{{short description|Disposal process for scrap}} {{redirect|Ship breaker|the novel by Paolo Bacigalupi|Ship Breaker}} {{Use British English|date=July 2022}} {{Use dmy dates|date=July 2022}} [[File:Calendar 2020 (64).jpg|thumb|Removing steel plates from a ship using cranes<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gmsinc.net/article/demystifying-ship-recycling-safe-accesses-to-the-ships|title=Safe Accesses to the ships at HKC compliant Ship Recycling Facilities|website=GMS Leadership}}</ref> at Alang Ship Breaking Yard in India]]
'''Ship breaking''' (also known as '''ship recycling''', '''ship demolition''', '''ship scrapping''', '''ship dismantling''', or '''ship cracking''') is a type of ship disposal involving the breaking up of ships either as a source of parts, which can be sold for reuse, or for the extraction of raw materials, chiefly scrap. Modern ships have a lifespan of 25 to 30 years before corrosion, metal fatigue and a lack of parts render them uneconomical to operate.<ref>{{cite web |title=Life Cycle of a Ship |url=http://www.shippipedia.com/life-cycle-of-a-ship/ |url-status=dead |website=shippipedia.com |date=21 January 2011 |access-date=2 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190324114937/http://www.shippipedia.com/life-cycle-of-a-ship/ |archive-date=24 March 2019}}</ref> Ship breaking allows the materials from the ship, especially steel, to be recycled and made into new products. This lowers the demand for mined iron ore and reduces energy use in the steelmaking process. Fixtures and other equipment on board the vessels can also be reused. While ship breaking is sustainable, there are concerns about its use by poorer countries without stringent environmental legislation. It is also labour-intensive, and considered one of the world's most dangerous industries.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Lord |first1=Ross |last2=Logan |first2=Nick |title=Ship breaking: Newfoundland's legacy with one of the most hazardous jobs |url=http://globalnews.ca/news/837009/ship-breaking-newfoundlands-legacy-with-one-of-the-most-hazardous-jobs/ |website=globalnews.ca |publisher=Shaw Media Inc. |date=12 September 2013 |access-date=4 August 2015}}</ref>
In 2012, roughly 1,250 ocean ships were broken down, and their average age was 26 years.<ref name=":0">{{cite web|title = NGO Shipbreaking Platform » Problems and Solutions|url = http://www.shipbreakingplatform.org/problems-and-solutions/|website = www.shipbreakingplatform.org|access-date = 2 August 2015|publisher = NGO Shipbreaking Platform|archive-date = 9 November 2015|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151109130257/http://www.shipbreakingplatform.org/problems-and-solutions/|url-status = dead}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{cite journal|title = Technical guidelines for the environmentally sound management of the full and partial dismantling of ships|url = http://www.basel.int/Portals/4/Basel%20Convention/docs/meetings/sbc/workdoc/techgships-e.pdf|journal = Basel Convention Series/SBC.|issn = 1020-8364|access-date = 3 August 2015}}</ref> In 2013, the world total of demolished ships amounted to 29,052,000 tonnes, 92% of which were demolished in Asia. As of January 2020, Alang Ship Breaking Yard in India has the largest global share at 30%,<ref name="breakkro1">[https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/transportation/shipping-/-transport/india-eyes-60-per-cent-share-of-global-ship-recycling-business-higher-gdp-contribution-mandaviya/articleshow/72964082.cms India eyes 60 per cent share of global ship recycling business; higher GDP contribution], Economic Times, 30 December 2019.</ref> followed by Chittagong Ship Breaking Yard in Bangladesh and Gadani Ship Breaking Yard in Pakistan.<ref name="breakkro2">{{cite web|url = http://unctad.org/en/PublicationsLibrary/rmt2014_en.pdf|title = Review of Maritime Transport 2014|date = 20 November 2014|access-date = 2 August 2015|website = unctad.org|publisher = United Nations Conference on trade and development|last = Miroux|first = Anne}}</ref>
The largest sources of ships are China, Greece, and Germany, although there is greater variation in the sources of carriers versus their disposal.<ref>{{cite web|title = Shipbreaking in 2014 |website= GRID-Arendal |url = https://www.grida.no/resources/8063|date = 4 June 2015|last = Ashkar|first = Hisham H.}}</ref> The shipbreaking yards of India, Bangladesh, China and Pakistan employ 225,000 workers as well as providing many indirect jobs. In Bangladesh, the recycled steel covers 20% of the country's needs, and in India, it is almost 10%.<ref>{{cite web |title = Shipbreaking in Asia {{!}} GRID-Arendal – Maps & Graphics library|url = http://www.grida.no/graphicslib/detail/shipbreaking-in-asia_776f|website = www.grida.no|access-date = 2 August 2015|date = 25 February 2012|publisher = GRID-Arendal|last = Rekacewicz|first = Philippe|archive-date = 6 September 2015|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150906062834/http://www.grida.no/graphicslib/detail/shipbreaking-in-asia_776f|url-status = dead}}</ref>
As an alternative to ship breaking, ships may be sunk to create artificial reefs after legally mandated removal of hazardous materials (though this does not recycle any materials), or sunk in deep ocean waters. Storage is a viable temporary option, whether on land or afloat, though most ships will eventually be scrapped; some will be sunk, or alternatively be retained and preserved as museum ships.
