Khopesh

{{Short description|Ancient Egyptian sword}} {{Distinguish|Khepresh}} {{Infobox weapon | name = Khopesh | image = Khopesh.jpg | image_size = 300 | caption = 18th century BC khopesh found in Nablus; the blade is decorated with electrum inlays. | origin = Lower Egypt under the Hyksos (15th Dynasty) | type = Sword  | is_bladed = yes  | service = {{circa|3000}} – 1300 BC | used_by = {{ubl|Hyksos|New Kingdom of Egypt|Kingdom of Israel and Judah|Canaanite city-states|Kingdom of Kush}} | wars = {{ubl|Battle of Kadesh|Battle of Qarqar}}  | weight = | length = avg. {{convert|50|-|60|cm|in|abbr=on}} | part_length = | width = | height = | diameter = | crew =  | blade_type = Curved | hilt_type = | sheath_type = | head_type = | haft_type = }}

The '''''khopesh''''' (''{{lang|egy-Latn|ḫpš}}''; also vocalized '''khepesh''') is an Egyptian sickle-shaped sword that developed from battle axes.<ref name=Wise-1981-AncArmys/><ref name=Hamblin-2006-Warfare/> The sword style originated in Western Asia during the Bronze Age<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1007/s11837-016-2105-9 | title=Fabrication of a Bronze Age Sword using Ancient Techniques | date=2016 | last1=Sapiro | first1=David | last2=Webler | first2=Bryan | journal=JOM | volume=68 | issue=12 | pages=3180–3185 | bibcode=2016JOM....68l3180S }}</ref> and was introduced in the Second Intermediate Period.<ref name=":0">Lloyd, Alan B. ''A Companion to Ancient Egypt''. Spalinger, Anothony J. Ch 23. "Military Institutions and Warfare: Pharaonic". Newark, United Kingdom: John Wiley & Sons, 2010.</ref><ref name=":1">Van De Mieroop, Marc. ''A History of Ancient Egypt''. John Wiley & Sons, 2021. p. 126.</ref> The ''khopesh'' became more common in the New Kingdom, and is often depicted with kings in statues and murals.

==Etymology== {{Hiero |''ḫpš'' ('leg')|<hiero>Aa1:Q3-N37:F23-F51</hiero>(Coffin Texts)|align=left|era=egypt}}

The word ''khopesh'' may have been derived from "leg", as in "leg of beef", because of their similarity in shape. The hieroglyph for ''ḫpš'' ('leg') is found as early as during the time of the Coffin Texts (the First Intermediate Period).<ref name=":2">Coffin Texts: {{nobr|CT V, 9c, B1C}}</ref> However, on the 196 BC Rosetta Stone, it is referenced as the "sword" determinative in a hieroglyph block, with the spelled letters of kh, p, and sh to say:

{{blockquote|And there shall be set up a statue of the King of the South and the North, Ptolemy, the everliving, the god who appeareth, the lord of benefactions, and its name shall be called 'Ptolemy, the Avenger of Baq-t (Egypt)', whereof the interpretation is 'Ptolemy, the strong one of Kam-t' (Egypt), and a statue of the god of the city, giving to him a royal '''sword''' of victory ...<ref name=Budge-1989-Rosetta/> }}

==Description== [[File:Ancient Egypt Bronze Sickle-Shaped Sword (28321530132).jpg|thumb|upright|A bronze Khopesh sickle sword with Ramesses II cartouche inscribed, located at the Louvre.]]

A typical ''khopesh'' is {{convert|50|–|60|cm|in|abbr=on}} in length, though smaller examples also exist. The inside curve of the weapon could be used to trap an opponent's arm, or to pull an opponent's shield out of the way. These weapons changed from bronze to iron in the New Kingdom period.<ref name=Howard-2011-Brnz/> The blade is only sharpened on the outside portion of the curved end. Examples have been found with dull edges, most likely indicating they were of ceremonial purpose. The ''khopesh'' evolved from the epsilon or similar crescent-shaped axes that were used in warfare.<ref name="Hamblin-2006-Warfare" /> The ''khopesh'' also evolved from the crescent-shaped swords that came with settlers to the delta region from Western Asia.<ref name=":12">Mieroop, Marc Van De. ''A History of Ancient Egypt''. John Wiley & Sons, 2021. pg 126</ref> The ''khopesh'' was also a ceremonial object shown alongside depictions of kings and represents a symbol of power and conquest.

