spinulosa'' – Sikkim spruce, northeast India (Sikkim) and Bhutan, eastern Himalaya * ''Picea wilsonii'' – Wilson's spruce, western China

; Natural hybrids These hybrids are known to occur naturally:<ref name="POWO"/> * ''Picea'' × ''albertiana'' S.Br. (''P. engelmannii'' × ''P. glauca'') * ''Picea'' × ''fennica'' (Regel) Kom. (''P. abies'' × ''P. obovata'') * ''Picea'' × ''lutzii'' Little (''P. glauca'' × ''P. sitchensis'') * ''Picea'' × ''notha'' Rehder (''Picea glehnii'' × ''Picea jezoensis'')

;Cultivated hybrids The following cultivated origin hybrids have been named; many others have been reported without being named:<ref name=Dallimore>{{cite book |last1=Dallimore |first1=W. |last2=Jackson |first2=A. B. |date=1966 |title=A Handbook of Coniferae and Ginkgoaceae |edition=4 |publisher=Arnold}}</ref><ref name=Vidaković/> * ''Picea'' × ''mariorika'' Boom (''P. mariana'' × ''P. omorika'') * ''Picea'' × ''moseri'' Mast. (''P. jezoensis'' × ''P. mariana'') * ''Picea'' × ''saaghyi'' Gayer (''P. glauca'' × ''P. jezoensis'') The un-named hybrid between ''Picea omorika'' and ''Picea sitchensis'' shows marked hybrid vigour and has been considered of potential interest in forestry.<ref>{{cite book | last1=Lee | first1=Steve | last2=Thompson | first2=David | last3=Hansen | first3=Jon Kehlet | title=Forest Tree Breeding in Europe | chapter=Sitka Spruce (''Picea sitchensis'' (Bong.) Carr) | publisher=Springer Netherlands | publication-place=Dordrecht | volume=25 | date=2013 | isbn=978-94-007-6145-2 | doi=10.1007/978-94-007-6146-9_4 | doi-access=free | url=https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/bfm:978-94-007-6146-9/1?pdf=chapter%20toc | access-date=2025-11-08 | pages=177–227}}</ref>

=== Genome ===

The nuclear,<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/nuccore/ALWZ000000000.4/ |title = Picea glauca, whole genome shotgun sequencing project |website=National Center for Biotechnology Information |date = 13 March 2015}}</ref> mitochondrial<ref>{{cite web| url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/nuccore/LKAM00000000 |title=Picea glauca, whole genome shotgun sequencing project |website=National Center for Biotechnology Information |date=12 January 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |pmid=26645680 |pmc=4758241 |last=Jackman |first=S.D. |display-authors=etal |title=Organellar Genomes of White Spruce (''Picea glauca''): Assembly and Annotation |journal=Genome Biology and Evolution |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=29–41 |year=2015 |doi=10.1093/gbe/evv244}}</ref> and chloroplast<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/nuccore/NC_028594.1 | title=''Picea glauca'' chloroplast, complete genome |website=National Center for Biotechnology Information |date=3 December 2015}}</ref> genomes of British Columbia interior spruce ''Picea × albertiana'' have been sequenced. The large (20 Gbp) nuclear genome and associated gene annotations of interior spruce (genotype PG29) were published in 2013<ref>{{cite journal |last=Birol |first=I. |display-authors=etal |title=Assembling the 20 Gb white spruce (''Picea glauca'') genome from whole-genome shotgun sequencing data |journal=Bioinformatics |volume=29 |issue=12 |pages=1492–1497 |doi=10.1093/bioinformatics/btt178 |pmid=23698863 |pmc=3673215 |year=2013}}</ref> and 2015.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Warren |first=R. L. |display-authors=etal |title=Improved white spruce (''Picea glauca'') genome assemblies and annotation of large gene families of conifer terpenoid and phenolic defense metabolism |journal=The Plant Journal |volume=83 |issue=2 |pages=189–212 |doi=10.1111/tpj.12886|pmid=26017574|year=2015 |bibcode=2015PlJ....83..189W |doi-access=free}}</ref>