==History== [[File:Breaking-up HMS Queen at Rotherhithe - ILN 1871.jpg|thumb|{{HMS|Queen|1839|6}} heeled over on the Thames foreshore off Rotherhithe, {{c.}} 1871]]Wooden-hulled ships were simply set on fire or "conveniently sunk". In Tudor times (1485–1603), ships were dismantled and the timber reused. This procedure was no longer applicable with the advent of metal-hulled boats<ref name="Bowen-1936">{{cite magazine | title = The Shipbreaking Industry |url = http://www.naval-history.net/WW1NavyBritish-Shipbreak.htm |magazine= Shipping Wonders of the World | publisher= www.naval-history.net |access-date = 3 August 2015 |first = Frank C |last = Bowen |date =10 November 1936}} [https://www.shippingwondersoftheworld.com/shipbreaking.html alternate URL]</ref> in the 19th century.
In 1880, Denny Brothers of Dumbarton used forgings made from scrap maritime steel in their shipbuilding. Many other nations began to purchase British ships for scrap by the late 19th century, including Germany, Italy, the Netherlands and Japan. The Italian industry started in 1892, and the Japanese industry after the passing of an 1896 law to subsidise native shipbuilding.<ref name=Bowen-1936/>
After suffering damage or disaster, liner operators did not want the name of a broken ship to tarnish the brand of their passenger services. Many Victorian ships made their final voyages with the final letter of their name chipped off.<ref name=Bowen-1936/>
In the 1930s, it became cheaper to "beach" a boat by running her ashore—as opposed to using a dry dock. The ship would have to weigh as little as possible and would run ashore at full speed. Dismantling operations required a {{convert|10|ft|adj=on|0}} rise of tide and close proximity to a steelworks. Electric shears, a wrecking ball and oxyacetylene torches were used. The technique of the time closely resembles that used in developing countries {{as of|2020|lc=on}}. Thos. W. Ward Ltd., one of the largest breakers in the United Kingdom in the 1930s, would recondition and sell all furniture and machinery. Many historical artifacts were sold at public auctions: the Cunarder {{ship|RMS|Mauretania|1906|6}}, sold as scrap for {{GBP|78000}}, received high bids for her fittings worldwide. However, any weapons and military information, even if obsolete, were carefully removed by Navy personnel before turning over the ship for scrapping.<ref name=Bowen-1936/>
thumb|Dismantling of {{ship|French ironclad|Redoutable||2}} in Toulon, 1912
In 2020, as the COVID-19 pandemic crippled the cruise ship trade, cruise vessels began to appear more frequently in shipbreaking facilities.<ref> {{cite news | last1 = Frishberg | first1 = Hannah | title = Luxury cruise ships being scrapped for metal amid ongoing pandemic | url = https://nypost.com/2020/10/12/luxury-cruise-ships-being-scrapped-for-metal-amid-ongoing-pandemic/ | work = New York Post | publisher = NYP Holdings, Inc. | publication-date = 12 October 2020 | access-date = 23 October 2020 | quote = As the cruise ship industry continues to be battered by the ongoing coronavirus pandemic, boats once considered to be opulent, top-of-the-line vessels are now being sold for scraps. }} </ref>
===Location trends === Until the late 20th century, the majority of ship breaking activity took place in the port cities of industrialized countries such as the United Kingdom and the United States. {{As of | 2020}}, those dismantlers that still remain in the United States work primarily on government-surplus vessels.{{citation needed|date=October 2020}}
Starting in the mid-20th century, East Asian countries with lower labour costs began to dominate ship breaking. As labour costs rose, centres of the shipbreaking industry moved—initially from countries such as Japan and Hong Kong, to Korea and Taiwan and then to China. For example, the southern port city of Kaohsiung in Taiwan operated as the world's leading dismantling site in the late 1960s and 1970s, breaking up 220 ships, totalling 1.6 million tons in 1972 alone;<ref name="TR-1973">{{cite news |url= https://taiwantoday.tw/news.php?unit=8,8,29,32,32,45&post=13609 |title= Shipbreaker to the world |date= March 1, 1973 |work= Taiwan Review |access-date= 9 December 2019}}</ref> in 1977, Taiwan continued to dominate the industry with more than half the market share, followed by Spain and Pakistan. At the time, Bangladesh had no capacity at all. However, the sector is volatile and fluctuates wildly, and Taiwan processed just two ships 13 years later as wages across East Asia rose.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |url = http://siteresources.worldbank.org/SOUTHASIAEXT/Resources/223546-1296680097256/Shipbreaking.pdf |title = SHIP BREAKING AND RECYCLING INDUSTRY IN BANGLADESH AND PAKISTAN |date = Dec 2010 |access-date = 3 August 2015 |website = siteresources.worldbank.org |publisher = International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / World Bank | last = Sarraf |first = Maria}}</ref><ref name=":11">{{cite web |url = https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vV3M4jqD-Sg |title = Echoes of Ship Breaking |date = 17 July 2014 |access-date = 4 August 2015 |website = www.youtube.com |publisher = Vega Productions |last = Rane |first = Prathamesh V.}}</ref> For comparison, depending on their profession, ship-breakers in Kaohsiung earned from {{NTD|40}} (day labourer) to {{NTD|180}} (torch operator) per day in 1973.<ref name=TR-1973/>
[[File:Ship beached in recycling facility in India.jpg|thumb|Ship recycled in beaching method]]
In 1960, after a severe cyclone, the Greek ship ''M D Alpine'' was stranded on the shores of Sitakunda, Chittagong (then part of East Pakistan). It could not be refloated and so remained there for several years. In 1965, the Chittagong Steel House bought the ship and had it scrapped. It took years to scrap the vessel, but the work gave birth to the industry in Bangladesh. Until 1980, the Gadani Ship Breaking Yard of Pakistan was the largest shipbreaking yard in the world.{{citation needed|date=October 2020}}
