Speech error

{{short description|Deviation from the apparently intended form of an utterance}} {{Use dmy dates|date=February 2025}}

A '''speech error''', commonly referred to as a '''slip of the tongue'''<ref name='David Carroll 1986'>{{cite book |author=Carroll, David |title=Psychology of language |publisher=Brooks/Cole Pub. Co |location=Pacific Grove, CA, USA |year=1986 |pages=253–256 |isbn=978-0-534-05640-7 |oclc=12583436 }}</ref> (Latin: {{lang|la|lapsus linguae}}, or occasionally self-demonstratingly, {{lang|la|lipsus languae}}) or '''misspeaking''', is a deviation (conscious or unconscious) from the apparently intended form of an utterance.<ref name="Bussmann, Hadumod 1996">Bussmann, Hadumod. Routledge dictionary of language and linguistics. Routledge: London 1996, 449.</ref> They can be subdivided into spontaneously and inadvertently produced speech errors and intentionally produced word-plays or puns. Another distinction can be drawn between production and comprehension errors. Errors in speech production and perception are also called performance errors.<ref name='Tserdanelis Wong 2004'>{{cite book |author1=Tserdanelis, Georgios |author2=Wai Sum Wong |title=Language files: materials for an introduction to language & linguistics |publisher=Ohio State University Press |location=Columbus |year=2004 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/languagefilesmat00tser/page/320 320–324] |isbn=978-0-8142-0970-7 |oclc=54503589 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/languagefilesmat00tser/page/320 }}</ref> Some examples of speech error include sound exchange or sound anticipation errors. In sound exchange errors, the order of two individual morphemes is reversed, while in sound anticipation errors a sound from a later syllable replaces one from an earlier syllable.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Dell|first1=Gary S.|last2=Reich|first2=Peter A.|title=Stages in sentence production: An analysis of speech error data|journal=Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior|date=December 1981|volume=20|issue=6|pages=611–629|doi=10.1016/S0022-5371(81)90202-4}}</ref> Slips of the tongue are a normal and common occurrence. One study shows that most people can make up to as much as 22 slips of the tongue per day.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.psychologytoday.com/articles/201203/slips-the-tongue|title=Slips of the Tongue|website=Psychology Today|access-date=2017-05-16}}</ref>

Speech errors are common among children, who have yet to refine their speech, and can frequently continue into adulthood. When errors continue past the age of 9 they are referred to as "residual speech errors" or RSEs.<ref name=":1" /> They sometimes lead to embarrassment and betrayal of the speaker's regional or ethnic origins. However, it is also common for them to enter the popular culture as a kind of linguistic "flavoring". Speech errors may be used intentionally for humorous effect, as with spoonerisms.

Within the field of psycholinguistics, speech errors fall under the category of language production. Types of speech errors include: exchange errors, perseveration, anticipation, shift, substitution, blends, additions, and deletions. The study of speech errors has contributed to the establishment/refinement of models of speech production since Victoria Fromkin's pioneering work on this topic.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://web.stanford.edu/~zwicky/Fromkin-non-anomalous.pdf|title=The Non-Anomalous Nature of Anomalous Utterances|last=Fromkin|first=Victoria|website=Stanford}}</ref>

==Psycholinguistic explanations==

Speech errors are made on an occasional basis by all speakers.<ref name='David Carroll 1986'/> They occur more often when speakers are nervous, tired, anxious or intoxicated.<ref name='David Carroll 1986'/> During live broadcasts on television or on the radio, for example, nonprofessional speakers and hosts often make speech errors because they are under stress.<ref name='David Carroll 1986'/> Some speakers seem more prone to speech errors than others. For example, there is a certain connection between stuttering and speech errors.<ref name='Hockett 1973'>{{cite book | last1 = Hockett | first1 = Charles F. | title = Speech errors as linguistic evidence | chapter = Where the tongue slips, there slip I |editor1= Victoria Fromkin | publisher = Mouton | year = 1973 | location = The Hague |pages=97–114 |oclc=1009093 }}</ref> Charles F. Hockett explains that "whenever a speaker feels some anxiety about possible lapse, he will be led to focus attention more than normally on what he has just said and on what he is just about to say. These are ideal breeding grounds for stuttering."<ref name='Hockett 1973'/> Another example of a "chronic sufferer" is William Archibald Spooner, whose peculiar speech may be caused by a cerebral dysfunction, but there is much evidence that he invented his famous speech errors (spoonerisms).<ref name='David Carroll 1986'/>