== Ecology ==

=== Establishment ===

Spruce seedlings are most vulnerable from germination to the following spring. More than half of spruce seedling mortality probably occurs during the first growing season and remains high during the first winter.<ref name="Alexander-1987">Alexander, R.R. (1987). Ecology, silviculture, and management of the Engelmann spruce–subalpine fir type in the central and southern Rocky Mountains. USDA, For. Serv., Washington DC, Agricultural Handbook 659.</ref> Seedlings four to five years old can be considered "established", since only unusual factors such as snow mould, fire, trampling, or browsing can then impair regeneration success.<ref name="Noble-1978">Noble, D.L.; Ronco, F. (1978). Seedfall and establishment of Engelmann spruce and subalpine fir in clearcut openings in Colorado. USDA, For. Serv., Rocky Mountain For. Range Exp. Sta., Res. Pap. RM-200.</ref> In dry habitats, seedlings can be considered established when three years old.<ref name="Eis-1967">{{cite journal |last=Eis |first=S. |year=1967 |title= Establishment and early development of white spruce in the interior of British Columbia |journal=Forestry Chronicle |volume=43 |issue=2 |pages=174–177 |doi=10.5558/tfc43174-2 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

=== Distribution and habitat ===

Like firs and pines, spruces are important both ecologically and economically in the Northern Hemisphere. While some species are widespread, most have limited geographical ranges. Like firs but unlike pines, spruces are mainly confined to colder areas, with many species in the west of China. The spruces are less tolerant of heat than the firs, and accordingly their distribution reaches further north and less far south.<ref name="International Dendrology Society"/>

=== Diseases ===

Sirococcus blight is caused by the deuteromycete fungus ''Sirococcus tsugae''. It affects spruces across the Northern Hemisphere, both in forests and in nurseries, causing severe defoliation and shoot blight. It first appeared in Germany and the United Kingdom in 2014. It is spread when rain splashes on the asexual conidia. Control is limited to biosecurity measures.<ref>{{cite web |title=Sirococcus blight (Sirococcus tsugae |work=Forest Research |url=https://www.forestresearch.gov.uk/tools-and-resources/fthr/pest-and-disease-resources/sirococcus-blight-sirococcus-tsugae/ |publisher=Forest Research |access-date=7 September 2025}}</ref>

Rhizosphaera needle cast, a disease that causes leaf fall, is caused by the infection of spruces by the ascomycete fungus ''Rhizosphaera'' in North America. It causes severe defoliation. Dead needles show rows of black fruiting bodies. Infection is mainly on lower branches. Control is possible with the fungicide Chlorothalonil, which prevents new infection, if all needles can be sprayed.<ref>{{cite web |title=Rhizosphaera Needle Cast |url=https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/rhizosphaera-needle-cast/ |publisher=University of Wisconsin-Madison: Wisconsin Horticulture |access-date=7 September 2025}}</ref>

Canker disease of spruce is caused by the ascomycete fungal pathogen ''Leucostoma kunzei'' (also called ''Cytospora'' and ''Valsa''). It is dispersed by spores from pycnidia within the tree's bark, which contain asexual conidia. The conidia are spread by rain splash. The disease affects all spruce species. Trees are more vulnerable under water stress. Fungicides containing copper prevent new infection but these are readily washed off by rain and are not suitable for forestry use.<ref>{{cite web |title=Canker disease of spruce |date=31 December 2013 |url=https://tidcf.nrcan.gc.ca/en/diseases-caused-by-pathogens/factsheet/263 |publisher=Canadian Forest Service |access-date=7 September 2025}}</ref>