Tightening environmental regulations resulted in increased hazardous waste disposal costs in industrialised countries in the 1980s, causing the export of retired ships to lower-income areas, chiefly in South Asia. This, in turn, created a far worse environmental problem, subsequently leading to the Basel Convention of 1989. In 2004, a Basel Convention decision officially classified old ships as "toxic waste", preventing them from leaving a country without the permission of the importing state.<ref name=":22">{{Cite web |url = http://www.grida.no/files/publications/vital-waste2/VWG2_p3to46.pdf |title = Vital Waste Graphics 2 |date = November 2006 |access-date = 1 August 2015 |website = www.grida.no |publisher = The Basel Convention Secretariat |last = Heberlein |first = Claudia |page = 31 |archive-date = 4 March 2016 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160304205017/http://www.grida.no/files/publications/vital-waste2/VWG2_p3to46.pdf |url-status = dead }}</ref> This has led to a resurgence of recycling in environmentally compliant locations in developed countries, especially in former shipbuilding yards.<ref>{{Cite web |title = AMERICAN SHIP BREAKING IT ALL COMES APART AT THE BOTTOM OF AMERICA |url = http://www.clui.org/newsletter/spring-2010/american-ship-breaking |website = www.clui.org |access-date = 3 August 2015 |date = Spring 2010 |publisher = The Center for Land Use Interpretation}}</ref>
On 31 December 2005, the French Navy's {{ship|French aircraft carrier|Clemenceau|R98|2}} left Toulon to be dismantled at the Alang Ship Breaking Yard, India—despite protests over improper disposal capabilities and facilities for the toxic wastes. On 6 January 2006, the Supreme Court of India temporarily denied access to Alang,<ref>{{cite news |url = https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/4588922.stm |title = Stay out, India tells toxic ship |access-date = 5 March 2009 |author = Zubair Ahmed |date = 6 January 2006 |work = BBC News}}</ref> and the French ''Conseil d'État'' ordered ''Clemenceau'' to return to French waters.<ref>{{cite news |url = https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4716472.stm |title = Chirac orders 'toxic' ship home |access-date = 5 March 2009 |date = 16 January 2006 |work = BBC News}}</ref> Able UK in Hartlepool received a new disassembly contract to use accepted practices in scrapping the ship.<ref name=":6">{{cite news | title = Praise for 'toxic' ship scrapping |url = https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/tees/8439308.stm |date = 4 January 2010 |work = BBC News Online |quote = The dismantling of the former Clemenceau is a positive and pioneering operation in Europe}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url = https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/tees/7877204.stm |title = Ghost ship arrives in north-east |access-date = 5 March 2009 |date = 8 February 2009 |work = BBC News}}</ref> The dismantling started on 18 November 2009 and the breakup was completed by the end of 2010; the event was considered a turning point in the treatment of redundant vessels.<ref name=":6"/>{{failed verification|date=October 2020}} Europe and the United States have had a resurgence in ship scrapping since the 1990s.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}}
In 2009, the Bangladesh Environmental Lawyers Association won a legal case prohibiting all substandard ship breaking. For 14 months, the industry could not import ships and thousands of jobs were lost before the ban was annulled.<ref>{{cite magazine | title = Ship breaking in Bangladesh: Hard to break up | url = https://www.economist.com/news/asia/21565265-controversial-industry-says-it-cleaning-up-its-act-activists-still-want-it-shut-hard-break | magazine = The Economist | date = 27 October 2012 | issn = 0013-0613 | access-date = 3 August 2015}}</ref>{{request quotation|date=October 2020}} That same year, the global recession and lower demand for goods led to an increase in the supply of ships for decommissioning. The rate of scrapping is inversely correlated to the freight price, which collapsed in 2009.<ref> {{Cite web |url = http://www.moneycontrol.com/news_html_files/news_attachment/2012/ShipBreaking_ICRA_260912.pdf |title = Ship Breaking Industry: Key Trends and Credit Implications|date = September 2012|access-date = 3 August 2015 |website = www.moneycontrol.com |publisher = ICRA Limited, An Associate of Moody's Investors Service | last = Ravichandran |first = K.}} </ref>
==Technique== The decommissioning process is entirely different in developed countries than it is in developing countries. In both cases, ship-breakers bid for the ship, and the highest bidder wins the contract.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title = Ship Breaking|url = http://www.shipcruise.org/ship-breaking/|access-date = 3 August 2015|date = 31 July 2015|publisher = Ship Cruise|website = www.shipcruise.org|last = Chanev|first = Chavdar}}</ref> The ship-breaker then acquires the vessel from the international broker who deals in outdated ships.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|title = The Ship-Breakers|url = http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2014/05/shipbreakers/gwin-text|website = ngm.nationalgeographic.com|access-date = 3 August 2015|last = Gwin|first = Peter|date = May 2014|publisher = National Geographic Society|archive-date = 10 March 2018|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180310152442/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2014/05/shipbreakers/gwin-text|url-status = dead}}</ref> The price paid is approximately $400 per tonne; regions with more lax environmental legislation typically can offer higher prices.