An explanation for the occurrence of speech errors comes from psychoanalysis, in the so-called ''Freudian slip''. Sigmund Freud assumed that speech errors are the result of an intrapsychic conflict of concurrent intentions.<ref name='David Carroll 1986'/> "Virtually all speech errors [are] caused by the intrusion of repressed ideas from the unconscious into one's conscious speech output", Freud explained.<ref name='David Carroll 1986'/> In fact, his hypothesis explains only a minority of speech errors.<ref name='David Carroll 1986'/>

==Psycholinguistic classification==

There are few speech errors that clearly fall into only one category. The majority of speech errors can be interpreted in different ways and thus fall into more than one category.<ref>Pfau, Roland. Grammar as processor: a distributed morphology account of spontaneous speech. John Benjamins Publishing Co.: Amsterdam 2009, 10.</ref> For this reason, percentage figures for the different kinds of speech errors may be of limited accuracy.<ref name='Eysenck Keane 2005'>{{cite book |author1=Eysenck, Michael W. |author2=Keane, Mark A. |title=Cognitive Psychology: A Student's Handbook |publisher=Psychology Press (UK) |year=2005 |pages=402 |isbn=978-1-84169-359-0 |oclc=608153953 }}</ref> Moreover, the study of speech errors gave rise to different terminologies and different ways of classifying speech errors. Here is a collection of the main types: {| class="wikitable" border="1" |+ '''Types of speech errors''' ! Type ! Definition ! Example |- ! Addition | "Additions add linguistic material."<ref name='David Carroll 1986'/> | '''Target:''' We '''Error:''' We and I |- ! Anticipation | "A later segment takes the place of an earlier segment."<ref name='David Carroll 1986'/> | '''Target:''' reading list '''Error:''' leading list |- ! Blends | Blends are a subcategory of lexical selection errors.<ref name='Eysenck Keane 2005'/> More than one item is being considered during speech production. Consequently, the two intended items fuse together.<ref name='David Carroll 1986'/> | '''Target:''' false/baseless '''Error:''' falseless |- ! Deletion | Deletions or omissions leave some linguistic material out.<ref name='David Carroll 1986'/> | '''Target:''' unanimity of opinion '''Error:''' unamity of opinion |- ! Exchange | Exchanges are double shifts. Two linguistic units change places.<ref name='David Carroll 1986'/> | '''Target:''' getting your nose remodeled '''Error:''' getting your model renosed |- ! Lexical selection error | The speaker has "problems with selecting the correct word".<ref name='Eysenck Keane 2005'/> | '''Target:''' tennis racquet '''Error:''' tennis bat |- ! Malapropism, classical | The speaker has the wrong beliefs about the meaning of a word. Consequently, they produce the intended word, which is semantically inadequate. Therefore, this is a competence error rather than a performance error. Malapropisms are named after 'Mrs. Malaprop', a character from Richard B. Sheridan's eighteenth-century play ''The Rivals''.<ref name='Tserdanelis Wong 2004'/> | '''Target: '''The flood damage was so bad they had to evacuate the city. '''Error:''' The flood damage was so bad they had to evaporate the city. |- ! Metathesis | "Switching of two sounds, each taking the place of the other."<ref name='Tserdanelis Wong 2004'/> | '''Target:''' pus pocket '''Error:''' pos pucket |- ! Morpheme-exchange error<ref name='Eysenck Keane 2005'/> | Morphemes change places. | '''Target:''' He has already packed two trunks. '''Error:''' He has already packs two trunked. |- ! Morpheme stranding | Morphemes remain in place but are attached to the wrong words.<ref>Anderson, John R. Kognitive Psychologie. Spektrum Akademischer Verlag: Heidelberg 1996 (2nd edition), 353.</ref> | '''Target:''' He has already packed two trunks. '''Error:''' He has already trunked two packs. |- ! Omission | cf. deletions | '''Target:''' She can't tell me. '''Error:''' She can tell me. |- ! Perseveration | "An earlier segment replaces a later item."<ref name='David Carroll 1986'/> | '''Target:''' black boxes '''Error:''' black bloxes |- ! Residual speech errors | "Distortions of late-developing sounds such as /s/, /l/, and /r/."<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Preston|first1=Jonathan|last2=Byun|first2=Tara|date=November 2015|title=Residual Speech Errors: Causes, Implications, Treatment|journal=Seminars in Speech and Language|volume=36|issue=4|pages=215–216|doi=10.1055/s-0035-1562904|pmid=26458196|s2cid=39709535 |issn=0734-0478}}</ref> | '''Target:''' The box is red. '''Error:''' The box is wed. |- ! Shift | "One speech segment disappears from its appropriate location and appears somewhere else."<ref name='David Carroll 1986'/> | '''Target:''' She decides to hit it. '''Error:''' She decide to hits it. |- ! Sound-exchange error | Two sounds switch places.<ref name='Eysenck Keane 2005'/> | '''Target:''' Night life [nait laif] '''Error:''' Knife light [naif lait] |- ! Spoonerism | A spoonerism is a kind of metathesis. Switching of initial sounds of two separate words.<ref name='Tserdanelis Wong 2004'/> They are named after Reverend William Archibald Spooner, who probably invented most of his famous spoonerisms.<ref name='Eysenck Keane 2005'/> | '''Target:''' I saw you light a fire. '''Error:''' I saw you fight a liar. |- ! Substitution | One segment is replaced by an intruder. The source of the intrusion is not in the sentence.<ref name='David Carroll 1986'/> | '''Target:''' Where is my tennis racquet? '''Error:''' Where is my tennis bat? |- ! Word-exchange error | A word-exchange error is a subcategory of lexical selection errors.<ref name='Eysenck Keane 2005'/> Two words are switched. | '''Target:''' I must let the cat out of the house. '''Error:''' I must let the house out of the cat. |}

