{{Short description|Computer storage device with no moving parts}} {{Redirect-multi|2|SSD|Electronic disk}} {{Use mdy dates|date=April 2025}} {{Infobox | title = Solid-state drive | image = 200px | caption = A 2.5-inch Serial ATA solid-state drive (Patriot P210 2TB) | header1 = Usage of flash memory | label2 = Introduced by: | data2 = SanDisk | label3 = Introduction date: | data3 = {{Start date and age|1991|||df=yes}} | label4 = Capacity: | data4 = 20 MB (2.5-in form factor) | header5 = Original concept | label6 = By: | data6 = Storage Technology Corporation | label7 = Conceived: | data7 = {{Start date and age|1978|||df=yes}} | label8 = Capacity: | data8 = 45 MB | header9 = {{As of|2025}} | label10 = Capacity: | data10 = Up to 245 TB }} [[File:A-MSATA M-MKNSSDAT240GB S-MKN1308A0000169997.jpg|thumb|A Mushkin Atlas 240GB mSATA Solid-state drive]] [[File:A 2230 NVME SSD.jpg|thumb|A 2230 NVMe Gen4 Solid-state drive with its sticker removed to show the NAND and NAND controller (KIOXIA BG6)]] thumb|Inside of a 2.5-inch Serial ATA solid-state drive with its sticker removed to show the NAND and NAND controller (Patriot P210 2TB) {{Memory types}}
A '''solid-state drive''' ('''SSD''') is a type of solid-state storage device that uses integrated circuits to store data persistently. It is sometimes called '''semiconductor storage device''', '''solid-state device''', or '''solid-state disk'''.<ref name="iBgF2">{{cite web |last=Whittaker |first=Zack |title=Solid-State Disk Prices Falling, Still More Costly than Hard Disks |url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/solid-state-disk-prices-falling-still-more-costly-than-hard-disks/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121202165909/http://www.zdnet.com/solid-state-disk-prices-falling-still-more-costly-than-hard-disks-7000007793/ |archive-date=2 December 2012 |access-date=14 December 2012 |work=Between the Lines |publisher=ZDNet}}</ref><ref name="STEC">{{cite web |title=SSD Power Savings Render Significant Reduction to TCO |url=http://www.stec-inc.com/downloads/whitepapers/Performance_Power_Advantages.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100704203915/http://www.stec-inc.com/downloads/whitepapers/Performance_Power_Advantages.pdf |archive-date=2010-07-04 |access-date=October 25, 2010 |publisher=STEC}}</ref> Etymologically, "solid-state drive" partly refers to existing data storage devices like tape drives and hard disk drives, which all used a mechanically driven storage medium.
SSDs rely on non-volatile memory, typically NAND flash, to store data in memory cells. The performance and endurance of SSDs vary depending on the number of bits stored per cell, ranging from high-performing single-level cells (SLC) to more affordable but slower quad-level cells (QLC). In addition to flash-based SSDs, other technologies such as 3D XPoint offer faster speeds and higher endurance through different data storage mechanisms.
Unlike traditional hard disk drives (HDDs), SSDs have no moving parts, allowing them to deliver faster data access speeds, reduced latency, increased resistance to physical shock, lower power consumption, and silent operation.
Often interfaced to a system in the same way as HDDs, SSDs are used in a variety of devices, including personal computers, enterprise servers, and mobile devices. However, SSDs are generally more expensive on a per-gigabyte basis and have a finite number of write cycles, which can lead to data loss over time. Despite these limitations, SSDs are increasingly replacing HDDs, especially in performance-critical applications and as primary storage in many consumer devices.
SSDs come in various form factors and interface types, including SATA, PCIe, and NVMe, each offering different levels of performance. Hybrid storage solutions, such as solid-state hybrid drives (SSHDs), combine SSD and HDD technologies to offer improved performance at a lower cost than pure SSDs.
== Attributes == An SSD stores data in semiconductor cells, with its properties varying according to the number of bits stored in each cell (between 1 and 4). Single-level cells (SLC) store one bit of data per cell and provide higher performance and endurance. In contrast, multi-level cells (MLC), triple-level cells (TLC), and quad-level cells (QLC) store more data per cell but have lower performance and endurance. SSDs using 3D XPoint technology, such as Intel's Optane, store data by changing electrical resistance instead of storing electrical charges in cells, which can provide faster speeds and longer data persistence compared to conventional flash memory.<ref name="SNIA-101">{{cite web |date=January 2009 |title=Solid State Storage 101: An introduction to Solid State Storage |url=https://www.snia.org/sites/default/files/SSSI/SSSI%20Wht%20Paper%20Final%20101.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190610154630/https://www.snia.org/sites/default/files/SSSI/SSSI%20Wht%20Paper%20Final%20101.pdf |archive-date=June 10, 2019 |access-date=9 August 2010 |publisher=SNIA}}</ref> SSDs based on NAND flash slowly leak charge when not powered, while heavily used consumer drives may start losing data typically after one to two years unpowered in storage.<ref name="Vättö">{{cite web |author=Kristian Vättö |title=The Truth About SSD Data Retention |url=https://www.anandtech.com/show/9248/the-truth-about-ssd-data-retention |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170318101142/http://www.anandtech.com/show/9248/the-truth-about-ssd-data-retention |archive-date=2017-03-18 |access-date=2017-11-05}}</ref> SSDs have a limited lifetime number of writes, and also slow down as they reach their full storage capacity.{{Citation needed|date=September 2025}}
SSDs also have internal parallelism that allows them to manage multiple operations simultaneously, which enhances their performance.<ref>{{cite book | last1=Chen | first1=Feng | last2=Lee | first2=Rubao | last3=Zhang | first3=Xiaodong | title=2011 IEEE 17th International Symposium on High Performance Computer Architecture | chapter=Essential roles of exploiting internal parallelism of flash memory based solid state drives in high-speed data processing | date=2011 | pages=266–277 | doi=10.1109/HPCA.2011.5749735 | bibcode=2011hpca.conf...25C | isbn=978-1-4244-9432-3 }}</ref>
Unlike HDDs and similar electromechanical magnetic storage, SSDs do not have moving mechanical parts, which provides advantages such as resistance to physical shock, quieter operation, and faster access times. Their lower latency results in higher input/output rates (IOPS) than HDDs.<ref name="dell-study">{{cite web |last=Kasavajhala |first=Vamsee |date=May 2011 |title=SSD vs HDD Price and Performance Study, a Dell technical white paper |url=http://www.dell.com/downloads/global/products/pvaul/en/ssd_vs_hdd_price_and_performance_study.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120512140220/http://www.dell.com/downloads/global/products/pvaul/en/ssd_vs_hdd_price_and_performance_study.pdf |archive-date=12 May 2012 |access-date=15 June 2012 |publisher=Dell PowerVault Technical Marketing}}</ref>
Some SSDs are combined with traditional hard drives in hybrid configurations, such as Intel's Hystor and Apple's Fusion Drive. These drives use both flash memory and spinning magnetic disks in order to improve the performance of frequently accessed data.<ref name="Hystor">{{cite book | last1=Chen | first1=Feng | last2=Koufaty | first2=David A. | last3=Zhang | first3=Xiaodong | title=Proceedings of the international conference on Supercomputing | chapter=Hystor: Making the best use of solid state drives in high performance storage systems | date=2011 | pages=22–32 | doi=10.1145/1995896.1995902 | isbn=978-1-4503-0102-2 }}</ref><ref name="WD Black SSHD - CNET Reviews">{{cite web |title=WD shows off its first hybrid drive, the WD Black SSHD |url=http://reviews.cnet.com/hard-drives/wd-black-sshd-1tb/4505-3186_7-35567266.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130329151417/http://reviews.cnet.com/hard-drives/wd-black-sshd-1tb/4505-3186_7-35567266.html |archive-date=29 March 2013 |access-date=26 March 2013 |publisher=CNET}}</ref>
Traditional interfaces (e.g. SATA and SAS) and standard HDD form factors allow such SSDs to be used as drop-in replacements for HDDs in computers and other devices. Newer form factors such as mSATA, M.2, U.2, NF1/M.3/NGFF,<ref name="RLVlL">{{cite web |title=NF1 SSD {{pipe}} Samsung Semiconductor |url=https://www.samsung.com/semiconductor/ssd/nf1-ssd/ |website=Samsung.com}}</ref><ref name="XSOC1">{{cite web |date=28 April 2023 |title=All-Flash NVMe Servers {{pipe}} Supermicro |url=https://www.supermicro.com/en/products/nvme |website=SuperMicro.com}}</ref> XFM Express (''Crossover Flash Memory'', form factor XT2)<ref name="Q6pr6">{{cite web |last=Liu |first=Zhiye |date=6 August 2019 |title=Toshiba Unveils XFMEXPRESS Form Factor for NVMe SSDs |url=https://www.tomshardware.com/news/toshiba-xfmexpress-nvme-ssd,40104.html |website=Tom's Hardware}}</ref> and EDSFF<ref name="mhkTi">{{cite web |title=EDSFF Based Intel Data Center SSDs (Formerly "Ruler" Form Factor) |url=https://www.intel.com/content/www/us/en/products/docs/memory-storage/solid-state-drives/edsff-brief.html |website=Intel}}</ref><ref name="SKezS">{{cite web |date=8 August 2019 |title=Intel's first 'ruler' SSD holds 32TB |url=https://www.engadget.com/2018/08/10/intels-first-ruler-ssd-holds-32tb/ |website=Engadget}}</ref> and higher speed interfaces such as NVM Express (NVMe) over PCI Express (PCIe) can further increase performance over HDD performance.<ref name="SNIA-101" />
=== Comparison with other technologies ===
==== Hard disk drives ==== {{See also|Hard disk drive performance characteristics}}
[[File:480 GB OCZ-AGIL ITY3.png|upright=1.6|thumb|Benchmark of a 500GB SATA-2 SSD (OCZ Agility-3, circa 2011), showing about 230 MB/s reading speed (blue), 210 MB/s writing speed (red) and about 0.1 ms seek time (green), all independent from the accessed disk location. As of 2026, Gen5 SSDs can reach up to 15GB/s, a 60x improvement over this SSD.]]
Traditional HDD benchmarks tend to focus on the performance characteristics such as rotational latency and seek time. As SSDs do not need to spin or seek to locate data, they are vastly superior to HDDs in such tests. However, SSDs have challenges with mixed reads and writes, and their performance may degrade over time. Therefore, SSD testing typically looks at when the full drive is first used, as the new and empty drive may have much better write performance than it would show after only weeks of use.<ref name="gyMLY">{{cite web |title=Benchmarking Enterprise SSDs |url=http://www.stec-inc.com/downloads/whitepapers/Benchmarking_Enterprise_SSDs.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120507070249/http://www.stec-inc.com/downloads/whitepapers/Benchmarking_Enterprise_SSDs.pdf |archive-date=2012-05-07 |access-date=2012-05-06}}</ref>
The reliability of both HDDs and SSDs varies greatly among models.<ref name="PC World 2014">{{cite magazine |last=Paul |first=Ian |date=14 January 2014 |title=Three-year, 27,000 drive study reveals the most reliable hard drive makers |url=http://www.pcworld.com/article/2089464/three-year-27-000-drive-study-reveals-the-most-reliable-hard-drive-makers.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140515192749/http://www.pcworld.com/article/2089464/three-year-27-000-drive-study-reveals-the-most-reliable-hard-drive-makers.html |archive-date=15 May 2014 |access-date=17 May 2014 |magazine=PC World}}</ref> Some field failure rates indicate that SSDs are significantly more reliable than HDDs.<ref name="D5XVI">{{cite web |date=July 2011 |title=Validating the Reliability of Intel Solid-State Drives |url=http://www.intel.com/content/www/us/en/it-management/intel-it/intel-it-validating-reliability-of-intel-solid-state-drives-brief.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118020220/http://www.intel.com/content/www/us/en/it-management/intel-it/intel-it-validating-reliability-of-intel-solid-state-drives-brief.html |archive-date=18 January 2012 |access-date=10 February 2012 |publisher=Intel}}</ref><ref name="behardware 2012">{{cite web |url= http://www.behardware.com/articles/881-7/components-returns-rates-7.html |publisher= BeHardware |title= Components returns rates (7) |first= Marc |last= Prieur |date= 16 November 2012 |access-date= 25 August 2013 |url-status= dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130809033951/http://www.behardware.com/articles/881-7/components-returns-rates-7.html |archive-date= 9 August 2013 |df= dmy-all}}</ref> However, SSDs are sensitive to sudden power interruption, sometimes resulting in aborted writes or even cases of the complete loss of the drive.<ref name="MSkvR">{{cite web |last=Harris |first=Robin |date=2013-03-01 |title=How SSD power faults scramble your data |url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/how-ssd-power-faults-scramble-your-data/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130304065813/http://www.zdnet.com/how-ssd-power-faults-scramble-your-data-7000011979/ |archive-date=2013-03-04 |work=ZDNet |publisher=CBS Interactive}}</ref>
Most of the advantages of solid-state drives over traditional hard drives are due to their ability to access data completely electronically instead of electromechanically, resulting in superior transfer speeds and mechanical ruggedness.<ref name="jnZgW">{{cite web |title=SSD vs HDD – Why Solid State Drive |url=http://ocz.com/consumer/ssd-guide/ssd-vs-hdd |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130510230255/http://ocz.com/consumer/ssd-guide/ssd-vs-hdd |archive-date=10 May 2013 |access-date=17 June 2013 |work=SSD Guide |publisher=OCZ Technology}}</ref> On the other hand, hard disk drives offer significantly higher capacity for their price.<ref name="dell-study" /><ref name="QSE1g">{{cite web |title=Price Comparison SSDs |url=http://www.dell.com/downloads/global/products/pvaul/en/ssd_vs_hdd_price_and_performance_study.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120512140220/http://www.dell.com/downloads/global/products/pvaul/en/ssd_vs_hdd_price_and_performance_study.pdf |archive-date=2012-05-12 |access-date=2012-05-06}}</ref>
In traditional HDDs, a rewritten file will generally occupy the same location on the disk surface as the original file, whereas in SSDs the new copy will often be written to different NAND cells for the purpose of wear leveling. The wear-leveling algorithms are complex and difficult to test exhaustively. As a result, one major cause of data loss in SSDs is firmware bugs.<ref name="LJEJb">{{cite web |last=Mearian |first=Lucas |date=3 August 2009 |title=Intel confirms data corruption bug in new SSDs, halts shipments |url=http://www.computerworld.com/s/article/9136200/Intel_confirms_data_corruption_bug_in_new_SSDs_halts_shipments |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130125130115/http://www.computerworld.com/s/article/9136200/Intel_confirms_data_corruption_bug_in_new_SSDs_halts_shipments |archive-date=25 January 2013 |access-date=17 June 2013 |publisher=ComputerWorld}}</ref><ref name="C5LuO">{{cite web |date=5 September 2009 |title=More hard drive firmware bugs cause data loss |url=http://www.defcon-5.com/noc/docs.cfm?docid=348 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140518115823/http://www.defcon-5.com/noc/docs.cfm?docid=348 |archive-date=18 May 2014 |access-date=17 June 2013 |publisher=Defcon-5.com}}</ref>