<ref name=":8">{{Cite news|title = Booming Scrap Business: Ship-Breaking Lessons from the Exxon Valdez|url = http://www.spiegel.de/international/business/global-ship-breaking-business-booms-as-container-industry-suffers-a-883122.html|newspaper = Spiegel Online|date = 14 February 2013|access-date = 3 August 2015|first1 = Isabell|last1 = Hülsen|first2 = Wieland|last2 = Wagner|first3 = Bernhard|last3 = Zand}}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite web|title = The Graveyard of Giants: A history of ship breaking in Bangladesh|url = http://recyclingships.blogspot.co.uk/2012/03/graveyard-of-giants-history-of.html|access-date = 4 August 2015|date = 28 February 2012|website = recyclingships.blogspot.co.uk|publisher = Unofficial Networks LLC}}</ref> For the industry in Bangladesh, 69% of revenue is spent on purchasing vessels; only 2% is labour costs.<ref name=":5"/> The ship is taken to the decommissioning location either under its own power or with the use of tugs.<ref name=":11"/>
=== Developing countries === [[File:Impermeable Floor at the Recycling Facilities.jpg|left|thumb|Steel plate cutting using gas cutter at Alang Ship Breaking Yard (India)]] In developing countries, chiefly the Indian subcontinent, ships are run ashore on gently sloping sand tidal beaches at high tide so that they can be accessed for disassembly. In the beaching method, no external source of energy is used to pull the ship, as opposed to the dry dock method of ship recycling where a ship is floated into the dry dock using a substantial amount of energy.<ref name="auto4">{{cite journal |last1=Hiremath |first1=Anand M. |last2=Pandey |first2=Sachin Kumar |last3=Kumar |first3=Dinesh |last4=Asolekar |first4=Shyam R. |title=Ecological Engineering, Industrial Ecology and Eco-Industrial Networking Aspects of Ship Recycling Sector in India |journal=APCBEE Procedia |date=2014 |volume=10 |pages=159–163 |doi=10.1016/j.apcbee.2014.10.035 |doi-access=free }}</ref> However, maneuvering a large ship onto a beach at high speed takes skill and daring even for a specialist captain, and is not always successful.<ref>"On the Thames", 1 February 2014 http://onthethames.net/2014/02/01/video-shows-dramatic-beaching-pride-calais/</ref> Next, the anchor is dropped to steady the ship and the engine is shut down.<ref>{{Cite web|title = How Ship Dismantling is Done?|url = http://www.marineinsight.com/misc/maritime-law/how-ship-dismantling-is-done/|access-date = 3 August 2015|date = 1 May 2013|last = Dasgupta|first = Soumyajit|website = www.marineinsight.com|publisher = MarineInsight}}</ref> It takes 50 labourers about three months to break down a normal-sized cargo vessel of about 40,000 tonnes.<ref name=":7"/>
Before the decommissioning begins, various clearances and permissions are obtained from regulatory, pollution and customs authorities after a thorough inspection is conducted by them. The ship recycling process then begins with the draining of fuel, hydraulic fluid, coolant, lubricating oils and firefighting liquid, which may be disposed of or sold to the trade. Any reusable fixtures are sold to the trade. Any kind of waste such as plastic, garbage, or oily sand is sent to waste treatment facilities, like the Common Hazardous Waste Treatment Storage Disposal Facility (CHW-TSDF) set up by the Gujarat Maritime Board in Alang. Any usable oil is sent to government-authorized refineries where used oil is chemically treated. The next steps entail recovering unused and partially spent materials, disposal of bilge water, recovering and obtaining reusable materials, and safe disposal of biohazardous materials like asbestos and glass wool. Each of these materials are inspected and sent to regulated waste treatment facilities or to buyers for further use and processing.<ref name="auto1">{{cite journal |last1=Hiremath |first1=Anand M. |last2=Tilwankar |first2=Atit K. |last3=Asolekar |first3=Shyam R. |title=Significant steps in ship recycling vis-a-vis wastes generated in a cluster of yards in Alang: a case study |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |date=January 2015 |volume=87 |pages=520–532 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.09.031 |bibcode=2015JCPro..87..520H }}</ref> alt=Cleaning of oil-stained sections of recycled ship on an impervious floor in Alang, India|thumb|414x414px|Cleaning of oil-stained sections of recycled ship on an impervious floor in Alang, India In recycling yards in the Indian subcontinent, specifically in Alang, upgraded facilities such as 100% impervious floors with drainage systems, heavy-lift cranes, yard and vessel-specific training for workers, and the development and implementation of Ship Recycling Facility Plans and Ship Recycling Plans (as per IMO's guidelines in Resolutions MEPC.210(63) and MEPC.196(62)) have been implemented.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Where we stand today and Which standard to follow? {{!}} GMS Leadership |url=https://www.gmsinc.net/article/ship-recycling-regulations |access-date=2021-10-15 |website=www.gmsinc.net}}</ref>
=== Developed countries === In developed countries, the dismantling process mirrors the technical guidelines for the environmentally sound management of the full and partial dismantling of ships, published by the Basel Convention in 2003.<ref name=":4"/> Recycling rates of 98% can be achieved in these facilities.<ref name=":2">{{Cite news|title = Able UK's TERRC yard on Teesside|url = https://news.bbc.co.uk/local/tees/hi/people_and_places/newsid_8147000/8147873.stm|newspaper = BBC|date = 23 November 2010|access-date = 3 August 2015}}</ref>
Prior to dismantling, an inventory of dangerous substances is compiled. All hazardous materials and liquids, such as bilge water, are removed before disassembly. Holes are bored for ventilation and all flammable vapours are extracted.
