{{Short description|Type of solid bitumen, or rock containing solid bitumen}}
thumb|A shungite-bearing rock (left) and solid bitumen shungite (right) '''Shungite''' is either a diverse group of metamorphosed Precambrian rocks all of which contain pyrobitumen, or the pyrobitumen within those rocks.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Jehlička |first1=J. |title=Transmission Electron Microscopy of Carbonaceous Matter in Precambrian Shungite from Karelia |date=1993 |work=Bitumens in Ore Deposits |pages=53–60 |editor-last=Parnell |editor-first=John |series=Special Publication of the Society for Geology Applied to Mineral Deposits |place=Berlin, Heidelberg |publisher=Springer |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-85806-2_4 |isbn=978-3-642-85806-2 |last2=Rouzaud |first2=J.-N. |editor2-last=Kucha |editor2-first=Henryk |editor3-last=Landais |editor3-first=P.}}</ref> It was first described from a deposit near Shunga village, in Karelia, Russia, from where it gets its name. Shungite is most widely known for pseudoscientific and quack medical claims about its uses in medicine and technology, where it is claimed to have properties ranging from nebulous health benefits to blocking 5G radiation.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" />
==Occurrence== Shungite has mainly been found in Russia. The main deposit is in the Lake Onega area of Karelia, at Zazhoginskoye, near Shunga, with another occurrence at Vozhmozero.<ref name="mindat">{{cite web |last=Mindat.org |title=Shungite |url=http://www.mindat.org/min-11040.html |access-date=3 July 2012}}</ref> Two other much smaller occurrences have been reported in Russia, one in Kamchatka in volcanic rocks and the other formed by the burning of spoil from a coal mine at high temperature in Chelyabinsk.<ref name="Easthaugh">{{cite book |last=Easthaugh |first=N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RJnI4ld6qeoC&q=shungite+russia&pg=PA345 |title=Pigment Compendium: A Dictionary and Optical Microscopy of Historic Pigments |author2=Walsh V. |author3=Chaplin T. |author4=Siddall R. |publisher=Routledge |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-7506-8980-9 |pages=345 |access-date=2 July 2012}}</ref> Other occurrences have been described from Austria, India, Democratic Republic of Congo<ref name="mindat" /> and Kazakhstan.<ref name="Efremova">{{cite journal |last=Efremova |first=S.V. |year=2006 |title=Water treatment with a shungite sorbent and biosorbents on its base |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1134%2FS1070427206030128 |journal=Russian Journal of Applied Chemistry |volume=79 |issue=3 |pages=397–402 |doi=10.1134/s1070427206030128 |s2cid=92934431 |access-date=11 September 2020|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
==Terminology== The term "shungite" has evolved substantially since was originally used in 1879 to describe a black substance with more than 98% carbon found in veins near its type locality of Shunga. More recently the term has also been used to describe a wide variety of rocks containing similar carbon layers, leading to some confusion. In scientific usage, shungite refers to a mineraloid which contains >98% carbon, and is used as a modifier to the host-rock's name, i.e. "shungite-bearing dolostone".<ref name="Melezhik">{{cite journal|last=Melezhik|first=V.A. |author2=Filippov M.M. |author3=Romashkin A.E.|year=2004|title=A giant Palaeoproterozoic deposit of shungite in NW Russia: genesis and practical applications|journal=Ore Geology Reviews|publisher=Elsevier|volume=24|issue=1–2|pages=135–154|doi=10.1016/j.oregeorev.2003.08.003|bibcode=2004OGRv...24..135M }}</ref> In popular usage, shungite-bearing rocks are sometimes themselves referred to as shungite. Shungite is subdivided into bright, semi-bright, semi-dull and dull on the basis of its lustre.<ref name="Mastarlez" />
Shungite has two main modes of occurrence, disseminated within the host rock and as apparently mobilised material. ''Migrated shungite'', which is bright (lustrous) shungite, has been interpreted to represent migrated hydrocarbons and is found as either ''layer shungite'', layers or lenses near conformable with the host rock layering, or ''vein shungite'', which is found as cross-cutting veins. Shungite may also occur as clasts within younger sedimentary rocks.<ref name="Melezhik"/>
==Formation and structure== [[File:Paleoproterozoic stromatolite laminae shungite Franceville Gabon.jpg|thumb|Dark layers made of shungite in a stromatolite, Franceville Basin, Gabon, Central Africa]] Shungite had historically been regarded as an example of abiogenic petroleum formation,<ref name="Mastarlez">{{cite book|last=Mastarlez|first=M. |author2=Glikson M. |author3=Stankiewicz B.A. |author4=Volkova I.B. |author5=Bustin R.M.|title=Organic Matter and Mineralisation: Thermal Alteration, Hydrocarbon Generation, and Role in Metallogenesis|editor=Glikson M. & Mastarlez M.|publisher=Springer|year=2000|pages=102–116|chapter=Organic and mineral matter in a Precambrian shungite from Karelia, Russia|isbn=978-0-412-73330-7|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fHR0DpsJJ-QC&q=shungite+metamorphism&pg=PA102|access-date=7 July 2012}}</ref> but its biological origin has now been confirmed.<ref name="Melezhik"/> Non-migrated shungite is found directly stratigraphically above deposits that were formed in a shallow water carbonate shelf to non-marine evaporitic environment. The shungite-bearing sequence is thought to have been deposited during active rifting, consistent with the alkaline volcanic rocks that are found within the sequence. The organic-rich sediments were likely deposited in a brackish lagoon. The concentration of carbon indicates elevated biological productivity levels, possibly due to high levels of nutrients available from volcanic material.<ref name="Melezhik"/>