Speech errors can affect different kinds of segments or linguistic units:

{| class="wikitable" border="1" |+ '''Segments''' ! Segment ! Example |- ! Distinctive or phonetic features | '''Target:''' clear blue sky '''Error:''' glear plue sky (voicing) |- ! Phonemes or sounds | '''Target:''' ad hoc '''Error:''' odd hack |- ! Sequences of sounds | '''Target:''' spoon feeding '''Error:''' foon speeding |- ! Morphemes | '''Target:''' sure '''Error:''' unsure |- ! Words | '''Target:''' I hereby deputize you. '''Error:''' I hereby jeopardize you. |- ! Phrases | '''Target:''' The sun is shining./The sky is blue. '''Error:''' The sky is shining. |}

===Types=== * Grammatical – For example, children take time to learn irregular verbs, so in English use the -ed form incorrectly. This is explored by Steven Pinker in his book ''Words and Rules''. * Mispronunciation * Vocabulary – Young children make category approximations, using car for truck for example. This is known as hyponymy.

====Examples==== * "par'''tic'''uly" (particu'''lar'''ly) ← elision * "syn'''tax'''ically" (syn'''tact'''ically) ← vocabulary

==Scientific relevance== {{term paper|section|date=April 2026}} Speech production is a highly complex and extremely rapid process, and thus research into the involved mental mechanisms proves to be difficult.<ref name='Eysenck Keane 2005'/> Investigating the audible output of the speech production system is a way to understand these mental mechanisms. According to Gary S. Dell, "the inner workings of a highly complex system are often revealed by the way in which the system breaks down".<ref name='Eysenck Keane 2005'/> Therefore, speech errors are of an explanatory value with regard to the nature of language and language production.<ref name="smithsrisca.demon.co.uk">Smith, Derek J. "Speech Errors, Speech Production Models, and Speech Pathology." Human Information Processing. Date of last revision: 12 December 2003. Date of access: 27 February 2010. {{cite web |url=http://www.smithsrisca.demon.co.uk/speech-errors.html |title=Speech-errors |access-date=2007-12-05 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071205074434/http://www.smithsrisca.demon.co.uk/speech-errors.html |archive-date=5 December 2007 }}.</ref>

===Evidence and insights=== Speech errors provide insights into the sequential order of language production processes<ref name='Eysenck Keane 2005'/> and the interactivity of language production modules.<ref name="smithsrisca.demon.co.uk"/>

Speech errors involve substitutions, shifts, additions and deletions of segments. "In order to move a sound, the speaker must think of it as a separate unit."<ref name='Tserdanelis Wong 2004'/> Obviously, speech errors cannot be accounted for without considering these discrete segments. They constitute the planning units of language production.<ref name='David Carroll 1986'/> Among them are distinctive features, phonemes, morphemes, syllables, words and phrases. Victoria Fromkin points out that "many of the segments that change and move in speech errors are precisely those postulated by linguistic theories." Consequently, speech errors give evidence that these units are psychologically real.

