{{short description|Activities related to manufacturing components that go into Earth's orbit or beyond}} {{About||entrepreneurial space ventures and colonization|NewSpace}} {{distinguish|Space-based economy}} {{Use dmy dates|date=October 2019}} [[File:Starlink Mission (47926144123).jpg|300px|thumb|upright=1.5|A batch of 60 Starlink satellites in space, which are launched and made by SpaceX]]
'''Space industry''' refers to economic activities related to manufacturing components that go into outer space (Earth's orbit or beyond), delivering them to those regions, and related services.<ref name="Bromberg2000-1">{{cite book|author=Joan Lisa Bromberg|title=NASA and the Space Industry|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-UebVg1YqsoC&pg=PA1|access-date=10 June 2011|date=October 2000|publisher=JHU Press|isbn=978-0-8018-6532-9|page=1}}</ref><ref name="Schrogl2010">{{cite book|author=Kai-Uwe Schrogl|title=Yearbook on Space Policy 2008/2009: Setting New Trends|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gcZwzmPnqxkC&pg=PA49|access-date=10 June 2011|date=2 August 2010|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-7091-0317-3|page=49}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Pelton |first1=Joseph N. |title=Space 2.0: Revolutionary Advances in the Space Industry |date=2019 |publisher=Springer |location=Cham |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-15281-9 |isbn=978-3-030-15281-9 |url=https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-030-15281-9 |language=en}}</ref> Owing to the prominence of satellite-related activities, some sources use the term '''satellite industry''' interchangeably with the term '''space industry'''.<ref name="JollyRazi2007-48"/> The term '''space business''' has also been used.<ref name="Bromberg2000">{{cite book|author=Joan Lisa Bromberg|title=NASA and the Space Industry|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-UebVg1YqsoC&pg=PA13|access-date=10 June 2011|date=October 2000|publisher=JHU Press|isbn=978-0-8018-6532-9|page=13}}</ref>
A narrow definition of the space industry typically encompasses only hardware providers (primarily those that manufacture launch vehicles and satellites).<ref name="Schrogl2010" /> This definition does not exclude certain activities, such as space tourism.<ref name="BuhalisCosta2006" />
Therefore, more broadly, the space industry can be described as the activities of the companies and organizations involved in the space economy, and providing goods and services related to space.<ref name="Schrogl2010" /> The space economy has been defined as "all public and private actors involved in developing and providing space-enabled products and services. It comprises a long value-added chaining, starting with research and development actors and manufacturers of space hardware and ending with the providers of space-enabled products and services to final users."<ref name="JollyRazi2007-13">{{cite book|author1=Claire Jolly|author2=Gohar Razi|author3=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|title=The space economy at a glance: 2007|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HeF_aGJ1GlIC&pg=PA13|access-date=10 June 2011|year=2007|publisher=OECD Publishing|isbn=978-92-64-03109-8|page=13}}</ref>
==Segments and revenues== The three major sectors of the space industry are: satellite manufacturing, support ground equipment manufacturing, and the launch industry.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Space Industry {{!}} SpaceRobotics.eu|url=https://www.spacerobotics.eu/space-industry/|date=2018-03-27|access-date=2026-02-02|language=en-US}}</ref> The satellite manufacturing sector is composed of satellite developers and integrators, and subsystem manufacturers. The ground equipment sector is composed of companies that manufacture systems such as mobile terminals, gateways, control stations, VSATs, direct broadcast satellite dishes, and other specialized equipment. The launch sector is composed of launch services, vehicle manufacturing and subsystem manufacturing.<ref name="JollyRazi2007-48">{{cite book|author1=Claire Jolly|author2=Gohar Razi|author3=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|title=The space economy at a glance: 2007|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HeF_aGJ1GlIC&pg=PA48|access-date=9 June 2011|year=2007|publisher=OECD Publishing|isbn=978-92-64-03109-8|page=48}}</ref>