Vessels are initially taken to a dry dock or a pier, although a dry dock is considered more environmentally friendly because all spillage is contained and can easily be cleaned up. Floating is, however, cheaper than a dry dock.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} Stormwater discharge facilities will stop an overflow of toxic liquid into the waterways. The carrier is then secured to ensure its stability.<ref name=":4"/> Often, the propeller is removed beforehand to allow the watercraft to be moved into shallower water.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}}
Anything of value, such as spare parts and electronic equipment, is sold for reuse, although labour costs mean that low-value items are not economical to sell. The Basel Convention demands that all yards separate hazardous and non-hazardous waste and have appropriate storage units, and this must be done before the hull is cut up. Asbestos, found in the engine room, is isolated and stored in custom-made plastic wrapping prior to being placed in secure steel containers, which are then landfilled.<ref name=":2"/>
Many hazardous wastes can be recycled into new products. Examples include lead–acid batteries or electronic circuit boards. Another commonly used treatment is cement-based solidification and stabilization. Cement kilns are used because they can treat a range of hazardous wastes by improving physical characteristics and decreasing the toxicity and transmission of contaminants. Hazardous waste may also be "destroyed" by incinerating it at a high temperature; flammable wastes can sometimes be burned as energy sources. Some hazardous waste types may be eliminated using pyrolysis in a high-temperature electrical arc, in inert conditions to avoid combustion. This treatment method may be preferable to high-temperature incineration in some circumstances such as in the destruction of concentrated organic waste types, including PCBs, pesticides, and other persistent organic pollutants. Dangerous chemicals can also be permanently stored in landfills as long as leaching is prevented.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.fedcenter.gov/assistance/facilitytour/landfills/hazwaste/|title=FedCenter – Hazardous Waste Landfills|access-date=3 August 2015|archive-date=14 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190514161525/https://www.fedcenter.gov/assistance/facilitytour/landfills/hazwaste/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.epa.gov/epawaste/hazard/tsd/td/ldu/index.htm|title=Land Disposal Units|website = US EPA|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120315113227/http://www.epa.gov/epawaste/hazard/tsd/td/ldu/index.htm|archive-date = 15 March 2012}}</ref>
Valuable metals, such as copper or aluminum in electric cable, that are mixed with other materials may be recovered by the use of shredders and separators in the same fashion as e-waste recycling. The shredders cut the electronics into metallic and non-metallic pieces. Metals are extracted using magnetic separators, air flotation separator columns, shaker tables, or eddy currents. Plastic almost always contains regulated hazardous waste (e.g., asbestos, PCBs, hydrocarbons) and cannot be melted down.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}}
Large objects, such as engine parts, are extracted and sold as they become accessible.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} The hull is cut into 300-tonne sections, starting with the upper deck and working slowly downwards. While oxyacetylene gas torches are most commonly used, detonation charges can quickly remove large sections of the hull. These sections are transported to an electric arc furnace to be melted down into new ferrous products, though toxic paint must be stripped prior to heating.<ref name=":6"/>
===Historical techniques=== At Kaohsiung in the late 1960s and '70s, ships to be scrapped were tied up at berths in Dah Jen and Dah Lin Pu, at the southern end of Kaohsiung Harbor.<ref name="PacMar">{{cite magazine |url=https://www.pacmar.com/story/2018/03/01/features/getting-rid-of-old-ships-the-world-of-shipbreaking/593.html |title=Getting Rid of Old Ships – The World of Shipbreaking |author=Shaw, Jim |date=March 1, 2018 |magazine=Pacific Maritime Magazine |access-date=9 December 2019 |archive-date=9 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191209223453/https://www.pacmar.com/story/2018/03/01/features/getting-rid-of-old-ships-the-world-of-shipbreaking/593.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> There were a total of 24 breaking berths at Kaohsiung; each berth was rented by the scrapper from the Port Authority at a nominal rate of {{NTD|7}} per square foot per month, and up to {{convert|18000|ft2}} could be rented surrounding a {{convert|300|ft|m|adj=mid|-long}} berth at a time. A typical 5,000-ton ship could be broken up in 25 to 30 days.<ref name=TR-1973/>
The process began with "cleaning", a process in which subcontractors would come on board the ship to strip it of loose and flammable items, which were often resold in second-hand shops. After that, the cutting crews would start to dismantle the hull, stern first; large sections were cut off the ship and moved via cranes and rigging taken from previously scrapped ships. Because the scrapping at Kaohsiung was done at the docks, scrap metal was placed on trucks waiting to transport it to Kaohsiung's mills.<ref name=PacMar/>
== Conventions and regulations ==