{{clear}} {| class="wikitable" |+ Comparison of NAND-based SSD and HDD ! Attribute or characteristic ! Solid-state drive (SSD) ! Hard disk drive (HDD) |- | Price per capacity | SSDs are generally more expensive than HDDs and are expected to remain so. As of late 2025, SSD prices are around $0.05-0.10 per gigabyte for 4TB and 8TB models.<ref>{{Cite web |last=updated |first=Stewart Bendle last |date=2023-10-11 |title=SSD Price Index 2025: Cheapest Price on 1TB, 2TB and 4TB Models |url=https://www.tomshardware.com/news/lowest-ssd-prices |access-date=2025-10-30 |website=Tom's Hardware |language=en-US}}</ref> | HDDs, as of late 2025, are priced around $0.01 to $0.03 per gigabyte for 4TB and 8TB models.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Disk Prices {{!}} Compare and Save on DiskPrices at PricePerGig.com |url=https://pricepergig.com/ |access-date=2025-10-30 |website=pricepergig.com |language=en}}</ref> |- | Storage capacity | As of late 2025, SSDs are available in sizes up to 245.76TB,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-07-22 |title=This storage monster hits 7 million IOPS but might never leave the data center |url=https://www.techradar.com/pro/kioxia-unveils-246tb-ssd-behemoth-the-lc-9-is-the-largest-ssd-ever-launched-and-can-store-52-000-dvd-movies |access-date=2025-10-30 |website=TechRadar |language=en-US}}</ref> though most PCs run models ranging from 1TB to 4TB. | HDDs of up to 36 TB are available as of 2025.<ref>{{cite web |date=21 January 2025 |title=Seagate Introduces Hard Drive Capacities of Up to 36TB |url=https://www.seagate.com/news/news-archive/seagate-introduces-hard-drive-capacities-of-up-to-36tb-extending-its-hamr-based-mozaic-3-technology-platform-pr/ |access-date=March 28, 2025 |website=Seagate}}</ref> |- | Reliability – data retention | If the nominal written life of SSDs (the terabytes written) is reached, the SSDs may start losing data after three months (enterprise SSDs) to one year (consumer SSDs) without power, especially at high temperatures.<ref name="Vättö" /> Newer SSDs, depending on usage, may retain data longer. SSDs are generally not suited for long-term archival storage.<ref>{{cite web |date=May 23, 2022 |title=IBM ESS Alert: Potential for SSD data loss after extended shutdown |url=https://www.ibm.com/support/pages/ibm-ess-alert-potential-ssd-data-loss-after-extended-shutdown |access-date=May 24, 2024 |website=IBM}}</ref> | HDDs, when stored in a cool, dry environment, can retain data for longer periods without power. However, over time, mechanical parts may fail, such as the inability to spin up after prolonged storage. |- | Reliability – longevity | SSDs lack mechanical parts, theoretically making them more reliable than HDDs. However, SSD cells wear out after a limited number of writes. Controllers help mitigate this, allowing for many years of use under normal conditions.<ref name="Goog2016">{{cite web |date=February 25, 2016 |title=SSD reliability in the real world: Google's experience |url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/ssd-reliability-in-the-real-world-googles-experience/ |access-date=September 20, 2019 |website=ZD Net}}</ref> | HDDs have moving parts prone to mechanical wear, but the storage medium (magnetic platters) does not degrade from read/write cycles. Studies have suggested HDDs may last 9–11 years.<ref name="Q1fjA">{{cite web |title=Study: Hard Drive MTBF Ratings Highly Exaggerated |url=http://www.dailytech.com/Study+Hard+Drive+MTBF+Ratings+Highly+Exaggerated/article6404.htm |access-date=2013-02-23}}</ref> |- | Start-up time | SSDs are nearly instantaneous, with no mechanical parts to prepare. | HDDs require several seconds to spin up before data can be accessed.<ref name="diffen">{{cite web |title=HDD vs. SSD |url=https://www.diffen.com/difference/HDD_vs_SSD |access-date=29 November 2014 |website=diffen.com}}</ref> |- | Sequential-access performance | Consumer SSDs offer transfer rates between 200 MB/s and 14800 MB/s, depending on the model.<ref name="UJjmw">{{cite web |date=March 18, 2025 |title=Samsung SSD 9100 Pro Has 14.800 MB/s Read and 13.400 MB/s Write Speeds |url=https://www.tomshardware.com/pc-components/ssds/samsung-9100-pro-ssd-review}}</ref> | HDDs transfer data at approximately 200 MB/s, depending on the rotational speed and location of data on the disk. Outer tracks allow faster transfer rates.<ref name="koVNz">{{cite web |title=The PC Guide: Spindle Speed |url=http://www.pcguide.com/ref/hdd/perf/perf/spec/postransSpindle-c.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000817093250/http://www.pcguide.com/ref/hdd/perf/perf/spec/postransSpindle-c.html|archive-date=2000-08-17 }}</ref> |- | Random-access performance | SSD random access times typically range from 0.05-0.2 ms (50-200 microseconds) for consumer NAND SSDs, with NVMe drives achieving 0.05-0.1 ms and SATA SSDs around 0.5-0.6 ms.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A primer on SSD response time, other performance benchmarks {{!}} TechTarget |url=https://www.techtarget.com/searchstorage/feature/The-truth-about-SSD-performance-benchmarks |access-date=2025-10-30 |website=Search Storage |language=en}}</ref> | HDD random access times range from 2.9 ms (high-end) to 12 ms (laptop HDDs).<ref name="HDD Glossary">{{cite web |title=Hard Drive Data Recovery Glossary |url=http://www.newyorkdatarecovery.com/hard-drive-glossary.html |access-date=2011-07-14 |archive-date=2011-07-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110715222759/http://www.newyorkdatarecovery.com/hard-drive-glossary.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> |- | Power consumption | High-performance SSDs use about half to a third of the power required by HDDs.<ref name="8V1wD">{{cite magazine |date=2010-06-07 |title=An SSD crash course: What you need to know |url=https://www.flexxon.com/products/sata-3/industrial-sata-3-ssd/ |magazine=InfoWorld}}</ref> | HDDs use between 2 and 5 watts for 2.5-inch drives, while high-performance 3.5-inch drives can require up to 20 watts.<ref name="cBNjq">{{cite web |date=25 January 2011 |title=Toshiba Announces 1.8-inch HDD for Tablets, Media Devices |url=https://www.eweek.com/storage/toshiba-announces-1.8-inch-hdd-for-tablets-media-devices |website=eWEEK}}</ref> |- | Acoustic noise | SSDs have no moving parts and are silent. Some SSDs may produce a high-pitched noise during block erasure.<ref name="gMdea">{{cite web |title=How do SSD's function & do they hold up to HDD's? |url=https://dolios.net/how-do-ssds-function-do-they-hold-up-to-hdds/ |work=Hardware}}</ref> | HDDs generate noise from spinning disks and moving heads, which can vary based on the drive's speed. |- | Temperature control | SSDs generally tolerate higher operating temperatures and generally do not require special cooling.<ref name="Sigmetrics">{{cite conference |date=2015 |title=A Large-Scale Study of Flash Memory Failures in the Field |conference=ACM SIGMETRICS International Conference }}</ref> | HDDs need cooling in high-temperature environments (above {{convert|35|C}}) to avoid reliability issues.<ref name="Fskk3">{{cite web |title=Poorly ventilated system cases can shorten the life of the hard drive |url=http://knowledge.seagate.com/articles/en_US/FAQ/185191en}}</ref> |}
==== Memory cards ==== {{Main|Memory card}}
thumb|CompactFlash card used as an SSD
While both memory cards and most SSDs use flash memory, they have very different characteristics, including power consumption, performance, size, and reliability. Originally, solid state drives were shaped and mounted in the computer like hard drives. In contrast, memory cards (such as Secure Digital (SD), CompactFlash (CF), and many others) were originally designed for digital cameras and later found their way into cell phones, gaming devices, GPS units, etc. Most memory cards are physically smaller than SSDs, and designed to be inserted and removed repeatedly.<ref name="SanDisk_SSD_CF">{{cite web |title=The Differences Between an SSD and a Memory Card |url=http://kb.sandisk.com/app/answers/detail/a_id/3053/~/the-differences-between-an-ssd-and-a-memory-card |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150116132751/http://kb.sandisk.com/app/answers/detail/a_id/3053/~/the-differences-between-an-ssd-and-a-memory-card |archive-date=2015-01-16 |access-date=2020-10-08 |website=SanDisk.com}}</ref>
=== Failure and recovery === SSDs have different failure modes from traditional magnetic hard drives. Because solid-state drives contain no moving parts, they are generally not subject to mechanical failures. However, other types of failures can occur. For example, incomplete or failed writes due to sudden power loss may be more problematic than with HDDs, and the failure of a single chip may result in the loss of all data stored on it. Nonetheless, studies indicate that SSDs are generally reliable, often exceeding their manufacturer-stated lifespan<ref name="2016study">[http://0b4af6cdc2f0c5998459-c0245c5c937c5dedcca3f1764ecc9b2f.r43.cf2.rackcdn.com/23105-fast16-papers-schroeder.pdf Flash Reliability in Production: The Expected and the Unexpected] – Schroeder, Lagisetty & Merchant, 2016.</ref><ref name="TR2015">{{cite web |last=Gasior |first=Geoff |date=12 March 2015 |title=The SSD Endurance Experiment: They're All Dead |url=https://techreport.com/review/27909/the-ssd-endurance-experiment-theyre-all-dead |website=The Tech Report}}</ref> and have lower failure rates than HDDs.<ref name="2016study" /> However, studies also note that SSDs experience higher rates of uncorrectable errors, which can lead to data loss, compared to HDDs.<ref name="u3a39">{{cite web |last=Klein |first=Andy |date=January 19, 2019 |title=Backblaze Hard Drive Stats for 2018 |url=https://www.backblaze.com/blog/hard-drive-stats-for-2018/ |access-date=February 13, 2019 |publisher=Backblaze}}</ref>
The endurance of an SSD is typically listed on its datasheet in one of two forms: * either '''n DW/D''' (''n drive writes per day'') * or '''m TBW''' (''maximum terabytes written''), abbreviated '''TBW'''.<ref name="WD doc">{{cite web |title=Tech Brief – Matching SSD Endurance to Common Enterprise Applications |url=https://documents.westerndigital.com/content/dam/doc-library/en_us/assets/public/western-digital/collateral/tech-brief/tech-brief-matching-ssd-endurance-to-common-enterprise-applications.pdf |access-date=2020-06-13 |website=Documents.WesternDigital.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Cox |first=Alvin |title=JEDEC SSD Endurance Workloads |url=https://files.futurememorystorage.com/proceedings/2011/20110810_T1B_Cox.pdf |access-date=14 June 2025 }}</ref> For example, a ''Samsung 970 EVO NVMe M.2'' SSD (2018) with 1 TB of capacity has an endurance rating of 600 TBW.<ref name="Samsung Evo 970">{{cite web |title=Product: Samsung 970 EVO NVMe M.2 SSD 1TB |url=https://www.samsung.com/uk/memory-storage/970-evo-nvme-m2-ssd/MZ-V7E1T0BW/ |access-date=2020-06-13 |website=Samsung.com}}</ref>
The basic parameter for determining the lifespan of Flash-NAND systems is the number of programming-erase (P/E) cycles. The TBW parameter is the product of the P/E cycle resource and the SSD capacity. For an SSD with a capacity of 1 TB and TBW = 600 TB, the number of P/E cycles is 600.<ref name="Why SSD fails?">{{cite web |title=Why DSSD fails? |url=https://kaleron.pl/SSD-failure.php |access-date=2026-04-16 |website=kaleron.pl}}</ref>
Recovering data from SSDs presents challenges due to the non-linear and complex nature of data storage in solid-state drives. The internal operations of SSDs vary by manufacturer, with commands (e.g. TRIM and the ATA Secure Erase) and programs (e.g. hdparm) being able to erase and modify the bits of a deleted file.
===Reliability metrics=== The ''JEDEC Solid State Technology Association'' (JEDEC) has established standards for SSD reliability metrics, which include:<ref name="NullLobur2014">{{cite book |last1=Null |first1=Linda |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GKgxDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT499 |title=The Essentials of Computer Organization and Architecture |last2=Lobur |first2=Julia |date=14 February 2014 |publisher=Jones & Bartlett Learning |isbn=978-1-284-15077-3 |pages=499–500}}</ref> * Unrecoverable Bit Error Ratio (UBER) * Terabytes Written (TBW) – the total number of terabytes that can be written to a drive within its warranty period * Drive Writes Per Day (DWPD) – the number of times the full capacity of the drive can be written to per day within its warranty period
=== Applications === In a distributed computing environment, SSDs can be used as a distributed cache layer that temporarily absorbs the large volume of user requests to slower HDD-based backend storage systems. This layer provides much higher bandwidth and lower latency than the storage system would, and can be managed in a number of forms, such as a distributed key-value database and a distributed file system. On supercomputers, this layer is typically referred to as burst buffer.
Flash-based solid-state drives can be used to create network appliances from general-purpose personal computer hardware. A write protected flash drive containing the operating system and application software can substitute for larger, less reliable disk drives or CD-ROMs. Appliances built this way can provide an inexpensive alternative to expensive router and firewall hardware.{{Citation needed|date=August 2010}}
SSDs based on an SD card with a live SD operating system are easily write-locked. Combined with a cloud computing environment or other writable medium, an OS booted from a write-locked SD card is reliable, persistent and impervious to permanent corruption.
===Hard-drive cache=== In 2011, Intel introduced a caching mechanism for their Z68 chipset (and mobile derivatives) called Smart Response Technology, which allows a SATA SSD to be used as a cache (configurable as write-through or write-back) for a conventional, magnetic hard disk drive.<ref name="pqCuR">{{cite web |title=Intel Z68 Chipset & Smart Response Technology (SSD Caching) Review |url=http://www.anandtech.com/show/4329/intel-z68-chipset-smart-response-technology-ssd-caching-review/2 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120505222631/http://www.anandtech.com/show/4329/intel-z68-chipset-smart-response-technology-ssd-caching-review/2 |archive-date=2012-05-05 |access-date=2012-05-06 |publisher=AnandTech}}</ref> A similar technology is available on HighPoint's RocketHybrid PCIe card.<ref name="zk9az">{{cite web |date=2011-05-10 |title=SSD Caching (Without Z68): HighPoint's RocketHybrid 1220 |url=http://www.tomshardware.com/reviews/rockethybrid-1220-ssd-caching,2936.html |access-date=2012-05-06 |publisher=Tom's Hardware}}</ref>
Solid-state hybrid drives (SSHDs) are based on the same principle, but integrate some amount of flash memory on board of a conventional drive instead of using a separate SSD. The flash layer in these drives can be accessed independently from the magnetic storage by the host using ATA-8 commands, allowing the operating system to manage it. For example, Microsoft's ReadyDrive technology explicitly stores portions of the hibernation file in the cache of these drives when the system hibernates, making the subsequent resume faster.<ref name="RussinovichSolomon2009b">{{cite book |last1=Russinovich |first1=Mark E. |title=Windows internals |last2=Solomon |first2=David A. |last3=Ionescu |first3=Alex |publisher=Microsoft Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-7356-2530-3 |edition=5th |pages=772–774}}</ref>
Dual-drive hybrid systems are combining the usage of separate SSD and HDD devices installed in the same computer, with overall performance optimization managed by the computer user, or by the computer's operating system software. Examples of this type of system are bcache and dm-cache on Linux,<ref name="q4ffn">{{cite web |author=Petros Koutoupis |date=2013-11-25 |title=Advanced Hard Drive Caching Techniques |url=http://www.linuxjournal.com/content/advanced-hard-drive-caching-techniques |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131202152028/http://www.linuxjournal.com/content/advanced-hard-drive-caching-techniques |archive-date=2013-12-02 |access-date=2013-12-02 |publisher=linuxjournal.com}}</ref> and Apple's Fusion Drive.