==History== [[File:Stele of Vultures detail 01-transparent.png|alt=Fragment of the Stele of Vultures. Fragment is divided in half with two scenes on the top and bottom of the fragment. Each scene is of a line of soldiers with shields and spears being led by a figure holding a khopesh.|thumb|A fragment of the Stele of the Vultures in which the earliest depiction of a khopesh is found. The khopesh can be seen in the hands of the figures at the top and bottom left portion of the fragment.]]

The ''khopesh'' did not originate in Egypt and was a foreign technology that was introduced to Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period when the Hyksos ruled Lower Egypt.<ref name=":13">Mieroop, Marc Van De. ''A History of Ancient Egypt''. John Wiley & Sons, 2021. pg 126</ref> The Hyksos most likely originated from the Levant and brought new technological advances to Egypt. The Hyksos brought new techniques in pottery, bronze working, and weaving, they also brought new weapons like composite bows, chariots, and curved swords that were the precursors to the ''khopesh''<ref name=":02">Lloyd, Alan B. ''A Companion to Ancient Egypt''. Spalinger, Anothony J. ''Ch 23. Military Institutions and Warfare: Pharaonic.'' Newark, UNITED KINGDOM: John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, 2010.</ref><ref name=":13" />''.'' The earliest known depiction of a ''khopesh'' is from the Stele of the Vultures, depicting King Eannatum of Lagash wielding the weapon; this would date the ''khopesh'' to at least 2500 BC.<ref name="Loades-2010-Swords" />

The height of the use of the ''khopesh'' was during the New Kingdom Dynasties in which warfare and imperial conquest were key features of the New Kingdoms.<ref name=":14">Mieroop, Marc Van De. ''A History of Ancient Egypt''. John Wiley & Sons, 2021. pg 126</ref> The ''khopesh'' fell out of use around 1300 BC.<ref name=":2" /> Ancient Egyptian soldiers carried the ''khopesh'' with various weapons such as axes, spears, maces, daggers, bows, and war chariots.<ref name=":03">Lloyd, Alan B. ''A Companion to Ancient Egypt''. Spalinger, Anothony J. ''Ch 23. Military Institutions and Warfare: Pharaonic.'' Newark, UNITED KINGDOM: John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, 2010.</ref> Outside of active warfare, the ''khopesh'' is often featured alongside depictions of Kings as a symbol of power and conquest.

Although some examples have clearly sharpened edges, many examples have dull edges that apparently were never intended to be sharp. It may therefore be possible that some ''khopeshes'' found in high-status graves were ceremonial variants.<ref name="Loades-2010-Swords" /> Various pharaohs are depicted with a ''khopesh'', and some have been found in royal graves, such as the two examples found with Tutankhamun.<ref name="Loades-2010-Swords" />

=== Examples in art === Depictions of the ''khopesh'' are also common in carvings from the New Kingdom Period. Carvings typically show the ''khopesh'' being wielded by a King in battle or while in a ceremonial setting. This use of the ''khopesh'' is used to associate kings with concepts of power and conquest.

* In an ''ostracon'' from the New Kingdom, a depiction of Ramesses IV is shown wielding a ''khopesh'' used to smite his enemies. The ''ostracon'' came from the reign of Ramesses IV putting its creation around 1153–1147 B.C. It is currently in possession of the MFA Boston. * A plaster relief on the exterior of the Hypostyle Hall at Karnack shows a depiction of Seti I from the 19th dynasty in a battle scene with a war chariot and a raised ''khopesh.'' In the scene, Seti I is trampling a group of enemies who are depicted as Libyans.

The Merneptah Stele from the New Kingdom depicts Merneptah, the fourth king of the 19th dynasty being given a ''khopesh'' from the God Amun after his victory over the Libyans in the north.