=== The Basel Convention === The Basel Convention on the Control of Trans-boundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal of 1989 was the first convention to environmentally govern the shipbreaking industry. It has been ratified by 187 countries, including India and Bangladesh. It controls the international movement of hazardous wastes and for their environmentally sound management mainly through consent for the shipment between the authorities of the country exporting the hazardous wastes with the authorities of the importing country.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Ship Recycling Regulations: Where we stand today and Which standard to follow?|url=https://www.gmsinc.net/gms_new/index.php/blog-details?rowId=76}}</ref>
Though the Basel Convention has notably reduced illegal exports of hazardous wastes to countries that are unable to process and dispose of them in an environmentally sound manner, it has failed to define the minimum standards of recycling soundly. It also completely ignores important aspects such as workers' safety and falls short in overcoming bureaucratic barriers when it comes to communication between exporting and importing countries.<ref name="auto">{{Cite web |title=The Ship Recycling Regulations: Where we stand today and Which standard to follow? |url=https://www.gmsinc.net/article/ship-recycling-regulations }}</ref> Furthermore, the decision to scrap a ship is often made in international waters, where the convention has no jurisdiction.
The "Ban Amendment" to the Basel Convention was adopted in March 1994, prohibiting the export of hazardous wastes from OECD countries to non-OECD countries. The Amendment would enter into force 90 days after it has been ratified by at least three-quarters of the 87 countries that were Parties to the Convention at the time it was adopted. Croatia deposited the 66th ratification in September 2019, and the Ban Amendment entered into force 25 years after adoption on December 5, 2019. However, the European Union had already enacted the Ban Amendment unilaterally through the European Waste Shipment Regulation, which incorporated the Basel Convention and the Ban Amendment into European Union law in February 1993. The European Union replaced its previous regulation with the Waste Shipment Regulation (EC) No 1013/2006 (the WSR), which also unilaterally implemented the Ban Amendment, prohibiting the export of hazardous wastes from European Union member states to any developing countries (i.e. non-OECD) and regulating their export to OECD countries through the Basel Convention's prior informed consent mechanism.
When the European Commission attempted to apply the WSR to end-of-life ships, it encountered numerous obstacles and evasion. This is because, in enforcing the Ban Amendment, the European Waste WSR considers it illegal to recycle any ship that has started its last voyage from a European Union port in Bangladesh, China, India, or Pakistan, regardless of the flag the ship flies. These four non-OECD countries have consistently recycled around 95% of the world's tonnage. In fact, according to a study conducted by the European Commission in 2011, at least 91% of ships covered by the WSR disobeyed or circumvented its requirements. The European Commission admitted publicly that enforcing its own Waste Shipment Regulation to recycle ships had not been successful. The commission, unable to wait for the Hong Kong Convention (HKC) to take effect, began developing new legislation to regulate the recycling of European-flagged ships. This led the European Commission in 2012 to propose the development of a new European Regulation on Ship Recycling.<ref name="auto"/>
=== The Hong Kong Convention === [[File:Hong Kong Convention compliant yard in Alang, india.jpg|alt=Hong Kong Convention compliant yard in Alang, india|thumb|420x420px|Hong Kong Convention–compliant yard in Alang, India]] To overcome the difficulties of the Basel Convention in terms of the inordinate time and effort required in gaining the consent of all countries involved in its due time, and to highlight regulations that this convention left out, its governing body requested the International Maritime Organisation for a newer convention in 2004. Thus, the Hong Kong Convention came into existence.<ref name="auto"/> In essence, the Convention aims to ensure that ships, when being recycled after reaching the end of their operational lives, do not pose any unnecessary risks to human health, safety and the environment.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Recycling of ships|url=https://www.imo.org/en/OurWork/Environment/Pages/Ship-Recycling.aspx|website = International Maritime Organization|date = 2019}}</ref> The convention covers regulations including:
# the design, construction, operation and preparation of ships to facilitate safe and environmentally sound recycling, without compromising the safety and operational efficiency of ships; # the operation of ship recycling facilities in a safe and environmentally sound manner; and # the establishment of an appropriate enforcement mechanism for ship recycling (certification/reporting requirements).<ref name="auto3">{{Cite web |title=5 things to know about Hong Kong Convention for the Safe and Environmentally Sound Recycling of Ships, 2009 |url=https://www.gmsinc.net/article/things-to-know-about-hong-kong-convention-on-ship-recycling }}</ref>
With much more sound standards of ship recycling, easier implementation and better supervision, the Hong Kong Convention was finally adopted in 2009.<ref name=":8" /> The conditions for its entry into force were fulfilled in 2023, and the Convention entered into force on 25 June 2025. These conditions required:
# ratification or accession by 15 States, # the fleet of the States that have ratified or acceded to represent at least 40 percent of world merchant shipping by gross tonnage, and # the combined maximum annual ship recycling volume of the States during the preceding 10 years to constitute not less than 3 percent of the gross tonnage of the combined merchant shipping of the same States.<ref name="auto"/>
As of 2 April 2023, 20 countries have acceded to the HKC, making up 30.16% of the world's merchant shipping by gross tonnage,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Portugal accedes to ship recycling convention |url=https://www.imo.org/en/MediaCentre/Pages/WhatsNew-1861.aspx |date =30 March 2023|website = International Maritime Organization}}</ref> with a combined maximum annual ship recycling volume of the States at 2.6 % of the gross tonnage of the combined merchant shipping of the same States. Subsequent accessions increased both figures beyond the required thresholds, enabling the Convention to enter into force on 25 June 2025.<ref>{{Cite web |title=From 26 June, ships at the end of their operational lives must be recycled in a safe and environmentally sustainable way. |url=https://www.imo.org/en/mediacentre/pressbriefings/pages/hong-kong-convention-entry-into-force.aspx}}</ref><ref name="auto3"/>
Nearly 110 of India's 120 operational ship recycling yards have achieved Statements of Compliance (SoC) with the Hong Kong Convention by various IACS class societies—including ClassNK, IRClass, Lloyd's Register and RINA.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ship Recycling Comparison: Indian vs Western Yards under the Hong Kong Convention with Lifecycle and Compliance Data |url=https://www.gmsinc.net/article/ship-recycling-comparison-indian-vs-western-yards-under-the-hong-kong-convention-with-lifecycle-and-compliance-data}}</ref> In Bangladesh, 17 ship recycling yards have now achieved Statements of Compliance with the Hong Kong Convention.<ref>{{Cite web |title=HKC implementation in Bangladesh: In conversation with BSRB's Director General |url=https://www.gmsinc.net/podcast/details/hkc-implementation-in-bangladesh-in-conversation-with-bsrb-s-director-general}}</ref> Furthermore, to encourage the growth of India's vital ship recycling sector, in November 2019, the Government of India acceded to the Hong Kong Convention for Safe and Environmentally Sound Recycling of Ships, becoming the first South Asian country and a major ship recycling destination to take that step prior to the Convention’s entry into force on 25 June 2025.
=== The EU Ship Recycling Regulation (EUSRR) === The work on the EU's Ship Recycling Regulation (SRR) was started in 2013, after the adoption of the requirements from the Hong Kong International Convention for the safe and environmentally sound recycling of ships (HKC). However, it differs from the HKC in the way yards are authorised and in its list of inventories of hazardous materials, or IHM<ref name="auto"/> The argument for developing a specified regulation for ship recycling in the European Union was that the EU noticed how many EU ships ended up in unsustainable recycling facilities. Europeans own around 40% of the world fleet, around 15,000 ships. Among these, around 10,000 fly an EU Member State flag, but only 7% of the EU-flagged ships are dismantled in the EU territory, and the rest are mostly dismantled in South Asia.<ref name=":02">{{cite report |last= |first= |date=2019 |title=Safer ship recycling for a greener world |url=https://ec.europa.eu/environment/pdf/waste/ships/ENV-18-018_MEP_identifiers_final_web.pdf|work= |location= |publisher=European Commission |docket= |access-date=28 February 2025}}</ref>
After the financial crisis in the early 2010s, many shipowners ended up with an unexpected overcapacity of ships, and were selling off their vessels. The phasing out of single-hull oil tankers also provided a rush to change out one's fleet. The EU's new FuelEU maritime initiative is also incentivising decarbonization of the maritime sector, which requires ships to sail on new renewables or less polluting fuels.<ref>{{cite web |title=FuelEU maritime initiative: Council adopts new law to decarbonise the maritime sector |url=https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2023/07/25/fueleu-maritime-initiative-council-adopts-new-law-to-decarbonise-the-maritime-sector/}}</ref> This implies that the EU fleet already has and will undergo major changes and renewals in the coming years, thus leading to many ships being outdated or phased out, many being concerned for the end-of-life handling of these older ships.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Single-hull oil tankers banned from European ports from 21 October 2003 |url=https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_03_1421 |access-date=2024-12-23 |website=European Commission - European Commission}}</ref>
The SRR aims to address the environmental and health hazards associated with ship dismantling by setting high standards for EU-flagged vessels at the end of their operational lives. One of the key components developed by the EU is the European List of Approved Ship Recycling Facilities, identifying the approved ports for all EU-flagged ships to be recycled. For a ship recycling yard to be included in the list, the facilities must comply with strict environmental and worker safety standards, reducing toxic waste release and promoting safe dismantling practices. Member States report to the Commission on which facilities in their territory that comply to the requirements, and thereby are included on the list. Shipyards outside the EU can also be included on the European List but must apply to the Commission with proof of the yard's standards.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ship Recycling: Updated list of European facilities includes three new yards - European Commission |url=https://environment.ec.europa.eu/news/ship-recycling-updated-list-european-facilities-includes-three-new-yards-2023-07-27_en |access-date=2024-12-23 |website=environment.ec.europa.eu |language=en}}</ref>