=== Predators ===

Small mammals ingest conifer seeds, and consume seedlings.<ref name="Wagg-1963">{{cite journal |author=Wagg, J.W.B. |year=1963 |title=Notes on food habits of small mammals of the white spruce forest |journal=For. Chron. |volume=39 |issue=4 |pages=436–445 |doi=10.5558/tfc39436-4 |doi-access=free}}</ref> The short-tailed meadow vole (''Microtus pennsylvanicus'' Ord) voraciously eats white spruce and lodgepole pine seedlings, pulling them out of the ground and consuming them whole.<ref name="Wagg-1963"/> The impact varies; in western Montana, spruce seedling success was little better on protected than on unprotected seed spots,<ref name="Schopmeyer-1947">Schopmeyer, C. S.; Helmers, A. E. 1947. Seeding as a means of reforestation in the northern Rocky Mountain Region. USDA Forestry Service, Washington DC, Circular 772.</ref> but in British Columbia, spruce regeneration depends on protection from rodents.<ref name="Smith-1955">Smith, J.H.G. 1955 [1956 acc to E3999 bib]. Some factors affecting reproduction of Engelmann spruce and alpine fir. British Columbia Dep. Lands For., For. Serv., Victoria, British Columbia, Tech. Publ. 43 p. [Coates et al. 1994, Nienstaedt and Teich 1972]</ref> A mouse can eat 2000 white spruce seeds per night.<ref name="Radvanyi-1970">{{cite journal |last1=Radvanyi |first1=A |year=1970 |title=Small mammals and regeneration of white spruce forests in western Alberta |journal=Ecology |volume=51 |issue=6 |pages=1102–1105 |doi=10.2307/1933641 |jstor=1933641|bibcode=1970Ecol...51.1102R }}</ref> Seed losses can be large: repeated applications of half a million white spruce seeds per hectare in Alberta failed to produce the required 750 trees per hectare.<ref name="Radvanyi-1972">Radvanyi, A. 1972. Small mammals and regeneration of white spruce in western Alberta. p. 21–23 ''in'' McMinn, R.G. (Ed.). White Spruce: Ecology of a Northern Resource. Can. Dep. Environ., Can. For. Serv., Edmonton, Alberta, Inf. Rep. NOR-X-40.</ref>

Larger mammals too can have an impact; as much as 90% of a cone crop can be harvested by red squirrels,<ref name="Zasada-1978">Zasada, J.C.; Foote, M.J.; Deneke, F.J.; Parkerson, R.H. 1978. Case history of an excellent white spruce cone and seed crop in interior Alaska: cone and seed production, germination and seedling survival. USDA, For. Serv., Pacific NW For. Range Exp. Sta., Portland, Oregon, Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-65. 53 p.</ref> while bark-stripping of white spruce by black bears is locally important in Alaska.<ref name="Lutz-1951">{{cite journal |author=Lutz, H.J. |year=1951 |title=Damage to trees by black bears in Alaska |journal=J. For. |volume=49 |pages=522–523}}</ref>

=== Pests ===

[[File:Kuuse-kooreürask ja tegutsemisjäljed Ips typographus.jpg|thumb|Gallery of the European spruce bark beetle (''Ips typographus'') in the inner bark (phloem).]]

The European spruce bark beetle (''Ips typographus'', also called the eight-toothed spruce bark beetle) lays its eggs in the inner bark (phloem) of ''Picea abies'', other spruces, and sometimes other conifers across Europe and Asia. They bring with them ophiostomatoid fungi, some of them serious tree pathogens.<ref name="EPPO">{{cite web |title=EPPO Datasheet: Ips typographus |url=https://gd.eppo.int/taxon/IPSXTY/download/datasheet_pdf |publisher=EPPO |access-date=31 August 2025}}</ref> The larvae make tunnels in the phloem; in large numbers, they can cut off the phloem and kill the tree.<ref name="Hlasny-2019">{{cite book |last=Hlasny |first=Tomas |display-authors=etal |title=Living with bark beetles: impacts, outlook and management options |date=2019 |publisher=European Forest Institute |isbn=978-952-5980-75-2 |pages=8–11 |url=https://efi.int/sites/default/files/files/publication-bank/2019/efi_fstp_8_2019_0.pdf}}</ref>