Shungite-bearing deposits that retain sedimentary structures are interpreted as metamorphosed oil source rocks. Some mushroom shaped structures have been interpreted as possible mud volcanoes. Layer and vein shungite varieties, and shungite filling cavities and forming the matrix of breccias, are interpreted as migrated petroleum, now in the form of metamorphosed bitumen.<ref name="Melezhik"/> Solid-bitumen shungite is predominantly amorphous, though as with many carbon deposits it contains trace amounts of carbon allotropes such as graphene sheets and fullerenes.<ref name="Golubev_&_Antonets_2022">{{Cite journal |last1=Golubev |first1=Y.A. |last2=Antonets |first2=I.V. |date=2022 |title=Electrophysical Properties and Structure of Natural Disordered sp2 Carbon |journal=Nanomaterials |volume=12 |issue=21 |page=3797 |doi=10.3390/nano12213797 |pmc=9657770 |pmid=36364573 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
==Shunga deposit== The Shunga deposit contains an estimated total carbon reserve of more than 250 gigatonnes. It is found within a sequence of Palaeoproterozoic meta-sedimentary and meta-volcanic rocks that are preserved in a synform. The sequence has been dated by a gabbro intrusion, which gives a date of 1980±27 Ma, and the underlying dolomites, which give an age of 2090±70 Ma. There are nine shungite-bearing layers within the Zaonezhskaya Formation, from the middle of the preserved sequence. Of these the thickest is layer six, which is also known as the "Productive horizon", due to its concentration of shungite deposits. Four main deposits are known from the area, the Shungskoe, Maksovo, Zazhogino and Nigozero deposits. The Shungskoe deposit is the most studied and is largely depleted.<ref name="Melezhik"/>
==Uses and pseudoscientific claims== {{See also|Carbon black}} Shungite has been used since the middle of the 18th century as a pigment for paint,<ref name="Melezhik" /> and is currently sold under the names "carbon black" or "shungite natural black".<ref name="Easthaugh" /> In the 1970s, shungite was exploited in the production of an insulating material, known as ''shungisite''. Shungisite is prepared by heating rocks with low shungite concentrations to {{cvt|1090|–|1130|C}} and is used as a low density filler.<ref name="Melezhik" /> Shungite has applications in construction technologies.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mosin|first1=Oleg|last2=Ignatov|first2=Ignat | date=2012|title=Application of natural fullerene containing mineral shungite in construction industry and building technologies |journal=Nanotechnologies in Construction |volume=4|issue=6|pages=22–35}}</ref> The presence of fullerenes has resulted in shungite being of interest to researchers as a natural reservoir, though shungite is not uniquely enriched in fullerenes compared to other carbon-rich rocks.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Sajo |first1=Ma Easter Joy |last2=Kim |first2=Cheol-Su |last3=Kim |first3=Soo-Ki |last4=Shim |first4=Kwang Yong |last5=Kang |first5=Tae-Young |last6=Lee |first6=Kyu-Jae |date=2017-08-13 |title=Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Shungite against Ultraviolet B Irradiation-Induced Skin Damage in Hairless Mice |journal=Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity |volume=2017 |article-number=e7340143 |doi=10.1155/2017/7340143 |issn=1942-0900 |pmc=5574306 |pmid=28894510 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
Shungite has been used as a folk medical treatment since the early 18th century. Peter the Great set up Russia's first spa in Karelia to make use of the purported water purifying properties of shungite. He also instigated its use in providing purified water for the Russian army.<ref name="Volfson">{{cite book|last=Volfson|first=IF |author2=Farrakhov EG |author3=Pronin AP |author4=Beiseyev OB |author5=Beiseyev AO |author6=Bogdasarov M.A. |author7=Oderova A.V. |author8=Pechenkin I.G. |author9=Khitrov A.E. |author10=Pikhur O.L. |author11=Plotkina J.V. |author12=Frank-Kamanetskya O.V. |author13=Rosseeva E.V. |author14=Denisova O.A. |author15=Chernogoryuk G.E. |author16=Baranovskya N. |author17=Rikhvanov L.P. |author18=Petrov I.M. |author19=Saghatelyan A.K. |author20=Sahakyan L.V. |author21=Menchinskaya O.V. |author22=Zangiyeva T.D |author23=Kajtukov M.Z. |author24=Uzdenova Z.H. |author25=Dorozhko A.L. |display-authors=5 |title=Medical Geology: A Regional Synthesis|editor=Selinus O. |editor2=Finkelman R.B. |editor3=Centeno J.A. |publisher=Springer|year=2011|page=223|chapter=Medical Geology in Russia and NIS|isbn=978-90-481-3429-8|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BDZStwE2AXkC&q=shungite+uses&pg=PA223|access-date=7 July 2012}}</ref> Crystal healing pseudoscience proponents and 5G conspiracy theorists have erroneously claimed that shungite may remove 5G radiation from their vicinity more efficiently than any material of similar electrical conductivity would do.