==Architecture and function== The primary components of an SSD are the controller and the memory used to store data. Traditionally, early SSDs used volatile DRAM for storage, but since 2009, most SSDs utilize non-volatile NAND flash memory, which retains data even when powered off.<ref name="whatisssd">{{cite web |url=http://www.ramsan.com/whatisassd.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080204121417/http://www.ramsan.com/whatisassd.htm |archive-date=4 February 2008 |title=What is a Solid State Disk? |work=Ramsan.com |publisher=Texas Memory Systems}}</ref><ref name="SNIA-101" /> Flash memory SSDs store data in metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) integrated circuit chips, using non-volatile floating-gate memory cells.<ref name="UsWco2">{{cite web |last1=Hutchinson |first1=Lee |date=4 June 2012 |title=Solid-state revolution: in-depth on how SSDs really work |url=https://arstechnica.com/information-technology/2012/06/inside-the-ssd-revolution-how-solid-state-disks-really-work/2/ |access-date=27 September 2019 |website=Ars Technica}}</ref>
===Controller=== {{Main|Flash memory controller}}
Every SSD includes a controller, which manages the data flow between the NAND memory and the host computer. The controller is an embedded processor that runs firmware to optimize performance, managing data, and ensuring data integrity.<ref name="Bechtolsheim2">{{cite web |last=Bechtolsheim |first=Andy |year=2008 |title=The Solid State Storage Revolution |url=http://www.snia.org/events/storage-developer2008/presentations/keynotes/AndreasBechtolsheim_The_Role_of_Flash_SDC2008.pdf |access-date=2010-11-07 |publisher=SNIA.org}}{{Dead link|date=May 2019}}</ref><ref name="91nhJ2">{{cite web |last=Rent |first=Thomas M. |date=2010-04-09 |title=SSD Controller Detail |url=http://www.storagereview.com/ssd_controller |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101015022006/http://www.storagereview.com/ssd_controller |archive-date=2010-10-15 |access-date=2010-04-09 |website=StorageReview.com}}</ref>
Some of the primary functions performed by the controller are:
* Bad block mapping * Read and write caching * Encryption * Crypto-shredding * Error detection and correction using error-correcting code (ECC), such as BCH code<ref name="xbMNL2">{{cite web |title=Sandforce SF-2500/2600 Product Brief |url=http://www.sandforce.com/index.php?id=133&parentId=2&top=1 |access-date=25 February 2012}}</ref> * Garbage collection * Read scrubbing and management of read disturb * Wear leveling * Management of flash memory refresh and data retention<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Cai |first1=Yu |last2=Yalcin |first2=Gulay |author3-link=Onur Mutlu |last3=Mutlu |first3=Onur |last4=Haratsch |first4=Erich F. |last5=Cristal |first5=Adrian |last6=Unsal |first6=Osman S. |last7=Mai |first7=Ken |chapter=Flash correct-and-refresh: Retention-aware error management for increased flash memory lifetime |title=2012 IEEE 30th International Conference on Computer Design (ICCD) |date=2012 |pages=94–101 |doi=10.1109/ICCD.2012.6378623 |bibcode=2012iccd.confQ..21C |isbn=978-1-4673-3052-7 |url=https://figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/6468821 }}</ref>
The overall performance of an SSD can scale with the number of parallel NAND chips and the efficiency of the controller. For example, controllers that enable parallel processing of NAND flash chips can improve bandwidth and reduce latency.<ref name="SSD Anthology">{{cite web |url=https://www.anandtech.com/print/2738 |title= The SSD Anthology: Understanding SSDs and New Drives from OCZ |date= 2009-03-18 |publisher= AnandTech.com |url-status= dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090328132802/http://www.anandtech.com/printarticle.aspx?i=3531 |archive-date= 2009-03-28}}</ref> The number of flash memory channel increases, the delay of raw flash memory (such as ONFI based NAND flash) decreases, and the bandwidth of raw flash memory increases.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Xu |first=Quan |last2=Gong |first2=Pu |last3=Chen |first3=Thomas M. |last4=Michael |first4=John |last5=Li |first5=Shancang |date=2015-06-01 |title=Modelling and characterization of NAND flash memory channels |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0263224115002067 |journal=Measurement |volume=70 |pages=225–231 |doi=10.1016/j.measurement.2015.04.003 |issn=0263-2241|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
Micron and Intel pioneered faster SSDs by implementing techniques such as data striping and interleaving to enhance read/write speeds.<ref name="JSVZu2">{{cite web |title=Flash SSD with 250 MB/s writing speed |url=http://www.micron.com/products/real_ssd/ssd/partlist.aspx?write=250%20MB/s |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090626210342/http://www.micron.com/products/real_ssd/ssd/partlist.aspx?write=250%20MB%2Fs |archive-date=2009-06-26 |access-date=2009-10-21 |publisher=Micron.com}}</ref> More recently, SandForce introduced controllers that incorporate data compression to reduce the amount of data written to the flash memory, potentially increasing both performance and endurance.<ref name="Cgh8b2">{{cite news |last=Shimpi |first=Anand Lal |date=31 December 2009 |title=OCZ's Vertex 2 Pro Preview: The Fastest MLC SSD We've Ever Tested |url=http://www.anandtech.com/show/2899/3 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512105926/http://www.anandtech.com/show/2899/3 |archive-date=12 May 2013 |access-date=16 June 2013 |publisher=AnandTech}}</ref>
====Wear leveling==== {{Main|Wear leveling|Write amplification}}
Wear leveling is a technique used in SSDs to ensure that write and erase operations are distributed evenly across all blocks of the flash memory. Without this, specific blocks could wear out prematurely due to repeated use, reducing the overall lifespan of the SSD. The process moves data that is infrequently changed (cold data) from heavily used blocks, so that data that changes more frequently (hot data) can be written to those blocks. This helps distribute wear more evenly across the entire SSD. However, this process introduces additional writes, known as write amplification, which must be managed to balance performance and durability.<ref name="nHbfg2">{{cite web |author=Arnd Bergmann |date=2011-02-18 |title=Optimizing Linux with cheap flash drives |url=https://lwn.net/Articles/428584/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131007144837/http://lwn.net/Articles/428584/ |archive-date=2013-10-07 |access-date=2013-10-03 |publisher=LWN.net}}</ref><ref name="LNyYx2">{{cite web |author=Jonathan Corbet |date=2007-05-15 |title=LogFS |url=https://lwn.net/Articles/428799/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004215514/https://lwn.net/Articles/428799/ |archive-date=2013-10-04 |access-date=2013-10-03 |publisher=LWN.net}}</ref>
===Memory=== ====Flash memory==== {| class="wikitable floatright" style="width: 30em; margin-left: 1.5em; margin-right: 0;" |+ Comparison of architectures<ref name="2ecD6">[http://ssd-festplatte-kaufen.de/slc-und-mlc/ SLC and MLC] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130405082307/http://ssd-festplatte-kaufen.de/slc-und-mlc/|date=2013-04-05}} SSD Festplatten. Retrieved 2013-04-10.</ref> |- ! Comparison characteristics ! MLC : SLC ! NAND : NOR |- |Persistence ratio | align="center" | 1 : 10 | align="center" | 1 : 10 |- |Sequential write ratio | align="center" | 1 : 3 | align="center" | 1 : 4 |- |Sequential read ratio | align="center" | 1 : 1 | align="center" | 1 : 5 |- |Price ratio | align="center" | 1 : 1.3 | align="center" | |} Most SSDs use non-volatile NAND flash memory for data storage, primarily due to its cost-effectiveness and ability to retain data without a constant power supply. NAND flash-based SSDs store data in semiconductor cells, with the specific architecture influencing performance, endurance, and cost.<ref name="tv599">{{cite web |year=2011 |title=The Top 20 Things to Know About SSD |url=http://www.seagate.com/files/www-content/product-content/pulsar-fam/_cross-product/en-us/docs/ssd-faq-tp612-2-1103us.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160527034616/http://www.seagate.com/files/www-content/product-content/pulsar-fam/_cross-product/en-us/docs/ssd-faq-tp612-2-1103us.pdf |archive-date=2016-05-27 |access-date=2015-09-26 |website=seagate.com}}</ref>
There are various types of NAND flash memory, categorized by the number of bits stored in each cell:
* Single-Level Cell (SLC): Stores 1 bit per cell. SLC provides the highest performance, reliability, and endurance but is more expensive. * Multi-Level Cell (MLC): Stores 2 bits per cell. MLC offers a balance between cost, performance, and endurance. * Triple-Level Cell (TLC): Stores 3 bits per cell. TLC is less expensive but slower and less durable than SLC and MLC. * Quad-Level Cell (QLC): Stores 4 bits per cell. QLC is the most affordable option but has the lowest performance and endurance.<ref name="CWorldLackluster3">{{cite web |last=Mearian |first=Lucas |date=2008-08-27 |title=Solid-state disk lackluster for laptops, PCs |url=http://www.computerworld.com/article/2532300/data-center/solid-state-disk-lackluster-for-laptops--pcs.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161023124354/http://www.computerworld.com/article/2532300/data-center/solid-state-disk-lackluster-for-laptops--pcs.html |archive-date=2016-10-23 |access-date=2017-05-06 |work=Computerworld.com}}</ref>
Over time, SSD controllers have improved the efficiency of NAND flash, incorporating techniques such as interleaved memory, advanced error correction, and wear leveling to optimize performance and extend the lifespan of the drive.<ref name="FGplb">{{cite magazine |last=Lai |first=Eric |date=2008-11-07 |title=SSD laptop drives 'slower than hard disks' |url=http://www.pcadvisor.co.uk/news/laptop/106678/ssd-laptop-drives-slower-than-hard-disks/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629040539/http://www.pcadvisor.co.uk/news/laptop/106678/ssd-laptop-drives-slower-than-hard-disks |archive-date=2011-06-29 |access-date=2011-06-19 |magazine=Computerworld}}</ref><ref name="Drossel">{{cite web |author=Drossel, Gary |date=2009-09-14 |title=Methodologies for Calculating SSD Useable Life |url=http://www.snia.org/sites/default/orig/sdc_archives/2009_presentations/wednesday/GaryDrossel_Methodologies_SSD_Usable_Life.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208220033/http://www.snia.org/sites/default/orig/sdc_archives/2009_presentations/wednesday/GaryDrossel_Methodologies_SSD_Usable_Life.pdf |archive-date=2015-12-08 |access-date=2010-06-20 |publisher=Storage Developer Conference, 2009}}</ref><ref name="mlc-slc2">{{cite web |title=Are MLC SSDs Ever Safe in Enterprise Apps? |url=http://www.storagesearch.com/ssd-slc-mlc-notes.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080919005146/http://www.storagesearch.com/ssd-slc-mlc-notes.html |archive-date=2008-09-19 |website=Storagesearch.com |publisher=ACSL}}</ref><ref name="Lucchesi">{{cite web |author=Lucchesi, Ray |date=September 2008 |title=SSD flash drives enter the enterprise |url=http://silvertonconsulting.com/nwsa/SSDf_drives.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151210184800/http://silvertonconsulting.com/nwsa/SSDf_drives.pdf |archive-date=2015-12-10 |access-date=2010-06-18 |publisher=Silverton Consulting}}</ref><ref name="Jim_Bagley">{{cite web |author=Bagley, Jim |date=2009-07-01 |title=Over-provisioning: a winning strategy or a retreat? |url=http://www.plianttechnology.com/pdf/SSG-NOW_SSD_Flash_Bulletin_July_2009.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100104144120/http://plianttechnology.com/pdf/SSG-NOW_SSD_Flash_Bulletin_July_2009.pdf |archive-date=2010-01-04 |access-date=2010-06-19 |publisher=StorageStrategies Now |page=2}}</ref> Lower-end SSDs often use QLC or TLC memory, while higher-end drives for enterprise or performance-critical applications may use MLC or SLC.<ref name="mlc-slc2"/>
In addition to the flat (planar) NAND structure, many SSDs now use 3D NAND (or V-NAND), where memory cells are stacked vertically, increasing storage density while improving performance and reducing costs.<ref name="VOyVx2">{{cite web |date=13 August 2013 |title=Samsung Introduces World's First 3D V-NAND Based SSD for Enterprise Applications |url=https://www.samsung.com/semiconductor/newsroom/news-events/samsung-introduces-worlds-first-3d-v-nand-based-ssd-for-enterprise-applications/ |access-date=10 March 2020 |website=Samsung}}</ref>
====DRAM and DIMM==== Some SSDs use volatile DRAM instead of NAND flash, offering very high-speed data access but requiring a constant power supply to retain data. DRAM-based SSDs are typically used in specialized applications where performance is prioritized over cost or non-volatility. Many SSDs, such as NVDIMM devices, are equipped with backup power sources such as internal batteries or external AC/DC adapters. These power sources ensure data is transferred to a backup system (usually NAND flash or another storage medium) in the event of power loss, preventing data corruption or loss.<ref name="BiTMICRO2">{{cite web |last=Cash |first=Kelly |title=Flash SSDs – Inferior Technology or Closet Superstar? |url=http://www.bitmicro.com/press_resources_flash_ssd.php |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719234835/http://www.bitmicro.com/press_resources_flash_ssd.php |archive-date=2011-07-19 |access-date=2010-08-14 |publisher=BiTMICRO}}</ref><ref name="BgFad2">{{cite web |last=Kerekes |first=Zsolt |title=RAM SSDs |url=http://www.storagesearch.com/ssd-ram.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100822084227/http://www.storagesearch.com/ssd-ram.html |archive-date=22 August 2010 |access-date=14 August 2010 |website=storagesearch.com |publisher=ACSL}}</ref> Similarly, ULLtraDIMM devices use components designed for DIMM modules, but only use flash memory, similar to a DRAM SSD.<ref name="4xj0F">{{cite web |date=2014-03-12 |title=Hybrid DIMMs And The Quest For Speed |url=http://www.networkcomputing.com/storage/hybrid-dimms-and-the-quest-for-speed/a/d-id/1234704? |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141220111102/http://www.networkcomputing.com/storage/hybrid-dimms-and-the-quest-for-speed/a/d-id/1234704 |archive-date=20 December 2014 |access-date=20 December 2014 |work=Network Computing}}</ref>
DRAM-based SSDs are often used for tasks where data must be accessed at high speeds with low latency, such as in high-performance computing or certain server environments.<ref name="6VNR12">{{cite web |last1=Lloyd |first1=Chris |date=28 January 2010 |title=Next-gen storage that makes SSD look slow Using RAM drives for ultimate performance |url=http://www.techradar.com/news/computing-components/storage/next-gen-storage-that-makes-ssd-look-slow-666148/2 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141204120608/http://www.techradar.com/news/computing-components/storage/next-gen-storage-that-makes-ssd-look-slow-666148/2 |archive-date=4 December 2014 |access-date=27 November 2014 |website=techradar.com}}</ref>
====3D XPoint==== 3D XPoint is a type of non-volatile memory technology developed by Intel and Micron, announced in 2015.<ref name="extremetech2">{{cite web |title=Intel, Micron reveal Xpoint, a new memory architecture that could outclass DDR4 and NAND – ExtremeTech |url=http://www.extremetech.com/extreme/211087-intel-micron-reveal-xpoint-a-new-memory-architecture-that-claims-to-outclass-both-ddr4-and-nand |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150820045210/http://www.extremetech.com/extreme/211087-intel-micron-reveal-xpoint-a-new-memory-architecture-that-claims-to-outclass-both-ddr4-and-nand |archive-date=2015-08-20 |work=ExtremeTech|date=July 28, 2015 }}</ref> It operates by changing the electrical resistance of materials in its cells, offering much faster access times than NAND flash. 3D XPoint-based SSDs, such as Intel's Optane drives, provide lower latency and higher endurance than NAND-based drives, although they are more expensive per gigabyte.<ref name="anandtechJuly20152">{{cite web |last=Smith |first=Ryan |date=18 August 2015 |title=Intel Announces Optane Storage Brand For 3D XPoint Products |url=http://www.anandtech.com/show/9541/intel-announces-optane-storage-brand-for-3d-xpoint-products |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150819204835/http://www.anandtech.com/show/9541/intel-announces-optane-storage-brand-for-3d-xpoint-products |archive-date=19 August 2015 |quote=products will be available in 2016, in both standard SSD (PCIe) form factors for everything from Ultrabooks to servers, and in a DIMM form factor for Xeon systems for even greater bandwidth and lower latencies. As expected, Intel will be providing storage controllers optimized for the 3D XPoint memory}}</ref><ref name="cnet20152">{{cite web |title=Intel, Micron debut 3D XPoint storage technology that's 1,000 times faster than current SSDs |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/intel-and-micron-debut-3d-xpoint-storage-technology-thats-1000-times-faster-than-existing-drives/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150729133007/http://www.cnet.com/news/intel-and-micron-debut-3d-xpoint-storage-technology-thats-1000-times-faster-than-existing-drives/ |archive-date=2015-07-29 |work=CNET |publisher=CBS Interactive}}</ref>
====Other==== Drives known as hybrid drives or solid-state hybrid drives (SSHDs) use a hybrid of spinning disks and flash memory.<ref name="vQDKb">{{cite web |author=The SSD Guy |url=http://thessdguy.com/seagate-upgrades-sshd-phases-out-7200rpm-hdds/ |title=Seagate Upgrades Hybrids, Phases Out 7,200RPM HDDs |publisher=The SSD Guy |date=2013-03-30 |access-date=2014-01-20 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131216204943/http://thessdguy.com/seagate-upgrades-sshd-phases-out-7200rpm-hdds/ |archive-date=2013-12-16}}</ref><ref name="ouSAC">{{cite web|url=http://www.storagesearch.com/hybriddisks-art.html|title=Hybrid Storage Drives|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130606153429/http://www.storagesearch.com/hybriddisks-art.html|archive-date=2013-06-06}}</ref> Some SSDs use magnetoresistive random-access memory (MRAM) for storing data.<ref name="0cwDb">Douglas Perry. [http://www.tomshardware.co.uk/ssd-mram-memory-dram-solid-state-drive,news-38610.html "Buffalo Shows SSDs with MRAM Cache"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131216183338/http://www.tomshardware.co.uk/ssd-mram-memory-dram-solid-state-drive,news-38610.html |date=2013-12-16}}. 2012.</ref><ref name="8cbyg">Rick Burgess. [http://www.techspot.com/news/50790-everspin-first-to-ship-st-mram-claims-500x-faster-than-ssds.html "Everspin first to ship ST-MRAM, claims 500x faster than SSDs"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130403132053/http://www.techspot.com/news/50790-everspin-first-to-ship-st-mram-claims-500x-faster-than-ssds.html |date=2013-04-03}}. 2012.</ref>
=== Cache and buffer === Many flash-based SSDs include a small amount of volatile DRAM as a cache, similar to the buffers in hard disk drives. This cache can temporarily hold data while it is being written to the flash memory, and it also stores metadata such as the mapping of logical blocks to physical locations on the SSD.<ref name="SSD Anthology" /> This cache may also temporarily hold data while it being recently read from the flash memory.