The eastern spruce budworm (''Choristoneura fumiferana'') is a major pest of spruce trees in forests throughout Canada and the eastern United States.<ref name="Powell-1995">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YH7WzKFzX0MC&pg=PP1 |title=Biosystematic Studies of Conifer-Feeding Choristoneura (Lepidoptera Tortricidae) in the Western United States |date=1995 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=9780520097964 |editor-last=Powell |editor-first=Jerry A.}}</ref> Two of the main host plants are black spruce and white spruce.<ref name="Balch-1954">Balch, R.E.; Webb, F.E.; Morris, R.F. (1954). [https://cfs.nrcan.gc.ca/publications?id=8263 Results of spraying against spruce budworm in New Brunswick]. Can. Dep. Agric., For. Biol. Div., Ottawa, Ontario, Bi-mo. Program Report 10(1).</ref> Population levels oscillate, sometimes reaching extreme outbreak levels that can cause extreme defoliation of and damage to spruce trees. To reduce destruction, there are multiple methods of control in place, including pesticides.<ref name="Allison-2016">{{cite book |last1=Allison |first1=Jeremy D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1GjgDAAAQBAJ |title=Pheromone Communication in Moths: Evolution, Behavior, and Application |last2=Carde |first2=Ring T. |date=2016 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0520964433 |pages=265–271}}</ref>

The great spruce bark beetle (''Dendroctonus rufipennis'') is a destructive pest of spruce forests in western North America,<ref name="Wygant-1967">Wygant, N.D.; Lejeune, R.R. 1967. "Engelmann spruce beetle ''Dendroctonus obesus'' (Mann.) (= ''D. engelmanni'' Hopk.)". pp. 93–95 in Davidson, A.G.; Prentice, R.M. (Eds.). ''Important forest insects and diseases of mutual concern to Canada, the United States, and Mexico''. Canadian Department of Forestry and Rural Development, Ottawa, Ontario. Publication 1180.</ref> and has become widespread in Europe and Asia. It arrived in the United Kingdom sometime between 1973 and 1982. It causes dieback of spruce, worst when the trees are stressed by drought. Continued attack can kill the trees. The pest is subject to effective biological control by a natural predator, the Siberian beetle ''Rhizolophus grandis''.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trust |first=Woodland |title=Great Spruce Bark Beetle (D. micans) |url=https://www.woodlandtrust.org.uk/trees-woods-and-wildlife/tree-pests-and-diseases/key-tree-pests-and-diseases/great-spruce-bark-beetle/ |access-date=7 September 2025 |website=Woodland Trust}}</ref>

The green spruce aphid (''Elatobium abietinum'' can cause significant defoliation and occasionally tree death in areas with mild winters. It is native to northern and eastern Europe, where it causes little damage as its population is kept in check by the low winter temperatures in the continental climate of the region, with significant aphid mortality occurring when the air temperature drops below -8°C.<ref name="Day-1998">{{cite web | title=The Green Spruce Aphid in Western Europe: Ecology, Status, Impacts and Prospects for Management | url=https://cdn.forestresearch.gov.uk/1998/03/fctp024.pdf | access-date=2025-11-07}}</ref> It becomes much more damaging on spruces in oceanic climates with mild winters such as Great Britain, where it is able to breed more continuously through the winter.<ref name="Day-1998"/>