It can be inferred from speech errors that speakers adhere to a set of linguistic rules. "There is a complex set of rules which the language user follows when making use of these units."<ref name='Tserdanelis Wong 2004'/> Among them are for example phonetic constraints, which prescribe the possible sequences of sounds.<ref name='Tserdanelis Wong 2004'/> Moreover, the study of speech error confirmed the existence of rules that state how morphemes are to be pronounced or how they should be combined with other morphemes.<ref name='Tserdanelis Wong 2004'/> The following examples show that speech errors also observe these rules:

:: '''Target:''' He likes to have his team rested. [rest+id] :: '''Error:''' He likes to have his rest teamed. [ti:m+d]

:: '''Target:''' Both kids are sick. [kid+z] :: '''Error:''' Both sicks are kids. [sik+s]

Here, the past tense morpheme and the plural morpheme are phonologically conditioned, although the lemmas are exchanged. This proves that the lemmas are inserted before phonological conditioning takes place.

:: '''Target:''' Don't yell so loud! / Don't shout so loud! :: '''Error:''' Don't shell so loud!

"Shout" and "yell" are both appropriate words in this context. Due to the pressure to continue speaking, the speaker has to make a quick decision which word should be selected.<ref name='Hockett 1973'/> This pressure leads to the speaker's attempt to utter the two words simultaneously, which resulted in the creation of a blend.<ref name='Hockett 1973'/> According to Charles F. Hockett, there are six possible blends of "shout" and "yell".<ref name='Hockett 1973'/> The speaker obeyed unconscious linguistic rules because they selected the blend which satisfied the linguistic demands of these rules the best.<ref name='Hockett 1973'/> Illegal non-words are for example instantaneously rejected.

In conclusion, the rules that govern the production of speech must also be part of our mental organization of language.<ref name='Tserdanelis Wong 2004'/>

Errors in speech are non-random. Linguists can elicit from the speech error data how speech errors are produced and which linguistic rules they adhere to. As a result, they are able to predict speech errors.

====Lexical errors==== The existence of lexical or phonemic exchange errors indicates that speakers typically engage in planning their utterances beforehand. In each case, the whole utterance seems available to them.<ref name='Eysenck Keane 2005'/>

: '''Anticipation''' :: '''Target:''' Take my bike. :: '''Error:''' Bake my bike.

: '''Perseveration''' :: '''Target:''' He pulled a tantrum. :: '''Error:''' He pulled a pantrum.

====Performance errors==== Performance errors may provide empirical evidence for linguistic theories and serve to test hypotheses about language and speech production models.<ref name='Fromkin 1973'>{{cite book | last1 = Fromkin | first1 = Victoria | title = Speech errors as linguistic evidence | chapter = Introduction |editor1= Victoria Fromkin | publisher = Mouton | year = 1973 | location = The Hague |pages=13 |oclc=1009093 | isbn = 978-90-279-2668-5 }}</ref> For that reason, the study of speech errors is significant for the construction of performance models and gives insight into language mechanisms.<ref name='Fromkin 1973'/>

Performance errors supply evidence for the psychological existence of discrete linguistic units.

====Substitution errors==== Substitution errors, for instance, reveal parts of the organization and structure of the mental lexicon.

:: '''Target:''' My thesis is too long. :: '''Error:''' My thesis is too short.