Some SSD controllers, like those from SandForce, achieve high performance without using an external DRAM cache. These designs rely on other mechanisms, such as on-chip SRAM, to manage data and minimize power consumption.<ref name="Demerjian TPC-C Records2">{{cite web |last=Demerjian |first=Charlie |date=2010-05-03 |title=SandForce SSDs break TPC-C records |url=http://www.semiaccurate.com/2010/05/03/sandforce-ssds-break-tpc-c-records/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101127210155/http://semiaccurate.com/2010/05/03/sandforce-ssds-break-tpc-c-records/ |archive-date=2010-11-27 |access-date=2010-11-07 |publisher=SemiAccurate.com}}</ref>
Additionally, some SSDs use an SLC buffer mechanism to temporarily store data in single-level cell (SLC) mode, even on multi-level cell (MLC) or triple-level cell (TLC) SSDs. This improves write performance by allowing data to be written to faster SLC storage before being moved to slower, higher-capacity MLC or TLC storage.<ref name="GEsrf2">{{cite web |date=2011-04-09 |title=Intel SSD, now off the sh..err, shamed list |url=http://blog.2ndquadrant.com/en/2011/04/intel-ssd-now-off-the-sherr-sh.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120203173241/http://blog.2ndquadrant.com/en/2011/04/intel-ssd-now-off-the-sherr-sh.html |archive-date=February 3, 2012}}</ref>
On NVMe SSDs, Host Memory Buffer (HMB) technology allows the SSD to use a portion of the system's DRAM instead of relying on a built-in DRAM cache, reducing costs while maintaining a high level of performance.<ref name="Demerjian TPC-C Records2" />
In certain high-end consumer and enterprise SSDs, larger amounts of DRAM are included to cache both file table mappings and written data, reducing write amplification and enhances overall performance.<ref name="K6T913">{{cite web |date=2013-04-18 |title=Crucial's M500 SSD reviewed |work=The Tech Report |url=http://techreport.com/review/24666/crucial-m500-ssd-reviewed |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130420020626/http://techreport.com/review/24666/crucial-m500-ssd-reviewed |archive-date=2013-04-20}}</ref>
=== Battery and supercapacitor === Higher-performing SSDs may include capacitors, supercapacitors or batteries, which helps preserve data integrity in the event of an unexpected power loss. The capacitor or battery provides enough power to allow the data in the cache to be written to the non-volatile memory, ensuring no data is lost.<ref name="Demerjian TPC-C Records2" /><ref name="hHUsG2">{{cite web |last1=Kerekes |first1=Zsolt |title=Surviving SSD sudden power loss |url=http://www.storagesearch.com/ssd-power-going-down.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141122161514/http://www.storagesearch.com/ssd-power-going-down.html |archive-date=22 November 2014 |access-date=28 November 2014 |website=storagesearch.com}}</ref>
In some SSDs that use multi-level cell (MLC) flash memory, a potential issue known as "lower page corruption" can occur if power is lost while programming an upper page. This can result in previously written data becoming corrupted. To address this, some high-end SSDs incorporate supercapacitors to ensure all data can be safely written during a sudden power loss.<ref name="Werner SSD Features">{{cite web |url=http://www.flashmemorysummit.com/English/Collaterals/Proceedings/2010/20100817_F1B_Werner.pdf |title=A Look Under the Hood at Some Unique SSD Features |date=2010-08-17 |first=Jeremy |last=Werner |publisher=SandForce.com |access-date=2012-08-28 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111206225203/http://www.sandforce.com/userfiles/file/downloads/FMS2010_F1B-Look_Under_Hood_Jeremy_Werner.pdf |archive-date=2011-12-06}}</ref>
Some consumer SSDs have built-in capacitors to save critical data such as the Flash Translation Layer (FTL) mapping table. Examples include the Crucial M500 and Intel 320 series.<ref name="K6T913"/> Enterprise-class SSDs, such as the Intel DC S3700 series, often come with more robust power-loss protection mechanisms like supercapacitors or batteries.<ref name="bdQ9x2">{{cite web |author=Anand Lal Shimpi |date=2012-11-09 |title=The Intel SSD DC S3700 (200GB) Review |url=http://www.anandtech.com/show/6433/intel-ssd-dc-s3700-200gb-review |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140923060706/http://anandtech.com/show/6433/intel-ssd-dc-s3700-200gb-review |archive-date=2014-09-23 |access-date=2014-09-24 |publisher=AnandTech}}</ref>
=== Host Interface === [[File:M.2 2242 SSD connected into USB 3.0 adapter.jpg|thumb|An M.2 SATA (2242) solid-state-drive (SSD) connected into USB 3.0 adapter and connected to computer]] thumb|Mushkin Ventura, A USB that has an SSD inside [[File:Viper PVP30 Portable SSD 2 TB-3001.jpg|thumb|Portable SSD with connectors USB-A (front) and USB-C (back), specification 3.2 Gen 2 with data transfer rate 10 Gbit/s, capacity 2 Terabyte]] The host interface of an SSD refers to the physical connector and the signaling methods used to communicate between the SSD and the host system. This interface is managed by the SSD's controller and is often similar to those found in traditional hard disk drives (HDDs). Common interfaces include:
* Serial ATA: One of the most widely used interfaces in consumer SSDs. SATA 3.0 supports transfer speeds up to 6.0 Gbit/s.<ref name="Ad1qY2">{{cite press release |title=SATA-IO Releases SATA Revision 3.0 Specification |date=May 27, 2009 |publisher=Serial ATA International Organization |url=http://www.sata-io.org/documents/SATA-Revision-3.0-Press-Release-FINAL-052609.pdf |access-date=3 July 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090611174913/http://www.sata-io.org/documents/SATA-Revision-3.0-Press-Release-FINAL-052609.pdf |archive-date=11 June 2009}}</ref> * Serial attached SCSI: Primarily used in enterprise environments, SAS interfaces are faster and more robust than SATA. SAS 3.0 offers speeds of up to 12.0 Gbit/s.<ref name="roadmap2">{{cite web |date=2015-10-14 |title=Serial Attached SCSI Master Roadmap |url=http://www.scsita.org/library/2015/10/serial-attached-scsi-technology-roadmap.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307223515/http://www.scsita.org/library/2015/10/serial-attached-scsi-technology-roadmap.html |archive-date=2016-03-07 |access-date=2016-02-26 |publisher=SCSI Trade Association}}</ref> * PCI Express (PCIe): A high-speed interface used in high-performance SSDs. PCIe 3.0 x4 supports transfer speeds of up to 31.5 Gbit/s.<ref name="faq32">{{cite web |title=PCI Express 3.0 Frequently Asked Questions |url=http://www.pcisig.com/news_room/faqs/pcie3.0_faq/#EQ2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140201172536/http://www.pcisig.com/news_room/faqs/pcie3.0_faq/#EQ2 |archive-date=2014-02-01 |access-date=2014-05-01 |work=pcisig.com |publisher=PCI-SIG}}</ref> * M.2: A newer interface designed for SSDs that is more compact than SATA or PCIe, often found in laptops and desktops. M.2 supports both SATA (up to 6.0 Gbit/s) and PCIe interfaces. * U.2: Another interface used for enterprise-grade SSDs, providing PCIe x4 lanes but with a more robust connector suitable for server environments. * Fibre Channel: Typically used in enterprise systems, Fibre Channel interfaces offer high data transfer speeds, with modern versions supporting up to 128 Gbit/s. * USB: Many external SSDs use the Universal Serial Bus interface, with modern versions like USB 3.1 Gen 2 supporting speeds of up to 10 Gbit/s.<ref name="HPT692">{{cite web |title=SuperSpeed USB 10 Gbps – Ready for Development |url=http://www.heraldonline.com/2013/07/31/5071745/superspeed-usb-10-gbps-ready-for.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141011015741/http://www.heraldonline.com/2013/07/31/5071745/superspeed-usb-10-gbps-ready-for.html |archive-date=11 October 2014 |access-date=2013-07-31 |publisher=Rock Hill Herald}}</ref> * Thunderbolt: Some high-end external SSDs use the Thunderbolt interface. * Parallel ATA (PATA): An older interface used in early SSDs, with speeds up to 1064 Mbit/s. PATA has largely been replaced by SATA due to higher data transfer rates and greater reliability.<ref name="RKxU12">{{cite web |title=PATA SSD |url=http://www.transcendusa.com/Products/ModDetail.asp?LangNo=0&ModNo=308 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110717084330/http://www.transcendusa.com/Products/ModDetail.asp?LangNo=0&ModNo=308 |archive-date=2011-07-17 |publisher=Transcend}}</ref><ref name="4uTmC2">{{cite web |title=Netbook SSDs |url=http://supertalent.com/products/ssd_category_detail.php?type=Netbook |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101123225510/http://www.supertalent.com/products/ssd_category_detail.php?type=Netbook |archive-date=2010-11-23 |publisher=Super Talent}}</ref> * Parallel SCSI: An interface primarily used in servers, with speeds ranging from 40 Mbit/s to 2560 Mbit/s. It has mostly been replaced by Serial Attached SCSI. The last SCSI-based SSD was introduced in 2004.<ref name="WubOc2">{{cite web |last=Kerekes |first=Zsolt |date=July 2010 |title=The (parallel) SCSI SSD market |url=http://www.storagesearch.com/scsi-ssd.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110527035734/http://www.storagesearch.com/scsi-ssd.html |archive-date=2011-05-27 |access-date=2011-06-20 |website=StorageSearch.com |publisher=ACSL}}</ref>
SSDs may support various logical interfaces, which define the command sets used by operating systems to communicate with the SSD. Two common logical interfaces include:
* Advanced Host Controller Interface (AHCI): Initially designed for HDDs, AHCI is commonly used with SATA SSDs but is less efficient for modern SSDs due to its overhead. * NVM Express (NVMe): A modern interface designed specifically for SSDs, NVMe takes full advantage of the parallelism in SSDs, providing significantly lower latency and higher throughput than AHCI.<ref name="SNIA-1012">{{cite web |date=January 2009 |title=Solid State Storage 101: An introduction to Solid State Storage |url=https://www.snia.org/sites/default/files/SSSI/SSSI%20Wht%20Paper%20Final%20101.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190610154630/https://www.snia.org/sites/default/files/SSSI/SSSI%20Wht%20Paper%20Final%20101.pdf |archive-date=June 10, 2019 |access-date=9 August 2010 |publisher=SNIA}}</ref>
==Configurations== thumb|Intel 525 mSATA SSD The size and shape of any device are largely driven by the size and shape of the components used to make that device. Traditional HDDs and optical drives are designed around the rotating platter(s) or optical disc along with the spindle motor inside. Since an SSD is made up of various interconnected integrated circuits (ICs) and an interface connector, its shape is no longer limited to the shape of rotating media drives. The lack of moving parts and light weight meant that an SSD can have no shell and simply appear in the shape of a plug-in board. On the other end of the size spectrum, some solid-state storage solutions come in a larger chassis that may even be a rack-mount form factor with numerous SSDs inside. They would all connect to a common bus inside the chassis and connect outside the box with a single connector.<ref name="SNIA-101" />
For general computer use, the 2.5-inch form factor (typically found in laptops and used for most SATA SSDs) was the most popular in the 2010s, in three thicknesses<ref>{{Cite web |title=2.5 inch Hard Drive - Geekworm Wiki |url=https://wiki.geekworm.com/2.5_inch_Hard_Drive |access-date=2024-09-08 |website=wiki.geekworm.com}}</ref> (7.0mm, 9.5mm, 14.8 or 15.0mm; with 12.0mm also available for some models). For desktop computers with 3.5-inch hard disk drive slots, a simple adapter plate can be used to make such a drive fit. Other types of form factors are more common in enterprise applications. An SSD can also be completely integrated in the other circuitry of the device, as in the Apple MacBook Air (starting with the fall 2010 model).<ref name="RXXdi">{{cite web|last1=Kristian|first1=Vättö|title=Apple Is Now Using SanDisk SSDs in the Retina MacBook Pro As Well|url=http://www.anandtech.com/show/6727/apple-is-using-sandisk-ssds-in-retina-macbook-pro-as-well|website=anandtech.com|access-date=27 November 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129150848/http://www.anandtech.com/show/6727/apple-is-using-sandisk-ssds-in-retina-macbook-pro-as-well|archive-date=29 November 2014}}</ref> {{As of|2014}}, mSATA and M.2 form factors also gained popularity, primarily in laptops.