== Uses ==

=== Timber ===

thumb|Wood of Norway spruce

Spruce is useful as a building wood, known by names such as North American timber, SPF (spruce-pine-fir) and whitewood.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-09-07 |title=17 Different Types of Pine Wood |url=https://www.homestratosphere.com/types-of-pine-wood/ |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=Home Stratosphere}}</ref> It is commonly used in Canadian Lumber Standard (CLS) graded wood.<ref name="Jenkins-2023">{{cite web | last=Jenkins | first=Steve | title=What is CLS timber and what DIY projects is it good for? | website=Homebuilding & Renovating | date=2023-09-03 | url=https://www.homebuilding.co.uk/advice/what-is-cls-timber | access-date=2024-08-22}}</ref> Spruce wood is used for many purposes, ranging from general construction work and crates to highly specialised uses in wooden aircraft.<ref>{{Cite web |last=LaFalce |first=Ben |date=2019-09-24 |title=Types of Wood: Guide to Choose the Best for Your Furniture |url=https://octaneseating.com/blog/types-of-wood-for-furniture/ |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=Octane Seating}}</ref> The Wright brothers' first aircraft, the ''Flyer'', was built of spruce,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nasm.si.edu/exhibitions/gal100/wright1903.html |title=Milestones of Flight - 1903 Wright Flyer |publisher=Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040405082131/http://www.nasm.si.edu/exhibitions/gal100/wright1903.html |archive-date=5 April 2004 |access-date=21 August 2016|date=2016-04-28}}</ref> but the 1947 Hughes H-4 Hercules flying boat, known as the "Spruce Goose", was, in fact, mainly made of birch.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Godlewski |first1=Meg |title=When the 'Spruce Goose' Took Flight |url=https://www.flyingmag.com/when-the-spruce-goose-took-flight/ |website=Flying Mag |access-date=6 September 2025 |date=19 October 2022}}</ref>

Because this species has poor resistance to insects and fungi after logging, it is recommended for indoor construction, such as indoor drywall framing. Spruce wood left outside cannot be expected to last more than 12–18 months depending on the climate.<ref>{{cite web |title=Picea Genus (spruce) |url=https://conifersociety.org/conifers/picea |website=American Conifer Society |access-date=13 June 2019}}</ref>

===Tonewood===

[[File:Politiko Laouto.jpg|thumb|A lute with a spruce soundboard ]]

Spruce is the standard material used in soundboards for stringed instruments, including guitars. Wood used for this purpose is called tonewood. Species used include Engelmann spruce in North America, and Sitka spruce in Europe.<ref name="Joh.deHeer!">{{cite web |title=Tonewoods |website=Joh.deHeer! |url=https://www.johdeheer.nl/lp/tonewoods.html |access-date=6 September 2025}}</ref> In the Dolomites, the Norway spruces of the Paneveggio "Violins Forest" have for centuries been used for making musical instruments, supposedly including by the leading violin-maker Antonio Stradivari.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Violins' Forest: The Norway spruce growing in the Paneveggio forest is the key to the secrets of master string-instrument makers. |url=https://www.visittrentino.info/en/guide/nature/beautiful-places/the-violins-forest_md_2248 |website=Visit Trentino |access-date=7 September 2025}}</ref>

=== Paper ===

Spruce is a good pulpwood, as it has long fibres which bind together to make strong paper,<ref>{{cite web |last=Lowry |first=Zachary |title=What is Spruce Used For? |url=https://thetimberlandinvestor.com/what-is-spruce-used-for/ |publisher=The Timberland Investor |access-date=6 September 2025 |date=5 June 2022}}</ref> especially from trees over 60 years old. The pulp, known as northern bleached softwood kraft (NBSK), is used to make products such as tissue paper.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Bicho |first1=Paul |title=High quality NBSK for premium tissue |url=https://www.tissueworldmagazine.com/technical-theme/high-quality-nbsk-for-premium-tissue/ |website=Tissue World magazine |access-date=7 September 2025 |date=13 December 2018}}</ref>