In the case of substitution errors, both segments mostly belong to the same category, which means for example that a noun is substituted for a noun. Lexical selection errors are based on semantic relations such as synonymy, antonymy or membership of the same lexical field.<ref name="Bussmann, Hadumod 1996"/> For this reason, the mental lexicon is structured in terms of semantic relationships.<ref name='Tserdanelis Wong 2004'/>

:: '''Target:''' George's wife :: '''Error:''' George's life

:: '''Target:''' fashion square :: '''Error:''' passion square

Some substitution errors based on phonological similarities demonstrate that the mental lexicon is also organized in terms of sound.<ref name='Tserdanelis Wong 2004'/>

====Generalizations==== Four generalizations about speech errors have been identified:<ref name='David Carroll 1986'/> # Interacting elements tend to come from a similar linguistic environment, which means that initial, middle, final segments interact with one another. # Elements that interact with one another tend to be phonetically or semantically similar to one another. This means that consonants exchange with consonants and vowels with vowels. # Slips are consistent with the phonological rules of the language. # There are consistent stress patterns in speech errors. Predominantly, both interacting segments receive major or minor stress.

These four generalizations support the idea of the lexical bias effect. This effect states that our phonological speech errors generally form words rather than non-words. Baars (1975) showed evidence for this effect when he presented word pairs in rapid succession and asked participants to say both words in rapid succession back. In most of the trials, the mistakes made still formed actual words.<ref name=":0" />

== Information obtained from performance additions == An example of the information that can be obtained is the use of "um" or "uh" in a conversation.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Clark HH, Fox Tree JE |title=Using uh and um in spontaneous speaking |journal=Cognition |volume=84 |issue=1 |pages=73–111 |date=May 2002 |pmid=12062148 |doi= 10.1016/S0010-0277(02)00017-3 |citeseerx=10.1.1.5.7958 |s2cid=37642332 }}</ref> These might be meaningful words that tell different things, one of which is to hold a place in the conversation to prevent interruption. There seems to be a hesitant stage and fluent stage that suggest speech has different levels of production. The pauses seem to occur between sentences, conjunctional points and before the first content word in a sentence. That suggests that a large part of speech production happens there.

Schachter et al. (1991) conducted an experiment to examine if the numbers of word choices affect pausing. They sat in on the lectures of 47 undergraduate professors from 10 different departments and calculated the number and times of filled pauses and unfilled pauses. They found significantly more pauses in the humanities departments as opposed to the natural sciences.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1037/0022-3514.60.3.362 | title = Speech Disfluency and the Structure of Knowledge | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | date = March 1991 | first = Stanley | last = Schachter |author2=Nicholas Christenfeld |author3=Bernard Ravina |author4=Frances Bilous | volume = 60 | issue = 3 | pages = 362–367}}{{dead link|date=March 2019|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> These findings suggest a correlation between the quantity of word choices and the frequency of pauses, hence the pauses serve to give speakers time to choose their words.

Slips of the tongue can occur at various levels: syntactic, phrasal, lexical-semantic, morphological, and phonological. They can take multiple forms, such as additions, substitutions, deletions, exchanges, anticipations, perseverations, shifts, and haplologies.<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Garrett | first1 = M. F. | title = The Psychology of learning and motivation. Volume 9 : advances in research and theory | chapter = The analysis of sentence production. |editor1= Gordon H Bower | publisher = Academic Press | year = 1975 | location = New York | pages = [https://archive.org/details/psychologyoflear0000unse_e2t0/page/133 133–177] | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=IUM7B00L4UUC&q=Garrett%2C+M.+F.+%281975%29.+The+analysis+of+sentence+production.&pg=PA133 | isbn = 978-0-12-543309-9 | oclc = 24672687 | url = https://archive.org/details/psychologyoflear0000unse_e2t0/page/133 }}</ref>

There are some biases shown through slips of the tongue. One kind is a lexical bias which shows that the slips people generate are more often actual words than random sound strings. Baars Motley and Mackay (1975) found that it was more common for people to turn two actual words into two other actual words than when they do not create real words.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal | title = Output editing for lexical status in artificially elicited slips of the tongue | journal = Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior | date = August 1975 | first = Bernard J. | last = Baars |author2=Michael T. Motley |author3=Donald G. MacKay | volume = 14 | issue = 4 | pages = 382–391| doi = 10.1016/S0022-5371(75)80017-X }}</ref>