===Standard HDD form factors=== thumb|An SSD with a 2.5-inch HDD form factor. The SSD is opened to show what is inside. It contains the controller, DRAM memory, and four NAND flash. Each NAND is 32GB.
The benefit of using a current HDD form factor would be to take advantage of the extensive infrastructure already in place to mount and connect the drives to the host system.<ref name="SNIA-101" /><ref name="aGGBC">{{cite web |url=http://dcsblog.burtongroup.com/data_center_strategies/2010/01/ssd-dump-the-hard-disk-form-factor.html |title=SSD: Dump the hard disk form factor |publisher=Burton Group |author=Ruth, Gene |date=2010-01-27 |access-date=2010-06-13 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100209025557/http://dcsblog.burtongroup.com/data_center_strategies/2010/01/ssd-dump-the-hard-disk-form-factor.html |archive-date=2010-02-09}}</ref> These traditional form factors are known by the size of the rotating media (i.e., 5.25-inch, 3.5-inch, 2.5-inch or 1.8-inch) and not the dimensions of the drive casing.
====Disk-on-a-module form factors==== thumb|A 2 GB disk-on-a-module with PATA interface
A ''disk-on-a-module'' (''DOM'') is a flash drive with either 40/44-pin Parallel ATA (PATA) or SATA interface, intended to be plugged directly into the motherboard and used as a computer hard disk drive (HDD). DOM devices emulate a traditional hard disk drive, resulting in no need for special drivers or other specific operating system support. DOMs are usually used in embedded systems, which are often deployed in harsh environments where mechanical HDDs would simply fail, or in thin clients because of small size, low power consumption, and silent operation.
SATA DOMs come in several forms. The most traditional emulates the standard interface, with the 7-pin SATA data connector placed beside the 15-pin SATA power connector. An example is the "half-slim SATA" MO-297 size standard. To save board space, smaller SATA DOMs were made that only use the SATA data connector. The earliest type, made by e.g. Supermicro, relied on a separate Berg connector to deliver power. A second type of 2012, made by Innodisk, repurposes the 7th pin of the connector from GND to VCC (+5V).<ref name="u6dAh">{{cite web |url=http://www.innodisk.com/flashstorage-list.jsp?interface_no=actica_dom |title=SATADOM |publisher=Innodisk |access-date=2011-07-07 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707143801/http://www.innodisk.com/flashstorage-list.jsp?interface_no=actica_dom |archive-date=2011-07-07}}</ref> A third type called "pin 8 power" replaces the two plastic structural elements on the sides with two metal contacts for GND and VCC.<ref>{{cite web | title=SATA pin 8 power | url=https://www.delock.com/infothek/Pin-8-Power/pin-acht-power_e.html }}</ref> These new types of SATADOMs are now so popular that the older 7+15-pin type is virtually not considered to be "SATADOMs" any more, especially as few motherboards provide such an interface. (PATA DOMs have no power concern as the connector supplies 3.3V or 5V power: the same way a CompactFlash would get its power.)
There are also USB DOMs designed to be plugging into the USB 2.0 header pins on a motherboard.
{{As of|2016|post=,}} DOM storage capacities range from 4 MB to 128 GB with different variations in physical layouts, including vertical or horizontal orientation.{{Citation needed|date=September 2020}}
<gallery> File:512GB DOM SATA SSD.jpg|512 GB SSD with 7+15-pin SATA interface File:Viking Modular SATA-Cube & AMP SATA-Bridge.jpg|Viking Technology SATA (7+15) Cube and AMP SATA Bridge multi-layer SSDs; the one on the left uses the standard 7+15-pin interface File:Viking Modular MO-297 SATA SSD.jpg|MO-297 SATA (7+15) drive-on-a-module (DOM) SSD form factor </gallery>
===Standard small card form factors=== {{Main|mSATA|M.2}}
thumb|As this NVMe SSD is only 2230 size, it has a smaller controller chip with only one NAND flash without any DRAM memory.
For applications where space is at a premium, like for ultrabooks or tablet computers, a few compact form factors were standardized for flash-based SSDs.
There is the mSATA form factor, which uses the PCI Express Mini Card physical layout. It remains electrically compatible with the PCI Express Mini Card interface specification while requiring an additional connection to the SATA host controller through the same connector. A higher-performance SSD may use the Mini-PCIe to access the PCIe bus directly.
M.2 form factor, formerly known as the Next Generation Form Factor (NGFF), is a natural transition from the mSATA and physical layout it used, to a more usable and more advanced form factor. While mSATA took advantage of an existing form factor and connector, M.2 has been designed to maximize usage of the card space, while minimizing the footprint. The M.2 standard allows both SATA and PCI Express SSDs to be fitted onto M.2 modules.<ref name="n8OOK">{{cite web |url = https://www.sata-io.org/sata-m2-card |title = SATA M.2 Card |publisher = The Serial ATA International Organization |access-date = 2013-09-14 |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131003103042/https://www.sata-io.org/sata-m2-card |archive-date = 2013-10-03}}</ref>
=== Add-in-card form factors === Before M.2 was standardized, one of the main ways to access the PCIe bus for faster-than-SATA/SAS speed on a server was through the PCIe slot. A common shape is called HHHL (Half Height Half Length), or AIC (Add in Card) SSDs.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.anandtech.com/show/13218/ssd-form-factors-proliferate-at-flash-memory-summit-2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180817190757/https://www.anandtech.com/show/13218/ssd-form-factors-proliferate-at-flash-memory-summit-2018 | url-status=dead | archive-date=August 17, 2018 | title=SSD Form Factors Proliferate at Flash Memory Summit 2018 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.tweaktown.com/reviews/5921/asus-rog-raidr-express-240gb-pcie-ssd-review/index.html | title=ASUS ROG RAIDR Express 240GB PCIe SSD Review | date=6 December 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.snia.org/forums/cmsi/knowledge/formfactors | title=SSD Form Factors {{pipe}} SNIA }}</ref>
Some primitive PCIe SSDs do not access the PCIe bus directly, but simply had a PCIe-to-SATA/SAS bridge device and a number of SATA or SAS flash controllers attached. This was considered acceptable in 2010,<ref name="EQzBc">{{cite web|last=Pariseau|first=Beth|title=LSI delivers Flash-based PCIe card with 6 Gbit/s SAS interface|url=http://searchstorage.techtarget.com/news/article/0,289142,sid5_gci1454240_mem1,00.html|access-date=9 August 2010|date=16 March 2010|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101106012145/http://searchstorage.techtarget.com/news/article/0,289142,sid5_gci1454240_mem1,00.html|archive-date=6 November 2010}}</ref> when true PCIe SSDs were still new.<ref name="KUBX0">{{cite web|last=Pop|first=Sebastian|title=PCI Express SSD from Fusion-io ioXtreme Is Aimed at the Consumer Market|date=17 November 2009|url=http://news.softpedia.com/news/PCI-Express-SSD-From-Fusion-io-ioXtreme-Is-Aimed-at-the-Consumer-Market-127171.shtml|publisher=Softpedia|access-date=9 August 2010|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716102004/http://news.softpedia.com/news/PCI-Express-SSD-From-Fusion-io-ioXtreme-Is-Aimed-at-the-Consumer-Market-127171.shtml|archive-date=16 July 2011}}</ref>
This shape remains in use for some high performance, high capacity drives. The PCIe slot offers 16 lanes of data and 75 watts of power, still much larger than what a M.2 slot can provide. It also provides space for a large heat sink. There are also adapter boards that converts other form factors, especially M.2 drives with PCIe interface, into regular add-in cards.
===Ball grid array form factors=== In the early 2000s, a few companies introduced SSDs in Ball Grid Array (BGA) form factors, such as M-Systems' (now SanDisk) DiskOnChip<ref name="afmCP">{{cite web |last=Kerekes |first=Zsolt |title=SSDs |url=http://www.storagesearch.com/ssd-13.html |publisher=ACSL |website=StorageSearch.com |access-date=27 June 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110527040208/http://www.storagesearch.com/ssd-13.html |archive-date=27 May 2011}}</ref> and Silicon Storage Technology's NANDrive<ref name="qP23g">{{cite web |url=http://www.memec.ch/products/newsletter/sst/sst-issue-9december-2006-sst85ld0128-nandrive-disk-on-chip.html |title=New From SST: SST85LD0128 NANDrive - Single Package Flash Based 128MB Solid State Hard Disk Drive with ATA / IDE Interface |publisher=Memec Newsletter |date=Dec 2006 |access-date=27 June 2011}}{{dead link|date=May 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}}</ref><ref name="qcnzi">{{cite web|title=SST announces small ATA solid-state storage devices|url=http://www.wwpi.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1503:sst-announces-small-ata-solid-state-storage-devices&Itemid=2700970|publisher=Computer Technology Review|access-date=27 June 2011|date=26 Oct 2006|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111001093408/http://www.wwpi.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1503:sst-announces-small-ata-solid-state-storage-devices&Itemid=2700970|archive-date=1 October 2011}}</ref> (now produced by Greenliant Systems), and Memoright's M1000<ref name="W4Bm8">{{cite web |url=http://www.memoright.com/webe/html/product/03.aspx?Page=1&p=1&num=190 |title=M1000 Specifications |publisher=Memoright |access-date=2011-07-07 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111125090719/http://www.memoright.com/webe/html/product/03.aspx?Page=1&p=1&num=190 |archive-date=2011-11-25}}</ref> for use in embedded systems. The main benefits of BGA SSDs are their low power consumption, small chip package size to fit into compact subsystems, and that they can be soldered directly onto a system motherboard to reduce adverse effects from vibration and shock.<ref name="duhuh">{{cite magazine |last=Chung |first=Yuping |title=Compact, shock- and error-tolerant SSDs offer auto infotainment storage options |url=http://www.eetimes.com/design/automotive-design/4011451/Compact-shock-and-error-tolerant-SSDs-offer-auto-infotainment-storage-options |magazine=EE Times |date=19 Nov 2008 |access-date=27 June 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120517083943/http://www.eetimes.com/design/automotive-design/4011451/Compact-shock-and-error-tolerant-SSDs-offer-auto-infotainment-storage-options |archive-date=17 May 2012}}</ref>
Such embedded drives now often adhere to the eMMC and eUFS standards.
===Form factors with nonstandard connectors===
==== Box ==== Many of the DRAM-based solutions in 2014 use a box that is often designed to fit in a rack-mount system. The number of DRAM components required to get sufficient capacity to store the data along with the backup power supplies requires a larger space than traditional HDD form factors.<ref name="UKh9v">{{cite web|last1=Hachman|first1=Mark|title=SSD prices face uncertain future in 2014|url=http://www.pcworld.com/article/2087480/ssd-prices-face-uncertain-future-in-2014.html|website=pcworld.com|access-date=24 November 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141202134138/http://www.pcworld.com/article/2087480/ssd-prices-face-uncertain-future-in-2014.html|archive-date=2 December 2014|date=2014-01-17}}</ref>
====Board/card==== The flexibility of the SSD also allows for many unusual form factors, some of which had been important in its early adoption in PCs.<ref name="aXpRJ">{{cite web |url=http://www.samsung.com/us/business/semiconductor/products/pdfs/SSDsMovingIntoMainstreamBeard.pdf |title=SSD Moving into the Mainstream as PCs Go 100% Solid State |publisher=Samsung Semiconductor, Inc |author=Beard, Brian |year=2009 |access-date=2010-06-13 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716003002/http://www.samsung.com/us/business/semiconductor/products/pdfs/SSDsMovingIntoMainstreamBeard.pdf |archive-date=2011-07-16}}</ref> For example, the SATADIMM from Viking Technology uses an empty DDR3 DIMM slot on the motherboard to provide power to the SSD with a separate SATA connector to provide the data connection back to the computer. The result is an easy-to-install SSD with a capacity equal to drives that typically take a full 2.5-inch drive bay.<ref name="qIFdQ">{{cite web |url=http://www.vikingtechnology.com/products/ssd/satae/satadimm.html# |title=Enterprise SATADIMM |publisher=Viking Technology |access-date=2010-11-07 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111104210611/http://www.vikingtechnology.com/products/ssd/satae/satadimm.html |archive-date=2011-11-04}}</ref>
<gallery> File:Viking Modular SATADIMM w Cable.jpg|Viking Technology SATADIMM based SSD File:Custom Connector SATA SSD Module.jpg|A custom-connector SATA SSD </gallery>
==Development and history== <!-- This section (Development and history) should focus on milestones with SSDs. System shipment milestones are listed in the section Commercialization. --> [[File:Historical cost of computer memory and storage.svg|thumb|Historical lowest retail prices of computer memory and storage ]]
===Early SSDs using RAM and similar technology=== The first devices resembling solid-state drives (SSDs) used semiconductor technology, with an early example being the 1978 StorageTek STC 4305. This device was a plug-compatible replacement for the IBM 2305 hard drive, initially using charge-coupled devices for storage and later switching to dynamic random-access memory (DRAM). The STC 4305 was significantly faster than its mechanical counterparts and cost around $400,000 for a 45 MB capacity.<ref name="QqWhy">{{cite web |title=StorageTek – circa 2004 |url=http://www.storagesearch.com/storagetek.html |access-date=December 11, 2017 |website=storagesearch.com}}</ref> Though early SSD-like devices existed, they were not widely used due to their high cost and small storage capacity.
In the late 1980s, companies like Zitel began selling DRAM-based SSD products under the name "RAMDisk." These devices were primarily used in specialized systems like those made by UNIVAC and Perkin-Elmer.