=== Other materials ===

The resin was used in the manufacture of pitch in the past (before the use of petrochemicals); the scientific name ''Picea'' derives from Latin {{wikt-lang|la|picea}} "pitch pine" (the Scots pine).<ref>{{L&S|picea|pĭcĕa|ref}}</ref> Native Americans use the thin, pliable roots of some species for weaving baskets<ref>{{cite web |title=Spruce Root Basketry |url=https://www.sheldonmuseum.org/vignette/spruce-root-basketry/ |publisher=Haines Sheldon Museum |location=Haines, Alaska |access-date=6 September 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Coast Salish Weaving Tools & Technologies: Weaving Basketry |url=https://www.burkemuseum.org/collections-and-research/heritage/artscultures/coast-salish-art/coast-salish-weaving-tools |publisher=Burke Museum |location=Seattle |access-date=6 September 2025 |quote=Materials used in twined baskets include cattail leaves, cedar bark, and spruce roots. Designs are formed by overlaying a dyed weft or using wefts of different colors. Twined baskets are softer and more pliable than coiled baskets.}}</ref> and for sewing together pieces of birch bark for canoes.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Lewis |first1=Stephen J. |title=Channeling Native American tradition through canoe making |url=https://news.northwestern.edu/stories/2021/10/native-american-tradition-canoe-builder/ |publisher=Northwestern University |access-date=6 September 2025 |date=27 October 2021 |quote=materials used to create the canoe — cedar for the ribs, spruce roots for the stitching, pine pitch to seal the seams and, of course, birchbark.}}</ref> Kiidk'yaas, felled in 1997, was a golden Sitka Spruce sacred to the Haida people.<ref>{{cite web |title=Kiidk'yaas, the Golden Spruce |url=https://www.atlasobscura.com/places/kiidk-yaas-the-golden-spruce-2 |website=Atlas Obscura |access-date=6 September 2025}}</ref> Spruces are popular ornamental trees.<ref name="Flora of East Anglia">{{cite web |title=Spruces & Allies |url=http://webidguides.com/_templates/conifergroup_picea.html |website=Flora of East Anglia |access-date=6 September 2025}}</ref> ''Picea abies'' is extensively used as Christmas trees.<ref name="Woodland Trust">{{cite web |title=Spruce, Norway (Picea abies) |url=https://www.woodlandtrust.org.uk/trees-woods-and-wildlife/british-trees/a-z-of-british-trees/norway-spruce/ |publisher=Woodland Trust |access-date=6 September 2025}}</ref> Spruce branches are used at Aintree Racecourse in Liverpool to build fences used as horse jumps on the Grand National course.<ref>{{cite web |title=Grand National 2025: Everything you need to know |date=4 April 2025 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/newsround/articles/c62g3g21v4mo |access-date=6 September 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250406011326/https://www.bbc.co.uk/newsround/articles/c62g3g21v4mo |archive-date=6 April 2025 |quote=The fences are made from branches of spruce and it takes Aintree staff three weeks to build them. |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Food and drink ===

The fresh shoots of many spruces are a natural source of vitamin C.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/library/documents/treebook/sitkaspruce.htm |title= Tree Book - Sitka spruce (''Picea sitchensis'') |publisher=British Columbia Ministry of Forests, Lands and Natural Resource Operations |access-date=29 July 2006}}</ref> Captain Cook made alcoholic sugar-based spruce beer during his sea voyages in order to prevent scurvy in his crew.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P1Oy7Qz1tewC&q=Spruce+beer+Captain+Cook&pg=PA39 |title=A social history of medicines in the twentieth century: to be taken three times a day |first=J. K. |last=Crellin |page=39 |location=New York |publisher=Pharmaceutical Products Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0789018441}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |pmid=12810402 |title=Captain Cook's beer: the antiscorbutic use of malt and beer in late 18th century sea voyages |first=Brett J. |last=Stubbs |journal=Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition |volume=12 |issue=2 |date=June 2003 |pages=129–137}}</ref>

In Finland, young spruce buds are sometimes used as a spice, or boiled with sugar to create spruce bud syrup.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kadoksissa ollut juomaresepti löytyi – kuusenkerkästä tehdään muutakin kuin siirappia |trans-title=A lost drink recipe has been found – spruce cones are used to make more than just syrup |url=http://yle.fi/uutiset/kadoksissa_ollut_juomaresepti_loytyi__kuusenkerkasta_tehdaan_muutakin_kuin_siirappia/8926774|access-date=2021-08-08 |website=Yle Uutiset |date=6 June 2016|language=fi}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Jyske |first=T. |display-authors=etal |title=Sprouts and Needles of Norway Spruce (''Picea abies'' (L.) Karst.) as Nordic Specialty-Consumer Acceptance, Stability of Nutrients, and Bioactivities during Storage |journal=Molecules |volume=25 |issue=18 |pages=4187 |date=2020 |doi=10.3390/molecules25184187 |pmid=32932686 |pmc=7570650 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== In art ===