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|last=Tiffany|first=Kaitlyn|title=Something in the Air|work=The Atlantic|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2020/05/great-5g-conspiracy/611317/|date=13 May 2020|access-date=4 July 2020|issn=1072-7825}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite news|last=Koetsier|first=John|date=28 May 2020|title=$350 '5G Bioshield' Radiation Protection Device Is A ... $6 USB Stick|work=Forbes.com|access-date=27 May 2021|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/johnkoetsier/2020/05/28/350-5g-bioshield-radiation-protection-device-is-a--6-usb-stick/|quote=Other recommendations from Glastonbury? People should use Shungite, a mineral which is said to have healing powers that one 'healing crystal' company says 'span the board from purity to protection'.}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite news|last=Bucci|first=Nino|date=30 October 2020|title=Conspiracy theorists forced to apologise for calling Victorian youth leader a Covid 'crisis actor'|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2020/oct/31/conspiracy-theorists-forced-to-apologise-for-calling-victorian-youth-leader-a-covid-crisis-actor|access-date=27 May 2021|quote=Fernandez claims Facebook warned him his account would be restricted for posting misinformation to his page, which he also uses to promote cryptocurrency opportunities and sell shungite, a crystal which he claims prevents the effects of 5G.}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite news|last=Song|first=Victoria|date=3 March 2021|title=5G Conspiracy Theories Are Fueling an Entire Economy of Scammy Gadgets|work=Gizmodo|url=https://gizmodo.com/5g-conspiracy-theories-are-fueling-an-entire-economy-of-1846349071|access-date=27 May 2021|quote=Real shungite is 98% carbon, and has trace amounts of fullerenes, a type of carbon molecule that supposedly blocks electromagnetic frequencies. These pieces of jewelry or ornaments often have a much lower percentage of carbon than advertised and even lower amounts of fullerenes. There isn't much scientific evidence backing these claims, and researching shungite primarily brings up New Age-y articles spewing quackery, with no citations to actual studies or research. The 5G stickers supposedly generate some kind of shield to protect you from 5G waves. Let us be clear: A sticker that claims to generate any type of radiation-blocking shield is pure science fiction.}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite news|last=McGowan|first=Michael|date=24 February 2021|title=How the wellness and influencer crowd serve conspiracies to the masses|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2021/feb/25/how-the-wellness-and-influencer-crowd-served-conspiracies-to-the-masses|access-date=27 May 2021|quote=[Fernandez] flits between long screeds about vaccinations and claims that Covid-19 is a hoax to selling products that he claims protect users from electromagnetic fields that conspiracy theorists believe are emitted by 5G towers. A shungite pyramid crystal will protect a radius of 'approximately 6-7 metres', his website claims.}}</ref> Many of these claims frequently focus on the reputed benefits of fullerenes contained in shungite, which are found in concentrations of 1 to 10 parts per million.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sajo |first1=Ma. Easter Joy |last2=Kim |first2=Cheol-Su |last3=Kim |first3=Soo-Ki |last4=Shim |first4=Kwang Yong |last5=Kang |first5=Tae-Young |last6=Lee |first6=Kyu-Jae |date=2017 |title=Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Shungite against Ultraviolet B Irradiation-Induced Skin Damage in Hairless Mice |journal=Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity |volume=2017 |pages=1–11 |doi=10.1155/2017/7340143 |issn=1942-0900 |pmc=5574306 |pmid=28894510 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="mindat" /><ref name="Reznikov">{{cite journal |last=Reznikov |first=V.A. |author2=PolekhovskiÏ |date=6 March 2000 |title=Amorphous shungite carbon: A natural medium for the formation of fullerenes |url=http://www.owndoc.com/pdf/fullerene-content-in-shungite.pdf |journal=Technical Physics Letters |series=8 |volume=26 |issue=2000 |pages=689–693 |bibcode=2000TePhL..26..689R |doi=10.1134/1.1307814 |s2cid=51999111 |access-date=9 January 2013}}</ref> Despite its purported health benefits, shungite contains toxic heavy metals such as lead and cadmium and can pose a health risk when used as an alternative medicine.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Jurgelane |first1=Inga |last2=Locs |first2=Janis |date=2020-11-25 |title=Shungite application for treatment of drinking water – is it the right choice? |journal=Journal of Water and Health |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=89–96 |doi=10.2166/wh.2020.139 |issn=1477-8920|doi-access=free }}</ref>
==See also== *Hydrocarbon *Oil shale
==References== {{Reflist}}
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Category:Geology of European Russia Category:Bitumen-impregnated rocks Category:Paleoproterozoic geology