A second kind is a semantic bias which shows a tendency for sound bias to create words that are semantically related to other words in the linguistic environment. Motley and Baars (1976) found that a word pair like "get one" will more likely slip to "wet gun" if the pair before it is "damp rifle". These results suggest that people are sensitive to how things are laid out semantically.<ref>{{cite journal | title = Semantic bias effects on the outcomes of verbal slips | journal = Cognition | year = 1976 | first = Michael T. | last = Motley |author2=Bernard J. Baars | volume = 43 | issue = 2 | pages = 177–187| doi = 10.1016/0010-0277(76)90003-2 | s2cid = 53152698 }}{{dead link|date=March 2019|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>

==Euphemistic misspeaking== Since the 1980s, the word ''misspeaking'' has been used increasingly in politics to imply that errors made by a speaker are accidental and should not be construed as a deliberate attempt to misrepresent the facts of a case. As such, its usage has attracted a degree of media coverage, particularly from critics who feel that the term is overly approbative in cases where either ignorance of the facts or intent to misrepresent should not be discarded as possibilities.<ref name="newyorker">{{cite magazine|title=Mr. and Ms. Spoken|author=Hendrik Hertzberg|date=21 April 2008|url=http://www.newyorker.com/talk/comment/2008/04/21/080421taco_talk_hertzberg|access-date=14 August 2011|magazine=The New Yorker}}</ref><ref name="lawson"/>

The word was used by a White House spokesman after George W. Bush seemed to say that his government was always "thinking about new ways to harm our country and our people" (a classic example of a Bushism), and more famously by then American presidential candidate Hillary Clinton who recalled landing in at the US military outpost of Tuzla "under sniper fire" (in fact, video footage demonstrates that there were no such problems on her arrival).<ref name="lawson">{{cite news|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/columnists/dominic_lawson/article7133920.ece|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100530141330/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/columnists/dominic_lawson/article7133920.ece|url-status=dead|archive-date=30 May 2010|date=23 May 2010|title=Don't lie – try misspeaking instead|author=Dominic Lawson|newspaper=The Sunday Times|access-date=28 August 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/magazine/7314726.stm|title=Does 'misspeak' mean lying?|date=26 March 2008|access-date=28 August 2011|publisher=BBC News}}</ref> Other users of the term include American politician Richard Blumenthal, who incorrectly stated on a number of occasions that he had served in Vietnam during the Vietnam War.<ref name="lawson"/>

==References== {{reflist}}

==Further reading== *Bock, J. K. (1982). Toward a cognitive psychology of syntax. Psychological Review, 89, 1-47. *Garrett, M. F. (1976). Syntactic processing in sentence production. In E. Walker & R. Wales (Eds.), New approaches to language mechanisms (pp. 231–256). Amsterdam: North-Holland. *Garrett, M. F. (1980). Levels of processing in sentence production. In B. Butterworth (Ed.), Language production: Vol. 1. Speech and talk (pp. 177–220). San Diego, CA: Academic Press. *{{cite journal |author=Hickok G |title=The cortical organization of speech processing: feedback control and predictive coding the context of a dual-stream model |journal=J Commun Disord |volume=45 |issue=6 |pages=393–402 |year=2012 |pmid=22766458 |pmc=3468690 |doi=10.1016/j.jcomdis.2012.06.004 }} *Jescheniak, J.D., Levelt, W.J.M (1994). Word Frequency Effects in Speech Production: Retrieval of Syntactic Information and of Phonological Form. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, Vol. 20, (pp. 824–843) *Levelt, W. J. M. (1989). Speaking: From intention to articulation. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. *{{cite journal |author-link=David Poeppel |vauthors=Poeppel D, Emmorey K, Hickok G, Pylkkänen L |title=Towards a new neurobiology of language |journal=J. Neurosci. |volume=32 |issue=41 |pages=14125–31 |date=October 2012 |pmid=23055482 |pmc=3495005 |doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3244-12.2012}} *Reichman, R. (1981). Plain Speaking: A Theory and Grammar of Spontaneous Discourse. Cambridge, MA *Bache, Richard Meade. (1869). [https://archive.org/details/vulgarismsother00bachgoog  Vulgarisms and Other Errors of Speech].

==External links== {{wiktionary|lapsus linguae|misspeaking}} * {{Cite web|url=https://www.mpi.nl/dbmpi/sedb/sperco_form4.pl|title=Fromkins Speech Error Database – Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics|website=mpi.nl|access-date=2019-09-23}} {{Disinformation}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Speech Error}} Category:Phonetics Category:Speech Category:Speech–language pathology Category:Speech error