Every euro spent in the space industry returns around six euros to the economy, according to the European Space Agency. This makes it a critical sector for economic development, competitiveness, and high-tech jobs.<ref name=":30">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/activity-report-2021 |title=EIB Activity Report 2021 |date=2022-01-27 |publisher=European Investment Bank |isbn=978-92-861-5108-8 |language=EN |access-date=25 June 2023 |archive-date=11 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221011094531/https://www.eib.org/en/publications/activity-report-2021/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=CREATING VALUE FOR EUROPE |url=https://space-economy.esa.int/download/space-economy-brochure.pdf |access-date=25 June 2023 |archive-date=25 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220525225036/https://space-economy.esa.int/download/space-economy-brochure.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> With regards to the worldwide satellite industry revenues, in the period 2002 to 2005 those remained at the 35–36 billion USD level.<ref name="JollyRazi2007-48"/> In that, majority of revenue was generated by the ground equipment sector, with the least amount by the launch sector.<ref name="JollyRazi2007-49">{{cite book|author1=Claire Jolly|author2=Gohar Razi|author3=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|title=The space economy at a glance: 2007|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HeF_aGJ1GlIC&pg=PA48|access-date=9 June 2011|year=2007|publisher=OECD Publishing|isbn=978-92-64-03109-8|page=49}}</ref> Space-related services are estimated at US$100 billion.<ref name="JollyRazi2007-15">{{cite book|author1=Claire Jolly|author2=Gohar Razi|author3=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|title=The space economy at a glance: 2007|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HeF_aGJ1GlIC&pg=PA15|access-date=10 June 2011|year=2007|publisher=OECD Publishing|isbn=978-92-64-03109-8|page=15}}</ref> The industry and related sectors employ about 120,000 people in the OECD countries,<ref name="JollyRazi2007-15"/> while the space industry of Russia employs around 250,000 people.<ref name="mdb">{{cite journal|last=Ionin|first=Andrey|title=Russia's Space Program in 2006: Some Progress but No Clear Direction|journal=Moscow Defense Brief|publisher=Centre for Analysis of Strategies and Technologies|issue=2(#8)|url=http://mdb.cast.ru/mdb/2-2007/item1/item3/|access-date=10 June 2011|archive-date=27 August 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070827204307/http://mdb.cast.ru/mdb/2-2007/item1/item3/}}</ref> Capital stocks estimated the worth of 937 satellites in Earth's orbit in 2005 at around 170 to US$230 billion.<ref name="JollyRazi2007-15"/> In 2005, OECD countries budgeted around US$45 billion for space-related activities; income from space-derived products and services has been estimated at US$110–120 billion in 2006 (worldwide).<ref name="JollyRazi2007-14">{{cite book|author1=Claire Jolly|author2=Gohar Razi|author3=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|title=The space economy at a glance: 2007|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HeF_aGJ1GlIC&pg=PA14|access-date=10 June 2011|year=2007|publisher=OECD Publishing|isbn=978-92-64-03109-8|page=14}}</ref>
==History and trends== The space industry began to develop after World War II, as rockets and then satellites entered into military arsenals, and later found civilian applications.<ref name="Bromberg2000-1"/> It retains significant ties to the government. In particular, the launch industry features a significant government involvement, with some launch platforms (such as the Space Shuttle) being operated by governments.<ref name="JollyRazi2007-48"/><ref name="Bromberg2000-4">{{cite book|author=Joan Lisa Bromberg|title=NASA and the Space Industry|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-UebVg1YqsoC&pg=PA4|access-date=10 June 2011|date=October 2000|publisher=JHU Press|isbn=978-0-8018-6532-9|page=4}}</ref><ref name="Hammond1999">{{cite book|author=Walter Edward Hammond|title=Space transportation: a systems approach to analysis and design|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eWbO9JJoAogC&pg=PA157|access-date=10 June 2011|year=1999|publisher=AIAA|isbn=978-1-56347-032-5|page=157}}</ref>