Around 1900, Edvard Munch made numerous oil paintings of spruce forests, now in the Munch Museum in Oslo.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Munch |first1=Edvard |title=Individual works |url=https://www.munch.no/en/object/MM.G.00642 |publisher=Munch Museum |access-date=8 September 2025}}</ref> The Finnish artist and photographer Eija-Liisa Ahtila's work ''Horizontal–Vaakasuora'', exhibited from 2012 at Stockholm's Moderna Museet and the Shirley Sherwood Gallery depicts a 30-metre-tall spruce, arranged horizontally, in six large video panels.{{efn|A still from the installation can be seen at Eija-Liisa Ahtila.}}<ref>{{cite web |title=The Power of Trees |url=https://www.kew.org/kew-gardens/whats-on/power-of-trees |publisher=Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew |access-date=8 September 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Eija-Liisa Ahtila: Horizontal |url=https://emmamuseum.fi/nayttely/eija-liisa-ahtila-horizontal/ |publisher=EMMA Museum, Finland |access-date=8 September 2025}}</ref> ''XIBT magazine'' described it as "delving into notions of ecology and symbiosis as well as the essence of existentialism within the context of our external world."<ref>{{cite web |last1=Prapoglou |first1=Kostas |title=The Ecology Of Drama, online at Marian Goodman Gallery NY |url=https://www.xibtmagazine.com/2020/04/eija-liisa-ahtila-studies-on-the-ecology-of-drama-online-at-marian-goodman-gallery-ny/ |website=XIBT magazine |access-date=8 September 2025}}</ref>

<gallery class=center mode=nolines widths=180 heights=180> File:River Landscape with Five Bare Spruce Trees Augustin Hirschvogel 1549.jpg|Augustin Hirschvogel, ''River Landscape with Five Bare Spruce Trees'', etching, 1549 File:Joachim Frich - Study of a Spruce - NG.M.04175 - National Museum of Art, Architecture and Design.jpg|Joachim Frich, ''Study of a Spruce'', oil on board, 1851 File:Werner Holmberg - Spruce Saplings in Sandy Soil, Study - A I 471-12 - Finnish National Gallery.jpg|Werner Holmberg, ''Spruce Saplings in Sandy Soil'', Study, 1854 File:Carl Fredrik Hill - The black spruces - Google Art Project.jpg|Carl Fredrik Hill, ''The Black Spruces'', oil on canvas, 1878 File:Edvard Munch - Dark Spruce Forest - MM.M.00337 - Munch Museum.jpg|Edvard Munch, ''Dark Spruce Forest'', oil on canvas, 1899 File:Abby Williams Hill Balsatic rocks 1904.jpg|Abby Williams Hill, ''Basaltic Rocks'', oil on canvas, 1904 File:Tom Thomson - Black Spruce and Maple - Google Art Project.jpg|Tom Thomson, ''Black Spruce and Maple'', oil on wood panel, 1915 </gallery>

== Notes ==

== References ==

== External links ==

* theplantlist.org / [http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl1.1/search?q=picea ''Picea'' (Spruce)] * conifers.org / [https://www.conifers.org/pi/Picea.php Gymnosperm Database - ''Picea''] * efloras.org / ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20060222022025/http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=125375 Picea]'' * pinetum.org / Arboretum de Villardebelle: Cones of selected species of ''Picea'': [http://www.pinetum.org/cones/PICEAcones.htm page 1], [http://www.pinetum.org/cones/PICEAcones2.htm Arboretum de Villardebelle page 2]

{{Plant classification}} {{Acrogymnospermae classification}} {{Tannin source}} {{Woodworking}} {{Taxonbar|from=Q26782}} {{Authority control}}

Category:Picea Category:Forestry