===SSDs using Flash=== {| class="wikitable floatright" style="max-width: 35em;" |+ SSD evolution |- ! Parameter !! Started with !! Developed to !! Improvement |- | Capacity|| 20 MB || 100 TB <ref name="Jyarq">{{Cite web |last=Mui |first=Tsing |date=September 19, 2021 |title=Mushkin Enhanced Source HC 16 TB SSD Begins Showing Up at Retailers |url=https://www.thefpsreview.com/2021/09/19/mushkin-enhanced-source-hc-16-tb-ssd-begins-showing-up-at-retailers/ |access-date=June 21, 2024 |website=The FPS Review}}</ref>|| 5,000,000× |- | Sequential read speed|| 49.3 MB/s<ref name="KunFgr">{{Cite web |title=Samsung 32GB Solid State Drive {{pipe}} bit-tech.net |url=https://bit-tech.net/reviews/tech/storage/samsung_32gb_solid_state_drive/2/ |website=bit-tech.net}}</ref>|| 15 GB/s<ref name="OkyThn">{{Cite web |last=Downing |first=Shane |date=February 20, 2024 |title=Crucial T705 2TB SSD Review: The Fastest SSD on The Planet |url=https://www.tomshardware.com/pc-components/ssds/crucial-t705-2tb-ssd-review |access-date=June 21, 2024 |website=Tom's Hardware}}</ref>|| {{#expr:15000/49.3 round 2}}× |- | Sequential write speed|| 80 MB/s<ref name="Hgmhr">{{Cite web |date=19 July 2019 |title=Seagate's first Pulsar SSDs ready to blast the enterprise |url=https://www.engadget.com/2009-12-08-seagates-first-pulsar-ssds-ready-to-blast-the-enterprise.html |website=Engadget}}</ref><ref name="qmckN">{{Cite web |date=18 July 2019 |title=Samsung's 25GB / 50GB Enterprise SSDs can't stop, won't stop under heavy loads |url=https://www.engadget.com/2008-10-31-samsungs-25gb-50gb-enterprise-ssds-cant-stop-wont-stop-und.html |website=Engadget}}</ref>|| 15.200 GB/s<ref name="OkyThn" />|| {{#expr:15200/80 round 0}}× |- |IOPS|| 79<ref name="KunFgr" />|| 2,500,000<ref name="OkyThn" />|| {{#expr:2500000/79 round 2}}× |- | Access time|| 0.5 ms<ref name="KunFgr" />|| 0.045 ms read, 0.013 ms write <ref name="cN9qD">{{Cite web |date=9 November 2020 |title=WD Black SN850 1TB NVMe M.2 SSD Review |url=https://www.tweaktown.com/reviews/9664/wd-black-sn850-1tb-nvme-2-ssd/index.html}}</ref>|| Read: {{#expr:0.5/0.045 round 0}}×, Write: {{#expr:0.5/0.013 round 0}}× |- | Price || US$50,000 per gigabyte<ref name="r05YJ">was 20 MB for $1000, so 1000/20=50 so $50 per MB, a GB is 1000 MB so 50×1000=50,000</ref>|| US$0.05 per gigabyte<ref name="u7scU">{{Cite web |last=Bendle |first=Stewart |date=2024-06-20 |title=Best SSD and Hard Drive Deals 2024 |url=https://www.tomshardware.com/features/best-deals-on-ssds#section-best-ssd-deals |access-date=2024-06-21 |website=Tom's Hardware}}</ref>|| 10,000,000× |}<!-- Enterprise flash drives redirects here. --> {{Multiple image | footer = Top and bottom sides of a 100GB Intel DC S3700 SATA SSD and a 120GB Intel 535 mSATA SSD. | direction = vertical | width = 250 | image1 = Intel DC S3700 SSD series, top side of a 100 GB SATA 3.0 model.jpg | image2 = Intel DC S3700 SSD series, bottom side of a 100 GB SATA 3.0 model.jpg | image3 = SSDMCEAW120A4.jpg | image4 = Intel MSATA SSD.jpg }}
Flash memory, a key component in modern SSDs, was invented in 1980 by Fujio Masuoka at Toshiba.<ref name="LR4Sv">{{cite web |date=April 11, 2012 |title=1987: Toshiba Launches NAND Flash |url=https://www.eweek.com/storage/1987-toshiba-launches-nand-flash |access-date=20 June 2019 |website=eWeek}}</ref><ref name="PsRxx">{{cite web |title=1971: Reusable semiconductor ROM introduced |url=https://www.computerhistory.org/storageengine/reusable-semiconductor-rom-introduced/ |access-date=19 June 2019 |website=Computer History Museum}}</ref> Flash-based SSDs were patented in 1989 by the founders of SanDisk,<ref name="uZUYs">{{US patent|5297148}}</ref> which released its first product in 1991: a 20 MB SSD for IBM laptops.<ref name="mOVpl">{{cite web |date=1991 |title=History of the SanDisk brand. 1991 News |url=https://www.sandisk.com/about/company/history#1995---1991-section |access-date=December 12, 2017 |website=sandisk.com |publisher=SanDisk Corp}}</ref> While the storage capacity was limited and the price high (around $1,000), this marked the beginning of a transition to flash memory as an alternative to traditional hard drives.<ref name="computer history">{{cite web |title=1991: Solid State Drive module demonstrated |url=https://www.computerhistory.org/storageengine/solid-state-drive-module-demonstrated/ |access-date=May 31, 2019 |website=Computer History Museum}}</ref>
In the 1990s, new manufacturers of flash memory drives emerged, including STEC, Inc.,<ref name="xScJY">{{cite web |last1=Mellor |first1=Chris |title=There's a lot of sizzle with this STEC |url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2008/06/17/sizzle_with_this_stec/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111170953/http://www.theregister.co.uk/2008/06/17/sizzle_with_this_stec/ |archive-date=11 November 2013 |access-date=24 November 2014 |website=theregister.co.uk}}</ref> M-Systems,<ref name="Odagiri">{{cite book |last1=Odagiri |first1=Hiroyuki |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qfd9bgyozH0C |title=Intellectual Property Rights, Development, and Catch Up: An International Comparative Study |last2=Goto |first2=Akira |last3=Sunami |first3=Atsushi |last4=Nelson |first4=Richard R. |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-19-957475-9 |pages=224–227}}</ref><ref name="ilGjH">{{cite web |last=Drossel |first=Gary |date=February 2007 |title=Solid-state drives meet military storage security requirements |url=http://www.mil-embedded.com/pdfs/SiliconSysts.Feb07.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110714093115/http://www.mil-embedded.com/pdfs/SiliconSysts.Feb07.pdf |archive-date=2011-07-14 |access-date=2010-06-13 |publisher=Military Embedded Systems}}</ref> and BiTMICRO.<ref name="kiTyE">One gigabyte (1 GB) is equal to one billion bytes (1000<sup>3</sup> B).</ref><ref name="OnLi9">{{cite web |year=1999 |title=BiTMICRO 1999 News Releases |url=http://www.bitmicro.com/press_news_releases_1999.php |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100501152203/http://www.bitmicro.com/press_news_releases_1999.php |archive-date=2010-05-01 |access-date=2010-06-13 |publisher=BiTMICRO}}</ref><!-- Looking for other notable milestones between 1999 and 2007 -->
As the technology advanced, SSDs saw dramatic improvements in capacity, speed, and affordability.<ref name="DCoih">{{cite web |date=2007-09-25 |title=Fusion-io announces ioDrive, placing the power of a SAN in the palm of your hand |url=http://www.fusionio.com/load/media-docsPress/fbdzz/Pressrelease_SANinhand.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100509034736/http://www.fusionio.com/load/media-docsPress/fbdzz/Pressrelease_SANinhand.pdf |archive-date=2010-05-09 |access-date=2010-06-13 |publisher=Fusion-io}}</ref><ref name="2Xelp">{{cite web |date=2009-03-04 |title=OCZ's New Blazing Fast 1TB Z SSD Drive |url=http://www.tomshardware.com/news/OCZ-Z-Drive-RAID,7181.html |access-date=2009-10-21 |publisher=Tom's Hardware}}</ref><ref name="NnTqi">One terabyte (1 TB) is equal to one trillion bytes (1000<sup>4</sup> B).</ref><ref name="Daily Tech SSD">{{cite news |last=Jansen |first=Ng |date=2009-12-02 |title=Micron Announces World's First Native 6Gbps SATA Solid State Drive |url=http://www.dailytech.com/UPDATED+Micron+Announces+Worlds+First+Native+6Gbps+SATA+Solid+State+Drive/article17007.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091205184340/http://www.dailytech.com/UPDATED+Micron+Announces+Worlds+First+Native+6Gbps+SATA+Solid+State+Drive/article17007.htm |archive-date=2009-12-05 |access-date=2009-12-02 |work=Daily Tech}}</ref> By 2016, commercially available SSDs had more capacity than the largest available HDDs.<ref name="Nsx29">{{cite web |last=Anthony |first=Sebastian |date=11 August 2016 |title=Seagate's new 60TB SSD is world's largest |url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2016/08/seagate-unveils-60tb-ssd-the-worlds-largest-hard-drive/ |website=Ars Technica}}</ref><ref name="JfPBO">{{cite web |date=9 March 2016 |title=Seagate boasts of the fastest SSD flash drive at 10 GB/s |url=https://www.slashgear.com/seagate-boasts-of-the-fastest-ssd-flash-drive-at-10-gbs-09430785/ |website=SlashGear}}</ref><ref name="HKt3E">{{cite web |last=Tallis |first=Billy |title=Seagate Introduces 10 GB/s PCIe SSD And 60TB SAS SSD |url=https://www.anandtech.com/show/10555/seagate-introduces-10gbs-pcie-ssd-and-60tb-sas-ssd |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160810155138/http://www.anandtech.com/show/10555/seagate-introduces-10gbs-pcie-ssd-and-60tb-sas-ssd |url-status=dead |archive-date=August 10, 2016 |website=AnandTech.com}}</ref><ref name="A7jmh">{{cite web |title=Samsung's massive 15TB SSD can be yours – for about $10K – Computerworld |url=https://www.computerworld.com/article/3101165/data-storage/samsungs-massive-15tb-ssd-can-be-yours-for-about-10k.amp.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201025172849/https://www.computerworld.com/article/3101165/data-storage/samsungs-massive-15tb-ssd-can-be-yours-for-about-10k.amp.html |archive-date=2020-10-25 |access-date=2019-01-02 |website=ComputerWorld.com}}</ref><ref name="ZSdfU">{{cite web |title=Samsung 15.36TB MZ-ILS15T0 PM1633a 15TB Enterprise Class SAS 2.5" SSD |url=https://www.scan.co.uk/products/15tb-samsung-pm1633a-enterprise-class-sas-30-12gb-s-ssd-25-3d-v-nand-mlc-145mm-195k-iops |website=Scan.co.uk}}</ref> By 2018, flash-based SSDs had reached capacities of up to 100 TB in enterprise products, with consumer SSDs offering up to 16 TB.<ref name="Jyarq" /> These advancements were accompanied by significant increases in read and write speeds, with some high-end consumer models reaching speeds of up to 14.5 GB/s.<ref name="OkyThn" />
In 2021, NVMe 2.0 with Zoned Namespaces (ZNS) was announced. ZNS allows data to be mapped directly to its physical location in memory, providing direct access on an SSD without a flash translation layer.<ref>{{cite web |date=30 June 2021 |title=NVMe Gets Refactored |url=https://www.eetimes.com/nvme-gets-refactored/}}</ref> In 2024, Samsung announced what it called the world's first SSD with a hybrid PCIe interface, the Samsung 990 EVO. The hybrid interface runs in either the x4 PCIe 4.0 or x2 PCIe 5.0 modes, a first for an M.2 SSD.<ref>{{Cite web |author1=Shane Downing |date=2024-01-23 |title=Samsung's Hybrid 990 EVO SSD announced — world's first hybrid PCIe 4.0 x4 and 5.0 x2 SSD |url=https://www.tomshardware.com/pc-components/ssds/samsungs-hybrid-990-evo-ssd-announced-worlds-first-hybrid-pcie-40-x4-and-50-x2-ssd |access-date=2024-01-26 |website=Tom's Hardware |language=en}}</ref>
SSD prices have also fallen dramatically, with the cost per gigabyte decreasing from around $50,000 in 1991 to less than $0.05 by 2020.<ref name="u7scU" />
===Enterprise flash drives=== Enterprise flash drives (EFDs) are designed for high-performance applications requiring fast input/output operations per second (IOPS), reliability, and energy efficiency. EFDs often have higher specifications than consumer SSDs, making them suitable for mission-critical applications. The term was first used by EMC in 2008 to describe SSDs built for enterprise environments.<ref name="HjAAB">{{cite web |last=Mellor |first=Chris |title=EMC has changed enterprise disk storage for ever:First into the enterprise flash breech |work=Techworld |url=http://features.techworld.com/storage/3928/emc-has-changed-enterprise-disk-storage-for-ever/ |access-date=2010-06-12 }}</ref><ref name="eA2wW">{{cite web |author=Burke, Barry A. |date=2009-02-18 |title=1.040: efd – what's in a name? |url=http://thestorageanarchist.typepad.com/weblog/2009/02/1040-efd-whats-in-a-name.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100612095232/http://thestorageanarchist.typepad.com/weblog/2009/02/1040-efd-whats-in-a-name.html |archive-date=2010-06-12 |access-date=2010-06-12 |publisher=The Storage Anarchist}}</ref>
One example of an EFD is the Intel DC S3700 series, launched in 2012. These drives were notable for their consistent performance, maintaining IOPS variation within a narrow range, which is crucial for enterprise environments.<ref name="tsmg9">{{cite web |author=Anand Lal Shimpi |date=2012-11-09 |title=The Intel SSD DC S3700 (200GB) Review? |url=http://www.anandtech.com/show/6433/intel-ssd-dc-s3700-200gb-review/2 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141025162821/http://www.anandtech.com/show/6433/intel-ssd-dc-s3700-200gb-review/2 |archive-date=2014-10-25 |publisher=AnandTech}}</ref>
Another significant product is the Toshiba PX02SS series, launched in 2016. Designed for write-intensive applications like online transaction processing, these drives achieved impressive read and write speeds and high endurance ratings.<ref name="sPOpW">{{cite web |title=PX02SSB080 / PX02SSF040 / PX02SSF020 / PX02SSF010 |url=http://toshiba.semicon-storage.com/us/product/storage-products/enterprise-ssd/px02ssb-px02ssfxxx.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160215161748/http://toshiba.semicon-storage.com/us/product/storage-products/enterprise-ssd/px02ssb-px02ssfxxx.html |archive-date=2016-02-15 |publisher=Toshiba Corporation}}</ref>
===Drives using other persistent memory technologies=== In 2017, Intel introduced SSDs based on 3D XPoint technology under the Optane brand. Unlike NAND flash, 3D XPoint uses a different method to store data, offering higher IOPS performance, although sequential read and write speeds remain slower compared to traditional SSDs.<ref name="xxSiK">{{cite web |date=24 October 2019 |title=Micron's X100 SSD is its first 3D XPoint product {{pipe}} TechRadar |url=https://www.techradar.com/news/microns-x100-ssd-is-its-first-3d-xpoint-product |website=TechRadar.com}}</ref>
=== Consumer use === [[File:MacBook Air Mid 2012.png|thumb|The MacBook Air and Ultrabooks are the earliest popular implementations of SSD. Alongside inarguable faster speed resulting in absolutely-better systems' performance, SSD are also thinner and smaller than HDD, allowing modern laptops to be lighter and sleeker without memory-related compromise of productivity.]] As SSD technology continues to improve, they are increasingly used in ultra-mobile PCs and lightweight laptop systems. The first flash-memory SSD based PC to become available was the Sony Vaio UX90, announced for pre-order on 27 June 2006 and began shipping in Japan on 3 July 2006 with a 16 GB flash memory hard drive.<ref name="6IWdz">{{cite web |title=文庫本サイズのVAIO「type U」 フラッシュメモリー搭載モデル発売 |url=https://www.sony.jp/CorporateCruise/Press/200606/06-0627/ |access-date=2019-01-11 |website=ソニー製品情報・ソニーストア – ソニー |language=ja |ref={{sfnref | ソニー製品情報・ソニーストア – ソニー}}}}</ref> Another of the first mainstream releases of SSD was the XO Laptop, built as part of the One Laptop Per Child project. Mass production of these computers, built for children in developing countries, began in December 2007. By 2009, Dell,<ref name="dellflash">{{cite web |last=Aughton |first=Simon |date=2007-04-25 |title=Dell Gets Flash With SSD Option for Laptops |url=http://www.itpro.co.uk/111350/dell-gets-flash-with-ssd-option-for-laptops |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080917171521/http://www.itpro.co.uk/111350/dell-gets-flash-with-ssd-option-for-laptops |archive-date=2008-09-17 |publisher=IT PRO}}</ref><ref name="LmHYr">{{cite web |last1=Miller |first1=Paul |date=18 January 2009 |title=Dell adds 256GB SSD option to XPS M1330 and M1730 laptops |url=https://www.engadget.com/2009/01/17/dell-adds-256gb-ssd-option-to-xps-m1330-and-m1730-laptops/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924043836/http://www.engadget.com/2009/01/17/dell-adds-256gb-ssd-option-to-xps-m1330-and-m1730-laptops/ |archive-date=24 September 2015 |access-date=25 November 2014 |website=engadget.com}}</ref><ref name="pRmfx">{{cite web |last1=Crothers |first1=Brooke |title=Dell first: 256GB solid-state drive on laptops |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/dell-first-256gb-solid-state-drive-on-laptops/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150902020917/http://www.cnet.com/news/dell-first-256gb-solid-state-drive-on-laptops/ |archive-date=2 September 2015 |access-date=25 November 2014 |website=CNet.com}}</ref> Toshiba,<ref name="AxQd3">{{cite web |date=2009-04-14 |title=Toshiba Ships First Laptop With a 512 GB SSD |url=http://www.tomshardware.com/news/Toshiba-Portege-R600-ssd-notebook |publisher=Tom's Hardware}}{{dead link|date=May 2018|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}</ref><ref name="ywjLY">{{cite web |date=2009-04-14 |title=Toshiba announces world's first 512GB SSD laptop |url=http://news.cnet.com/8301-17938_105-10241140-1.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110329062228/http://news.cnet.com/8301-17938_105-10241140-1.html |archive-date=2011-03-29 |publisher=CNET News}}</ref> Asus,<ref name="G10Dt">{{cite news |last=Chen |first=Shu-Ching Jean |date=2007-06-07 |title=$199 Laptop Is No Child's Play |url=https://www.forbes.com/markets/2007/06/07/intel-asustek-laptop-markets-equity-cx_jc_0606markets3.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070615012643/http://www.forbes.com/markets/2007/06/07/intel-asustek-laptop-markets-equity-cx_jc_0606markets3.html |archive-date=2007-06-15 |access-date=2007-06-28 |work=Forbes}}</ref> Apple,<ref name="macbookairspec">{{cite web |title=MacBook Air Specifications |url=https://www.apple.com/macbookair/specs.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091001014416/http://www.apple.com/macbookair/specs.html |archive-date=2009-10-01 |access-date=2009-10-21 |publisher=Apple Inc.}}{{verify source|date=June 2012}}</ref> and Lenovo<ref name="lJ9mp">{{cite web |author=Joshua Topolsky |date=2008-08-15 |title=Lenovo slips out the new ThinkPad X301: new CPUs, 128GB SSD, still thin as hell |url=https://www.engadget.com/2008/08/15/lenovo-slips-out-the-new-thinkpad-x301-new-cpus-128gb-ssd-sti/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131212140612/http://www.engadget.com/2008/08/15/lenovo-slips-out-the-new-thinkpad-x301-new-cpus-128gb-ssd-sti/ |archive-date=2013-12-12 |access-date=2013-12-09 |publisher=engadget.com}}</ref> had begun producing laptops with SSDs.