In recent years, however, private spaceflight is becoming realistic, and even major government agencies, such as NASA, have begun relying on privately operated launch services.<ref name="DubbsPaat-Dahlstrom2011-192">{{cite book|author1=Chris Dubbs|author2=Emeline Paat-Dahlstrom|author3=Charles D. Walker|title=Realizing Tomorrow: The Path to Private Spaceflight|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g-4agkc8_IAC&pg=PA192|access-date=10 June 2011|date=1 June 2011|publisher=U of Nebraska Press|isbn=978-0-8032-1610-5|page=192}}</ref><ref name="DubbsPaat-Dahlstrom2011-249">{{cite book|author1=Chris Dubbs|author2=Emeline Paat-Dahlstrom|author3=Charles D. Walker|title=Realizing Tomorrow: The Path to Private Spaceflight|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g-4agkc8_IAC&pg=PA249|access-date=10 June 2011|date=1 June 2011|publisher=U of Nebraska Press|isbn=978-0-8032-1610-5|page=249}}</ref> Some future developments of the space industry that are increasingly being considered include new services such as space tourism.<ref name="BuhalisCosta2006">{{cite book|author1=Dimitrios Buhalis|author2=Carlos Costa|title=Tourism business frontiers: consumers, products and industry|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EuL1qQn_xxoC&pg=PA160|access-date=10 June 2011|year=2006|publisher=Butterworth-Heinemann|isbn=978-0-7506-6377-9|page=160}}</ref>
From 2004 to 2013, total orbital launches by country/region were: Russia: 270, US: 181, China: 108, Europe: 59, Japan: 24, India: 19 and Brazil: 1.<ref name="wsj20150917">{{cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/u-s-rocket-supplier-looks-to-break-short-leash-1437339519|title=U.S. Rocket Supplier Looks to Break 'Short Leash'|date=17 September 2015|work=Wall Street Journal|quote=''Mr. Musk's closely held company has changed the equation, partly by pressuring its rival by charging about a quarter of United Launch's average price of $220 million per launch. In May, the U.S. Air Force formally cleared SpaceX to vie for national-security launches.''|last1=Pasztor|first1=Andy|access-date=11 March 2017|archive-date=16 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016131431/http://www.wsj.com/articles/u-s-rocket-supplier-looks-to-break-short-leash-1437339519|url-status=live}}</ref>
Relevant trends in the 2008–2009 for the space industry included: *the appearance of new satellite operators; *a growing demand for Fixed Service Satellites and developing market for Mobile Satellite Services; *a steady amount of commercial satellite orders; *steady performance of the launch sector; *resilience to the 2008 financial crisis; *maturing markets for services like Ka-band and remote sensing.<ref name="Schrogl2010"/>
[https://www.spacefoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/SpaceFoundation_2019_Report.pdf The 2019 Space Report] estimates that in 2018 total global space activity was $414.75 Billion. Of that, the report estimates that 21%, or $87.09 Billion, was from U.S. Government Space Budgets.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.spacefoundation.org/sites/default/files/downloads/The_Space_Report_2015_Overview_TOC_Exhibits.pdf|title=The Space Report 2015|access-date=11 May 2016|archive-date=22 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160322052108/http://www.spacefoundation.org/sites/default/files/downloads/The_Space_Report_2015_Overview_TOC_Exhibits.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><!-- a graph of orbital launches by year, from 1958–2014, is also provided in the wsj20150917 source -->
A report discussing global space spending in 2021 estimated global spending at approximately $92 billion.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://arstechnica.com/science/2022/01/report-finds-that-us-accounts-for-more-than-half-of-global-space-spending/|title=Report finds that US accounts for more than half of global space spending|first=Eric|last=Berger|work=arstechnica.com|date=January 6, 2022|access-date=January 6, 2022|archive-date=30 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230430074740/https://arstechnica.com/science/2022/01/report-finds-that-us-accounts-for-more-than-half-of-global-space-spending/|url-status=live}}</ref>
The Space Report for Q4 2023 identified 2023 as the busiest year on record for space activities, with 223 launch attempts and 212 successful launches.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=January 23, 2024 |title=THE SPACE REPORT 2023 Q4 SHOWS RECORD NUMBER OF LAUNCHES FOR THIRD YEAR IN A ROW, TECHNOLOGICAL FIRSTS, AND HEIGHTENED FOCUS ON POLICY |url=https://www.spacefoundation.org/2024/01/23/the-space-report-2023-q4/ |access-date=March 22, 2024 |website=Space Foundation}}</ref> More than 2,800 satellites were deployed into orbit, a 23% increase from 2022, and commercial launch activity saw a 50% increase compared to 2022.<ref name=":0" /> In 2025, there were 321 orbital launches, and 4,517 satellites were deployed into orbit.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gorman |first=Douglas |date=2026-01-06 |title=2025 Orbital Launch Attempts by Country |url=https://payloadspace.com/2025-orbital-launch-attempts-by-country/ |access-date=2026-01-12 |website=Payload |language=en-US}}</ref>