<gallery widths=200 heights=160> File:Mural_of_Seti_I._Assest_Number_1613786221.jpg|Mural of Seti I holding a khopesh while riding in a war chariot and trampling Libyans found at Karnak. File:Merneptah_Stele_2022_09.jpg|alt=Merneptah stele showing a carving of merneptah being given a khopesh by Amun|Merneptah Stele, depicting Merneptah's victory over the Libyans in 1208 BCE. Merneptah is being given a ''khopesh'' by Amun. </gallery>

=== Examples in archeology === Archeological examples of the ''khopesh'' have been found in tombs with both dull and sharpened edges. This points to the ''khopesh'' being used as a ceremonial object as well as a weapon. Archeological examples of the ''khopesh'' are most prevalent in the New Kingdom period after their introduction during the second intermediate period.

* A bronze ''khopesh'' found in the region of Palestine was found with an engraving of Ramses II. ''Louvre. E 25689.'' * Two examples of a ''khopesh'' were found in the tomb of King Tutankhamun. These swords were ornately carved and with a dull edge, indicating these swords were largely ceremonial in purpose. [https://www.globalegyptianmuseum.org/record.aspx?id=14740 JE 61588]

==See also== {{Portal|Asia}} {{Div col |content= * {{Annotated link|Celurit}} * {{Annotated link|Falcata}} * {{Annotated link|Falx}} * {{Annotated link|Harpe}} * {{Annotated link|Kopis}} * {{Annotated link|Kpinga|Makraka}} * {{Annotated link|Shotel}} }}

==References== {{reflist|25em|refs=

<ref name=Budge-1989-Rosetta> {{cite book |last=Budge |first=E. A. W. |author-link=E. A. Wallis Budge |year=1989 |orig-year=1929 |section=Rosetta line 6 |title= The Rosetta Stone |edition=Unabridged, softcover, reprint |publisher=Dover Publications |pages=155–156 |isbn=0-486-26163-8 }} </ref>

<ref name=Hamblin-2006-Warfare> {{cite book |last = Hamblin |first = W.J. |author-link = William J. Hamblin |year = 2006 |title = Warfare in the Ancient Near East |edition = Softcover |publisher = Routledge |pages =66–71 |isbn = 0-415-25589-9 }} </ref>

<ref name=Howard-2011-Brnz> {{cite book |last=Howard |first=Dan |year=2011 |title=Bronze Age Military Equipment |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=diOx0cfHegEC&pg=PA34 |publisher=Casemate Publishers |isbn=978-1-84884-293-9 |pages=31–34 }} </ref>

<ref name=Loades-2010-Swords> <br/> {{cite book |last=Loades |first=Mike |year=2010 |title=Swords and Swordsmen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yLU-bwAACAAJ |publisher=Pen & Sword Military |pages=1–21 |isbn=978-1-84884-133-8 }}</ref>

<ref name=Wise-1981-AncArmys> {{cite book |last=Wise |first=Terence |year=1981 |title=Ancient Armies of the Middle East |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tCLoNSNX1JwC&pg=PA23 |publisher=Osprey Publishing |pages=23–25 |isbn=978-0-85045-384-3 }} </ref>

}}

==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Massafra |first=Angela |publication-date=2012 |year=2009 |title=Le harpai nel Vicino Oriente antico. Cronologia e distribuzione |series=Rome La Sapienza Studies on the Archaeology of Palestine & Transjordan |volume=09 |place=Rome |publisher=Università di Roma "La Sapienza", Dipartimento di Scienze dellʹAntichità, Sezione di Orientalistica |isbn=9788888438191 |oclc=823234548 }} * {{cite journal |last=Wernick |first=Nicholas Edward |year=2004 |title=A Khepesh Sword in the University of Liverpool Museum |url=https://ssea2020.thessea.org/images/SSEA_assets/journals/JSSEA_31.pdf |journal=The Journal of the Society for the Study of Egyptian Antiquities |volume=31 |pages=151–155 |issn=0383-9753 |oclc=17450594 }}

==External links== * {{Commons category-inline|Khopesh}}

Category:3rd-millennium BC introductions Category:African swords Category:Ancient Near East weapons Category:Bronze Age Category:Lagash Category:Middle Eastern swords Category:Military history of ancient Egypt Category:Single-edged swords Category:Weapons of Egypt