By 2010, Apple's MacBook Air line began using solid state drives as the default.<ref name="sjc2m">{{cite web |date=2010-10-20 |title=MacBook Air |url=https://www.apple.com/macbookair/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111222210351/http://www.apple.com/macbookair/ |archive-date=2011-12-22 |publisher=Apple, Inc.}}{{verify source|date=June 2012}}</ref><ref name="macbookairspec" /> In 2011, Intel's Ultrabook became the first widely available consumer computers using SSDs aside from the MacBook Air.<ref name="X97JR">{{cite web |last=Simms |first=Craig |title=MacBook Air vs. the ultrabook alternatives |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/macbook-air-vs-the-ultrabook-alternatives/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924004013/http://www.cnet.com/news/macbook-air-vs-the-ultrabook-alternatives/ |archive-date=24 September 2015 |access-date=25 November 2014 |website=CNet.com}}</ref> At present, SSD devices are widely used and distributed by a number of companies, with a small number of companies manufacturing the NAND flash devices within them.<ref name="GPLS6">{{cite web |title=NAND Flash manufacturers' market share 2018 |url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/275886/market-share-held-by-leading-nand-flash-memory-manufacturers-worldwide/ |website=Statista}}</ref>
===Sales=== SSD shipments were approximately 11 million units in 2009,<ref name="Sw0vx">[http://www.storagereview.com/ssd_sales_up_14_in_2009 SSD Sales up 14% in 2009] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130615102352/http://www.storagereview.com/ssd_sales_up_14_in_2009|date=2013-06-15}}, January 20th, 2010, Brian Beeler, ''storagereview.com''</ref> rising to 17.3 million units in 2011<ref name="i2013-04-05">[http://www.isuppli.com/Memory-and-Storage/MarketWatch/pages/Solid-State-Drives-to-Score-Big-This-Year-with-Huge-Shipment-Growth.aspx Solid State Drives to Score Big This Year with Huge Shipment Growth] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130416232801/http://www.isuppli.com/Memory-and-Storage/MarketWatch/pages/Solid-State-Drives-to-Score-Big-This-Year-with-Huge-Shipment-Growth.aspx|date=2013-04-16}}, April 2, 2012, Fang Zhang, ''iSupply''</ref> for a total market value of US$5 billion.<ref name="WO6FY">[http://www.ecoinsite.com/2012/01/ssd-salesprice-1-dollar-per-gb-2012.html SSDs sales rise, prices drop below $1 per GB in 2012] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131216182827/http://www.ecoinsite.com/2012/01/ssd-salesprice-1-dollar-per-gb-2012.html|date=2013-12-16}}, January 10, 2012, Pedro Hernandez, ''ecoinsite.com''</ref> Shipments continued to grow to 39 million units in 2012 and were projected to reach 83 million units in 2013,<ref name="E4yw8">[http://www.storagenewsletter.com/news/marketreport/ihs-ssd-2012 39 Million SSDs Shipped WW in 2012, Up 129% From 2011 – IHS iSuppli] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130528024324/http://www.storagenewsletter.com/news/marketreport/ihs-ssd-2012|date=2013-05-28}}, January 24th, 2013, ''storagenewsletter.com''</ref> 201.4 million units in 2016,<ref name="i2013-04-05" /> and 227 million units in 2017.<ref name="tg2013-05-09">[http://www.tgdaily.com/hardware-brief/71502-ssds-weather-the-pc-storm SSDs weather the PC storm] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131216183622/http://www.tgdaily.com/hardware-brief/71502-ssds-weather-the-pc-storm|date=2013-12-16}}, May 8, 2013, Nermin Hajdarbegovic, ''TG Daily'', accesat la 9 mai 2013</ref>
''Tom's Hardware'', citing a 2024 analysis from Yole Group, projected that SSD revenues will rise from USD 29 billion in 2022 to USD 67 billion by 2028.<ref>{{cite web |last=Bertie |first=Martin |date=22 April 2024 |title=SSD Market to Hit $67 Billion in 2028, Driven by Enterprise and Client PCIe SSDs |url=https://www.tomshardware.com/news/ssd-market-to-hit-67-billion-in-2028 |access-date=25 April 2025 |website=Tom's Hardware}}</ref>
The global solid-state drive (SSD) market is projected to grow significantly between 2024 and 2030, driven by rising demand for data center expansion, cloud computing services, and consumer electronics upgrades.<ref name="GVR">{{cite web |date=February 2024 |title=Solid State Drives Market Size, Share & Trends Analysis Report |url=https://www.grandviewresearch.com/industry-analysis/solid-state-drives-industry |access-date=25 April 2025 |website=Grand View Research}}</ref> In a 2024 report, Grand View Research estimated the SSD market at USD 19.1 billion in 2023 and projected it to reach USD 55.1 billion by 2030.<ref name="GVR" /> In a separate 2024 study, Mordor Intelligence valued the market at USD 63.45 billion for 2024, forecasting growth to USD 172.82 billion by 2030.<ref>{{cite web |date=April 2024 |title=Solid State Drive (SSD) Market Size & Share Analysis - Growth Trends & Forecasts (2024 - 2029) |url=https://www.mordorintelligence.com/industry-reports/solid-state-drive-market |access-date=25 April 2025 |website=Mordor Intelligence}}</ref>
==File-system support== {{Main|List of file systems#File systems optimized for flash memory, solid state media|l1 = File systems optimized for flash memory, solid state media}}
The same file systems used on hard disk drives can typically also be used on solid state drives. File systems that support SSDs generally also support the TRIM command, which helps the SSD to recycle discarded data. The file system does not need to manage wear leveling or other flash memory characteristics, as they are handled internally by the SSD. Some log-structured file systems (e.g. F2FS, JFFS2) help to reduce write amplification on SSDs, especially in situations where only very small amounts of data are changed, such as when updating file-system metadata.
If an operating system does not support using TRIM on discrete swap partitions, it might be possible to use swap files inside an ordinary file system instead. For example, macOS does not support swap partitions; it only swaps to files within a file system, so it can use TRIM when, for example, swap files are deleted.{{citation needed|date=July 2016}}
==={{Anchor|FSTRIM|QUEUED-TRIM}}Linux=== Since 2010, standard Linux drive utilities have taken care of appropriate partition alignment by default.<ref name="hovkL">{{cite web |author=Karel Zak |date=2010-02-04 |title=Changes between v2.17 and v2.17.1-rc1, commit 1a2416c6ed10fcbfb48283cae7e68ee7c7f1c43d |url=https://www.kernel.org/pub/linux/utils/util-linux/v2.17/v2.17.1-rc1-ChangeLog |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130525063754/https://www.kernel.org/pub/linux/utils/util-linux/v2.17/v2.17.1-rc1-ChangeLog |archive-date=2013-05-25 |access-date=2014-04-13 |website=kernel.org}}</ref>
Kernel support for the TRIM operation was introduced in version 2.6.33 of the Linux kernel mainline, released on 24 February 2010.<ref name="Om4z2">{{cite web |date=2010-02-24 |title=Linux kernel 2.6.33 |url=http://kernelnewbies.org/Linux_2_6_33 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120616025132/http://kernelnewbies.org/Linux_2_6_33 |archive-date=2012-06-16 |access-date=2013-11-05 |website=kernelnewbies.org}}</ref> The ext4, Btrfs, XFS, JFS, and F2FS file systems include support for the discard (TRIM or UNMAP) function. Non-native file systems such as exFAT and NTFS-3G also support TRIM. To automatically make use of TRIM on file deletion, a file system must be mounted using the <code>discard</code> parameter. Linux swap partitions are by default performing discard operations when the underlying drive supports TRIM, with the possibility to turn them off.<ref name="man-8-swapon">{{cite web |url = http://man7.org/linux/man-pages/man8/swapon.8.html |title = swapon(8) – Linux manual page |date = 2013-09-17 |access-date = 2013-12-12 |website = man7.org |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130714134048/http://man7.org/linux/man-pages/man8/swapon.8.html |archive-date = 2013-07-14}}</ref><ref name="debian-ssd">{{cite web |url = https://wiki.debian.org/SSDOptimization |title = SSD Optimization |date = 2013-11-22 |access-date = 2013-12-11 |website = debian.org |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130705210159/http://wiki.debian.org/SSDOptimization |archive-date = 2013-07-05}}</ref><ref name="3.12.5-swapfile.c">{{cite web |url= https://git.kernel.org/cgit/linux/kernel/git/stable/linux-stable.git/tree/mm/swapfile.c?id=refs/tags/v3.12.5#n2507 |title= kernel/git/stable/linux-stable.git: mm/swapfile.c, line 2507 (Linux kernel stable tree, version 3.12.5) |access-date= 2013-12-12 |website= kernel.org}}</ref> Support for queued TRIM, a SATA 3.1 feature that results in TRIM commands not disrupting the command queues, was introduced in Linux kernel 3.12, released on November 2, 2013.<ref name="u6N4X">{{cite web |url=https://lkml.org/lkml/2013/9/3/277 |title=LKML: Tejun Heo: [GIT PULL] libata changes for v3.12-rc1 |author=Tejun Heo |work=lkml.org |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160117223804/https://lkml.org/lkml/2013/9/3/277 |archive-date=2016-01-17}}</ref>
An alternative to the kernel-level TRIM operation is to use a user-space utility called {{samp|fstrim}} that goes through all of the unused blocks in a filesystem and dispatches TRIM commands for those areas. The{{samp|fstrim}}utility is usually run by cron or systemd as a scheduled task. A filesystem that supports TRIM remains required.<ref name="pmNYx">{{cite web |url = https://www.phoronix.com/scan.php?page=news_item&px=MTUxOTY |title = Ubuntu Aims To TRIM SSDs By Default |date = 2013-11-19 |access-date = 2014-06-29 |author = Michael Larabel |website = Phoronix.com |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140809122456/http://www.phoronix.com/scan.php?page=news_item&px=MTUxOTY |archive-date = 2014-08-09}}</ref>
Whether formatting or resizing trims the unused space depends on the implementation. For example, the {{samp|mke2fs}} program for formatting ext2/3/4 defaults to issuing a TRIM command (if supported) to the entire block,<ref>{{man|8|mke2fs|Linux}}</ref> but the {{samp|resize2fs}} program for resizing ext2/3/4 does not TRIM the space left unused after shrinking.<ref>{{man|8|resize2fs|Linux}}</ref> TRIM-after-resize is instead done by {{samp|fdisk}} or {{samp|sfdisk}}, programs that edit the partition table.<ref>{{man|8|blkdiscard|Linux}}</ref>
In addition, bcache is designed to have an SSD act as a read/write cache for a slower drive such as an HDD.<ref>{{cite web |title=A block layer cache (bcache) — The Linux Kernel documentation |url=https://docs.kernel.org/admin-guide/bcache.html |website=docs.kernel.org}}</ref>
===macOS=== Versions since Mac OS X 10.6.8 (Snow Leopard) support TRIM but only when used with an Apple-purchased SSD.<ref name="3JN4a">{{cite web |url=https://www.engadget.com/2011/02/26/mac-os-x-lion-has-trim-support-for-ssds-hidpi-resolutions-for-i/ |title=Mac OS X Lion has TRIM support for SSDs, HiDPI resolutions for improved pixel density? |date=27 February 2011 |publisher=Engadget |access-date=2011-06-12 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629115854/http://www.engadget.com/2011/02/26/mac-os-x-lion-has-trim-support-for-ssds-hidpi-resolutions-for-i/ |archive-date=2011-06-29}}</ref> TRIM is not automatically enabled for third-party drives, except for external removable SSDs, although it can be enabled by using third-party utilities such as ''Trim Enabler''. The status of TRIM can be checked in the System Information application or in the <code>system_profiler</code> command-line tool.