== Environmental accountability ==
=== Environmental impact type ===
==== Space debris ==== There are currently about 9,100 active payloads in Earth's orbit, 26,000 space debris larger than 10 cm and millions of smaller pieces (1 cm or greater in diameter).<ref>{{Cite web |title=ESA Space Environment Report 2024 |url=https://www.esa.int/Space_Safety/Space_Debris/ESA_Space_Environment_Report_2024 |access-date=2025-03-09 |website=www.esa.int |language=en}}</ref> The debris is increasingly likely to trigger the Kessler effect - a chain reaction in which collisions create more debris and eventually render low-Earth orbit unusable.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kessler |first1=Donald J. |last2=Cour-Palais |first2=Burton G. |date=1978 |title=Collision frequency of artificial satellites: The creation of a debris belt |url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/JA083iA06p02637 |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Space Physics |language=en |volume=83 |issue=A6 |pages=2637–2646 |doi=10.1029/JA083iA06p02637 |bibcode=1978JGR....83.2637K |issn=2156-2202|url-access=subscription }}</ref>A satellite collision in 2009 produced more than 2,000 pieces of traceable debris.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Liou |first1=J.-C. |last2=Shoots |first2=Debi |date=2009-04-01|title=Satellite Collision Leaves Significant Debris Clouds |journal=Orbital Debris Quarterly News|volume=13|number=2|url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/20090017680 |language=en}}</ref>
==== Ozone layer destruction ==== Chlorine gas released from solid rocket fuels (such as chlorinated APCP) can cause ozone depletion. Some scholars believe that the continued increase in rocket launches and the continued use of solid rocket fuels will in the future offset the efforts to repair ozone layer since the Montreal Protocol.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ross |first1=Martin |last2=Toohey |first2=Darin |last3=Peinemann |first3=Manfred |last4=Ross |first4=Patrick |date=2009-03-05 |title=Limits on the Space Launch Market Related to Stratospheric Ozone Depletion |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14777620902768867#d1e1762 |journal=Astropolitics |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=50–82 |doi=10.1080/14777620902768867 |bibcode=2009AstPo...7...50R |issn=1477-7622}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Maloney |first1=Christopher M |last2=Portmann |first2=Robert W |last3=Ross |first3=Martin N |last4=Rosenlof |first4=Karen H |date=2022 |title=The Climate and Ozone Impacts of Black Carbon Emissions From Global Rocket Launches |url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2021JD036373 |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres |language=en |volume=127 |issue=12 |article-number=e2021JD036373 |doi=10.1029/2021JD036373 |bibcode=2022JGRD..12736373M |issn=2169-8996}}</ref> If a crewed rocket were launched 1,000 times a year for space tourism, its release of hydrocarbon-based HRE would cause ozone loss of up to 6% in the polar regions.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Environmental Impacts of the New Space Race |url=https://www.law.georgetown.edu/environmental-law-review/blog/the-environmental-impacts-of-the-new-space-race/#_ftn40 |access-date=2025-03-09 |language=en-US}}</ref>
==== Astronomical interference ==== These satellites reflect sunlight to form "artificial constellations" during the morning and evening hours, with an apparent magnitude of +4.6 (visible to the naked eye), well above the safety threshold of +7 recommended by the International Astronomical Union (IAU).The launch of large satellite constellations, such as the SpaceX Starlink program, can cause interference with optical astronomical observations, which the IAU strongly protested and issued a statement.<ref>{{Cite web |title=International Astronomical Union {{!}} IAU |url=https://www.iau.org/news/pressreleases/detail/iau2001/ |access-date=2025-03-09 |website=www.iau.org}}</ref>
==== Danger of extraterrestrial biological contamination ==== While the Apollo program achieved the feat of landing humans on the moon, 96 packages of human waste with a total mass of more than 2,500 grams were left on the lunar surface.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-08-16 |title=Why is there poo on the Moon? |url=https://www.sciencefocus.com/space/why-is-there-poo-on-the-moon |access-date=2025-03-09 |website=BBC Science Focus Magazine |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Ferreira |first=Becky |title=Pooping on the Moon Is a Messy Business |url=https://www.wired.com/story/pooping-on-the-moon-is-a-messy-business/ |access-date=2025-03-09 |magazine=Wired |language=en-US |issn=1059-1028}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The strange things humans have left on the Moon |url=https://www.rmg.co.uk/stories/topics/strange-things-humans-have-left-on-moon |access-date=2025-03-09 |website=Royal Museums Greenwich |language=en}}</ref> It contains microbes that could survive and biocontaminate the moon. The disinfection procedures for the 2021 Perseverance (rover) have been called into question as inadequate, with microbial containment measures exposing systemic flaws that could contaminate potential samples of Martian life.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mason |first=Christopher |date=2021-05-10 |title=Could humans have contaminated Mars with life? |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/future/article/20210510-could-the-perseverance-rover-have-carried-life-to-mars |access-date=2025-03-09 |website=www.bbc.com |language=en}}</ref>
=== Controversies and Challenges ===
==== Lack of environmental responsibility in commercial aviation activities ==== The explosion during Starship's first orbital test flight failure in April 2023 released large amounts of methane and particulate matter, and SpaceX said there was "no significant environmental risk," but did not disclose how much methane was released as a result of the accident.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hollingham |first=Richard |date=2024-06-27 |title=When rockets go wrong – protecting the environment from catastrophe |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/future/article/20240627-the-environmental-cost-of-rocket-launches |access-date=2025-03-09 |website=www.bbc.com |language=en}}</ref>
SpaceX's Starship rocket uses liquid oxygen methane as fuel.<ref>{{Cite web|title=NASA says SpaceX’s next Starship flight could test refueling tech|url=https://arstechnica.com/space/2023/12/nasa-wants-to-see-gas-stations-in-space-but-so-far-its-tanks-are-empty/|website=Ars Technica|date=2023-12-06|access-date=2026-02-02|language=en|first=Stephen|last=Clark}}</ref> Its global warming potential (GWP) is 84 times that of carbon dioxide over a 20-year period. The company does not disclose methane escape rates for a single launch or black carbon emissions from incomplete combustion, nor does it provide an estimate of total annual emissions for its planned 100 Falcon launches in 2023.
Blue Origin's New Shepard rocket uses liquid hydrogen fuel, which burns as water vapor.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Fact check: Jeff Bezos' New Shepard rocket launch didn't emit carbon|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/factcheck/2021/07/28/fact-check-jeff-bezos-new-shepard-rocket-launch-didnt-emit-carbon/8073047002/|website=USA TODAY|access-date=2026-02-02|language=en-US|first=Miriam|last=Fauzia}}</ref> However, when hydrogen is produced by natural gas reforming, indirect carbon emissions per kg of hydrogen are up to 9.3 kg CO<sub>2</sub>. The company does not disclose the full carbon footprint of its supply chain.
==== Responsibility definition problem ==== The ambiguity of the current international space law leads to the difficulty of liability for environmental damage. According to the 1972 Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects, the launching state is only absolutely liable for "negligent damage", but there is no clear definition of "indirect damage" (such as the chain reaction caused by the collision of orbital debris). The uncontrolled re-entry of the Soviet nuclear-powered satellite Kosmos 1402 in 1982 was not responsible for the spread of radioactive material because international law at the time did not cover the long-term risks of nuclear-powered satellites.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects: Definition and Determination of Damages After the Cosmos 954 Incident |first=Joseph A. |last=Burke |date=1984|url=https://ir.lawnet.fordham.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1112&context=ilj |access-date=2026-01-19 |website=ir.lawnet.fordham.edu}}</ref> Similarly, the 2019 Indian anti-satellite test (Mission Shakti) produced more than 400 pieces of traceable debris, one of which came close to the orbit of the Chinese space station, sparking diplomatic protests.<ref>{{Cite web |author1=Sarah Lewin |date=2019-04-01 |title=India's Anti-Satellite Test Created Dangerous Debris, NASA Chief Says |url=https://www.space.com/nasa-chief-condemns-india-anti-satellite-test.html |access-date=2026-01-19 |website=Space |language=en}}</ref> However, the Liability Convention does not provide for liability for debris resulting from weapons tests.