Versions since OS X 10.10.4 (Yosemite) include <code>sudo trimforce enable</code> as a Terminal command that enables TRIM on non-Apple SSDs.<ref name="tGORd">{{cite web |url=http://www.macrumors.com/2015/07/01/os-x-trim-ssd/ |title=Yosemite 10.10.4 and El Capitan Third-Party SSD Support |website=MacRumors |date=30 June 2015 |access-date=2015-09-29 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150926085350/http://www.macrumors.com/2015/07/01/os-x-trim-ssd/ |archive-date=2015-09-26}}</ref> There is also a technique to enable TRIM in versions earlier than Mac OS X 10.6.8, although it remains uncertain whether TRIM is actually utilized properly in those cases.<ref name="07z3l">{{cite web |url=http://forums.macrumors.com/showthread.php?t=1124943 |title=MacRumors Forum |website=MacRumors |date=25 March 2011 |access-date=2011-06-12 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927023901/http://forums.macrumors.com/showthread.php?t=1124943 |archive-date=2011-09-27}}{{unreliable source?|date=June 2012}}</ref>
===Microsoft Windows=== Prior to version 7, Microsoft Windows did not take any specific measures to support solid state drives. From Windows 7, the standard NTFS file system provides support for the TRIM command.<ref name="xoQ7F">{{cite web |url=http://www.snia.org/sites/default/files2/sdc_archives/2009_presentations/thursday/NealChristiansen_ATA_TrimDeleteNotification_Windows7.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130728092225/http://www.snia.org/sites/default/files2/sdc_archives/2009_presentations/thursday/NealChristiansen_ATA_TrimDeleteNotification_Windows7.pdf|url-status=dead |title=ATA Trim/Delete Notification Support in Windows 7 |archive-date=July 28, 2013}}</ref>
By default, Windows 7 and newer versions execute TRIM commands automatically if the device is detected to be a solid-state drive ''and'' the filesystem driver supports TRIM (NTFS or ReFS). However, because TRIM irreversibly resets all freed space, it may be desirable to disable support where enabling data recovery is preferred over wear leveling.<ref name="cKwlG">{{cite web |url = http://forensic.belkasoft.com/en/ssd-2014 |title = Recovering Evidence from SSD Drives: Understanding TRIM, Garbage Collection and Exclusions |year = 2014 |access-date = January 22, 2015 |author1 = Yuri Gubanov |author2 = Oleg Afonin |website = belkasoft.com |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150122113644/http://forensic.belkasoft.com/en/ssd-2014 |archive-date = January 22, 2015}}</ref> Windows implements TRIM for more than just file-delete operations. The TRIM operation is integrated with partition- and volume-level commands such as ''format'' and ''delete'', with file-system commands relating to truncate and compression, and with the System Restore (also known as Volume Snapshot) feature.<ref name=":1" />
Defragmentation should be disabled on solid-state drives because the location of the file components on an SSD does not significantly impact its performance, but moving the files to make them contiguous using the Windows Defrag routine will cause unnecessary write wear on the limited number of write cycles on the SSD. The SuperFetch feature will also not materially improve performance and causes additional overhead in the system and SSD.<ref name="w8zKb">{{cite web |last=Butler |first=Harry |date=27 Aug 2009 |title=SSD performance tweaks for Vista |url=http://www.bit-tech.net/hardware/storage/2009/08/27/ssd-performance-tweaks-for-vista/1 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100727064030/http://www.bit-tech.net/hardware/storage/2009/08/27/ssd-performance-tweaks-for-vista/1 |archive-date=27 July 2010 |access-date=9 August 2010 |website=Bit-Tech.net}}</ref> Since Windows 8.1, the Windows Defrag routine would instead "retrim" (TRIM) partitions detected as SSDs.<ref name=defrag8/>
====Windows Vista==== Windows Vista generally expects hard disk drives rather than SSDs.<ref name="D2PjZ">{{cite web |title=If your SSD sucks, blame Vista, says SSD vendor |author=Smith, Tony |url=http://www.reghardware.co.uk/2008/07/22/sandisk_ssd_vista_beef/ |access-date=2008-10-11 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081014092454/http://www.reghardware.co.uk/2008/07/22/sandisk_ssd_vista_beef/ |archive-date=2008-10-14}}</ref><ref name="CWorldSpeedupSSD">{{cite web |title= Samsung, Microsoft in talks to speed up SSDs on Vista |url= http://www.computerworld.com/action/article.do?command=viewArticleBasic&articleId=9111939 |access-date= 2008-09-22 |url-status= dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090205032925/http://www.computerworld.com/action/article.do?command=viewArticleBasic&articleId=9111939 |archive-date= 2009-02-05}}</ref> Windows Vista includes ReadyBoost to exploit characteristics of USB-connected flash devices, but for SSDs it only improves the default partition alignment to prevent read-modify-write operations that reduce the speed of SSDs. Most SSDs are typically split into 4 KiB sectors, while earlier systems may be based on 512 byte sectors with their default partition setups unaligned to the 4 KiB boundaries.<ref name="1TeKf">{{cite web |last=Sexton |first=Koka |title=SSD Storage Demands Proper Partition Alignment |url=http://www.wwpi.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=8840:ssd-storage-demands-proper-partition-alignment&catid=99:cover-story&Itemid=2701018 |website=WWPI.com |access-date=9 August 2010 |date=29 June 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100723165815/http://www.wwpi.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=8840:ssd-storage-demands-proper-partition-alignment&catid=99:cover-story&Itemid=2701018 |archive-date=23 July 2010}}</ref> Windows Vista does not send the TRIM command to solid-state drives, but some third-party utilities such as SSD Doctor will periodically scan the drive and TRIM the appropriate entries.<ref name="12toS">{{cite web |title=Solid State Doctor – Solid State Drive Utility for SSD's |url=http://www.lc-tech.co.uk/pc/solid-state-doctor/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303045411/http://www.lc-tech.co.uk/pc/solid-state-doctor/ |archive-date=2016-03-03 |access-date=2016-02-23}} Link to information</ref>
====Windows 7==== Windows 7 and later versions have native support for SSDs.<ref name=":1">{{cite web|title= Support and Q&A for Solid-State Drives|publisher= Microsoft|url= http://blogs.msdn.com/e7/archive/2009/05/05/support-and-q-a-for-solid-state-drives-and.aspx|website= Engineering Windows 7|date= 5 May 2009|last= Sinofsky|first= Steven|author-link= Steven Sinofsky|url-status= live|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120520091756/http://blogs.msdn.com/b/e7/archive/2009/05/05/support-and-q-a-for-solid-state-drives-and.aspx|archive-date= 20 May 2012}}</ref><ref name="tMARM">{{cite web|title= Windows 7 gets SSD-friendly|last= Flynn|first= David|url= http://apcmag.com/windows_7_gets_ssdfriendly.htm|website= APC|publisher= Future Publishing|date= 10 November 2008|url-status= live|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090201162150/http://apcmag.com/windows_7_gets_ssdfriendly.htm|archive-date= 1 February 2009}}</ref> The operating system detects the presence of an SSD and optimizes operation accordingly. For SSD devices, Windows 7 disables ReadyBoost and automatic defragmentation.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thomas-krenn.com/en/wiki/Deactivating_Windows_7_Defragmentation_for_Solid-state_Drives|title=Deactivating Windows 7 Defragmentation for Solid-state Drives – Thomas-Krenn-Wiki}}</ref> Despite the initial statement by Steven Sinofsky before the release of Windows 7,<ref name=":1" /> however, defragmentation is not disabled, even though its behavior on SSDs differs.<ref name=":0">{{cite web |title= The real and complete story – Does Windows defragment your SSD? |url= http://www.hanselman.com/blog/TheRealAndCompleteStoryDoesWindowsDefragmentYourSSD.aspx |website= Scott Hanselman's blog |first= Scott |last= Hanselman |date= 3 December 2014 |publisher= Microsoft |url-status= live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20141222171607/http://www.hanselman.com/blog/TheRealAndCompleteStoryDoesWindowsDefragmentYourSSD.aspx |archive-date= 22 December 2014}}</ref> One reason is the low performance of Volume Shadow Copy Service on fragmented SSDs.<ref name=":0" /> The second reason is to avoid reaching the practical maximum number of file fragments that a volume can handle.<ref name=":0" />
Windows 7 also includes support for the TRIM command to reduce garbage collection for data that the operating system has already determined is no longer valid.<ref name="XTKn7">{{cite web |last=Yam |first=Marcus |title=Windows 7 and Optimization for Solid State Drives|url=http://www.tomshardware.com/news/windows-solid-state-drives-ssd,7717.html |publisher=Tom's Hardware |access-date=9 August 2010 |date=May 5, 2009}}</ref><ref name="0aQpS">{{cite web |url=http://www.howtogeek.com/165472/6-things-you-shouldnt-do-with-solid-state-drives/ |title=6 Things You Shouldn't Do with Solid-State Drives |website=Howtogeek.com |date=20 June 2013 |access-date=12 March 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160313045015/http://www.howtogeek.com/165472/6-things-you-shouldnt-do-with-solid-state-drives/ |archive-date=13 March 2016}}</ref>
====Windows 8.1 and later==== Windows 8.1 and later Windows systems also support automatic TRIM for PCI Express SSDs based on NVMe. For Windows 7, the KB2990941 update is required for this functionality and needs to be integrated into Windows Setup using DISM if Windows 7 has to be installed on the NVMe SSD. Windows 8/8.1 also supports the SCSI unmap command, an analog of SATA TRIM, for USB-attached SSDs or SATA-to-USB enclosures. It is also supported over USB Attached SCSI Protocol (UASP).
While Windows 7 supported automatic TRIM for internal SATA SSDs, Windows 8.1 and above support manual TRIM as well as automatic TRIM for SATA, NVMe and USB-attached SSDs. Manual TRIM is accessed through the expanded Windows Defrag utility.<ref name=defrag8>{{Cite web|url=https://www.urtech.ca/2022/02/solved-does-windows-defrag-ssds-what-is-ssd-optimization/|title=SOLVED: Does Windows Defrag SSD's & What Is SSD Optimization? – Up & Running Technologies, Tech How To's|website=www.urtech.ca |date=February 22, 2022 }}</ref>
===ZFS=== Solaris as of version 10 Update 6 (released in October 2008), and recent{{When|date=April 2018}} versions of OpenSolaris, Solaris Express Community Edition, Illumos, Linux with ZFS on Linux, and FreeBSD all can use SSDs as a performance booster for ZFS. A low-latency SSD can be used for the ZFS Intent Log (ZIL), where it is named the SLOG. An SSD may also be used for the level 2 Adaptive Replacement Cache (L2ARC), which is used to cache data for reading.<ref name="brendan_entry_test">{{cite web|url=http://blogs.sun.com/brendan/entry/test|title=ZFS L2ARC and SSD drives by Brendan Gregg|date=2008-07-12|work=brendan_entry_test|publisher=Sun Microsystem blog|access-date=2009-11-12|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090830052059/http://blogs.sun.com/brendan/entry/test|archive-date=2009-08-30}}</ref>
===FreeBSD=== ZFS for FreeBSD introduced support for TRIM on September 23, 2012.<ref name="RbueE">{{cite web |url=http://svnweb.freebsd.org/base?view=revision&revision=240868 |title=[base] Revision 240868 |website=Svnweb.freebsd.org |access-date=2014-01-20 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120162303/http://svnweb.freebsd.org/base?view=revision&revision=240868 |archive-date=2013-01-20}}</ref> The Unix File System also supports the TRIM command.<ref name="TfqcL">{{cite book |last1=Nemeth|first1=Evi|title=UNIX and Linux System Administration Handbook, 4/e|isbn=978-8131761779|url=https://books.google.com/books?isbn=8131761770|access-date=25 November 2014|year=2011|publisher=Pearson }}</ref>
==Standardization organizations== The following are noted standardization organizations and bodies that work to create standards for solid-state drives (and other computer storage devices). The table below also includes organizations which promote the use of solid-state drives. This is not necessarily an exhaustive list.
{| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! Organization or committee ! Subcommittee of: ! Purpose |- | INCITS | {{n/a}} | Coordinates technical standards activity between ANSI in the US and joint ISO/IEC committees worldwide |- | T10 | INCITS | SCSI |- | T11 | INCITS | FC |- | T13 | INCITS | ATA |- | JEDEC | {{n/a}} | Develops open standards and publications for the microelectronics industry |- | JC-64.8 | JEDEC | Focuses on solid-state drive standards and publications |- | NVMHCI | {{n/a}} | Provides standard software and hardware programming interfaces for nonvolatile memory subsystems |- | SATA-IO | {{n/a}} | Provides the industry with guidance and support for implementing the SATA specification |- | SFF Committee | {{n/a}} | Works on storage industry standards needing attention when not addressed by other standards committees |- | SNIA | {{n/a}} | Develops and promotes standards, technologies, and educational services in the management of information |- | SSSI | SNIA | Fosters the growth and success of solid state storage |}
==Gallery== <gallery mode=packed style="text-align:left"> File:MSATA SSD.jpg|MSATA SSD with label removed to show its NAND and controller. File:NVME TO USB.jpg|Inside a USB 3.0 Enclosure to a 2230 M.2 NVME SSD. </gallery>
==See also== * Board solid-state drive * Flash Core Module * Hard disk drive * List of flash memory controller manufacturers * List of solid-state drive manufacturers * RAID * RAM drive
==References== {{reflist}}
==Further reading== * [https://arstechnica.com/information-technology/2012/06/inside-the-ssd-revolution-how-solid-state-disks-really-work/ "Solid-state revolution: in-depth on how SSDs really work"]. Lee Hutchinson. Ars Technica. June 4, 2012. * Mai Zheng, Joseph Tucek, Feng Qin, Mark Lillibridge, "[http://www.cse.ohio-state.edu/~qin/pub-papers/SSDFault-FAST13.pdf Understanding the Robustness of SSDs under Power Fault]", FAST'13 * Cheng Li, Philip Shilane, Fred Douglis, Hyong Shim, Stephen Smaldone, Grant Wallace, "[https://www.usenix.org/system/files/conference/atc14/atc14-paper-li_cheng_nitro.pdf Nitro: A Capacity-Optimized SSD Cache for Primary Storage]", USENIX ATC'14
==External links== {{Commons category|Solid-state drives}}
* [https://www.jedec.org/news/pressreleases/jedec-continues-ssd-standardization-efforts JEDEC Continues SSD Standardization Efforts] * [https://snia.org/sites/default/files/NVM13-Wheeler_Linux_and_NVM.pdf Linux & NVM: File and Storage System Challenges] (PDF) * [https://wiki.debian.org/SSDOptimization Linux and SSD Optimization] * [https://www.usenix.org/system/files/conference/fast13/fast13-final80.pdf Understanding the Robustness of SSDs under Power Fault] (USENIX 2013, by Mai Zheng, Joseph Tucek, Feng Qin and Mark Lillibridge) * [https://ssd-tester.com Current list of SSDs, including benchmark tests]
{{Solid-state drive}} {{Basic computer components}} {{Portal bar|Electronics|Technology}}
Category:20th-century inventions Category:Computer storage devices Category:Non-volatile memory Category:Solid-state computer storage Category:Solid-state computer storage media