==== The regulatory framework lag ==== Article 9 of the Outer Space Treaty, currently international law, requires states to refrain from "harmful pollution" of the extraterrestrial environment.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Marino |first1=Alessandra |last2=Cheney |first2=Thomas |date=2023-02-01 |title=Centring Environmentalism in Space Governance: Interrogating Dominance and Authority Through a Critical Legal Geography of Outer Space |journal=Space Policy |volume=63 |article-number=101521 |doi=10.1016/j.spacepol.2022.101521 |issn=0265-9646|doi-access=free |bibcode=2023SpPol..6301521M }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Outer Space Treaty |url=https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/outerspacetreaty.html |access-date=2026-01-12 |website=www.unoosa.org}}</ref> But the treaty does not require space activities to disclose environmental data.
Article 10 of the Artemis Accords states that signatories should set standards for "sustainable space exploration," but it also does not set mandatory or substantive targets. At the same time, China and Russia, as aviation powers, are not part of the Accords.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-01-27 |title=The Artemis Accords: International Cooperation in the Era of Space Exploration |url=https://hir.harvard.edu/the-artemis-accords/ |access-date=2026-01-12 |website=Harvard International Review |language=en}}</ref>
At the national and local levels, there are few policies regulating the impact of space launches on the local environment, for example, existing policies in the United States are limited to general regulations by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the Commercial Space Launch Act of 1984 does not include carbon emissions in the evaluation criteria for launch permits.
=== Future direction === The Global Space Sustainability Rating (SSR) system is a global assessment mechanism jointly launched by the World Economic Forum, the European Space Agency, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and other institutions in 2021.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Space Sustainability Rating – Promoting Sustainable Behavior of Space Actors |url=https://spacesustainabilityrating.org/ |access-date=2025-03-09 |language=en-GB}}</ref> It aims to conduct a full-cycle sustainability assessment of the space activities of commercial space companies of various countries, promote the rating results to be used as the investment and financing entry threshold of financial institutions such as the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank, and incorporate them into the United Nations Outer Space Treaty implementation assessment system, and directly affect the qualifications of enterprises to participate in the cooperation of the International Space Station and deep space exploration projects.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Space Sustainability Rating |url=https://www.weforum.org/projects/space-sustainability-rating/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250304082502/https://www.weforum.org/projects/space-sustainability-rating/ |archive-date=2025-03-04 |access-date=2025-03-09 |website=World Economic Forum |language=en}}</ref>
The International Astronautical Federation (IAF) meets in Paris in September 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Federation |first=International Astronautical |title=IAF : Affiliated IAF Events |url=https://www.iafastro.org/events/iaf-affiliated-events/ |access-date=2026-01-19 |website=www.iafastro.org |language=en}}</ref> As an international authoritative organization with members of 73 national space agencies, the IAF has systematically proposed a "carbon neutral launch" technology roadmap, requiring launch vehicle manufacturers to increase the proportion of renewable propellants such as biomethane and green liquid hydrogen to more than 40% before 2030, and set a rating standard for the full life cycle carbon emission intensity: Low-earth orbit launches must emit no more than 120 kilograms of carbon per kilogram of payload (the average for conventional kerosene fuels is 380 kilograms), and geosynchronous orbit missions must be limited to 200 kilograms.<ref>{{Cite web |last=International Astronautical Federation (IAF) |date=2023 |title=International Astronautical Federation (IAF) Highlights 2023: Connecting @ll Space People for a sustainable future |url=https://www.iafastro.org/assets/files/publications/highlights/iaf-highlights-2023-web.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231223222755/https://www.iafastro.org/assets/files/publications/highlights/iaf-highlights-2023-web.pdf |archive-date=2023-12-23}}</ref>
==See also== * Commercialization of space ** Space-based economy *** Space trade *** Space manufacturing *** Lunar resources *** Asteroid mining *** Ore resources on Mars * Space industry per country ** Space industry of Russia ** Space industry of India ** Aerospace industry in the United Kingdom ** Commercial Spaceflight Federation (US) * Space law ** Outer Space Treaty
==References== {{reflist|30em}}
==External links== {{Commons category|Space industry}} *[http://nanosats.eu CubeSat Database & Nanosatellites] *[http://newspace.im NewSpace Index]
{{Industries}} {{Politics of outer space}}
Category:Space industry Category:Industries (economics)