To be included on the European List, ship recycling facilities must adhere to specific requirements set by the EU and aligned with the Hong Kong Convention and other international guidelines. Facilities need authorization, robust structural and operational standards, environmental safety protocols, and measures for monitoring health and safety risks to workers and nearby populations. This includes handling hazardous materials on impermeable surfaces, training workers and provide them with protective equipment, implementing emergency plans, and recording incidents. Operators must also submit recycling plans and completion reports, ensuring full compliance and minimizing environmental and health impacts during ship recycling activities. As of November 2024, it contains 45 shipyards. Because the list works as a guarantee for a yard's safety and validity, shipyards can both be removed and added to the list if they cease to comply with the regulation.<ref name=":13">{{cite book |title=European Ship Recycling Regulation |series=Hamburg Studies on Maritime Affairs |date=2013 |volume=24 |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-35597-4 |isbn=978-3-642-35596-7 |first1=Urs Daniel |last1=Engels }}</ref><ref name=":23">{{Citation |title=Regulation (EU) No 1257/2013 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 20 November 2013 on ship recycling and amending Regulation (EC) No 1013/2006 and Directive 2009/16/EC Text with EEA relevance |date=2013-11-20 |url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=celex:32013R1257 |access-date=2024-12-23 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":32">{{Cite web |date=2023-12-06 |title=Ships - European Commission |url=https://environment.ec.europa.eu/topics/waste-and-recycling/ships_en |access-date=2024-12-23 |website=environment.ec.europa.eu |language=en}}</ref>
Additionally, to the list of approved facilities, the SRR also mandates each ship to hold an Inventory of Hazardous Materials (IHM), listing hazardous substances used in each ship's construction. "Hazardous material" refers to any material or substance which is liable to create hazards to human health and/or the environment. New installation of material such as asbestos and ozone-depleting substances are prohibited, and the occurrence of materials containing lead, mercury and radioactive substances, to name a few, are to be reported and restricted. This inventory, which must be maintained throughout the ship's life, helps guide shipyards and recyclers on safe waste management and reduces accidental environmental contamination. The ships also report on the operationally generated waste, meaning wastewater and residues generated by the normal operation of ships. By EU standards, any EU ship going for dismantling, all new European ships, and third-country ships stopping in EU ports need to have an inventory of hazardous materials on board.<ref name=":13" /><ref name=":23" /><ref name=":32" />
This list, as of 27 July 2023, contains 48 ship recycling facilities, including 38 yards in Europe (EU, Norway and UK), nine yards in Turkey and one yard in the USA. Several yards on the European List are also capable of recycling large vessels.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ship Recycling: Updated list of European facilities includes three new yards - European Commission |url=https://environment.ec.europa.eu/news/ship-recycling-updated-list-european-facilities-includes-three-new-yards-2023-07-27_en |access-date=2024-12-29 |website=environment.ec.europa.eu |language=en}}</ref> The list excluded some of the most major ship recycling yards in India and Bangladesh, which have achieved SoCs with the HKC in various class societies.<ref name="auto" /> This exclusion has led to many shipowners changing the flag of their vessel before recycling or sell the ship to cash buyers, to evade the regulations.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ormond |first1=Thomas |title=Hong Kong Convention and EU Ship Recycling Regulation: Can they change bad industrial practices soon? |journal=Elni Review |date=2012 |pages=54–58 |doi=10.46850/elni.2012.009 }}</ref> Excluded countries strive towards bringing the HKC into force as the universal regulation, arguing that it would be irrational if international shipping were regulated by multiple and competing standards.<ref name="auto" />
==== Criticism and practical challenges of EUSRR ==== The EU Ship Recycling Regulation (EUSRR) faces practical issues that limit its global impact. Industry groups, including the European Community Shipowners' Associations (ECSA), have pointed out that several Indian ship recycling yards meet or exceed international standards but remain excluded from the European List.<ref>{{Cite web |title=EU Ship Recycling Regulation: An Inhibitor or Catalyst for Greening Ship Recycling Yards |url=https://www.gmsinc.net/article/greening-ship-recycling-yards-eu-regulation}}</ref> The European Union has audited some of these yards yet withheld approval for reasons outside the control of the yard operators. Examples include the absence of a trauma centre and downstream waste management facilities of EU standard within immediate proximity.<ref>{{Cite web |title=EU Ship Recycling Regulation: An Inhibitor or Catalyst for Greening Ship Recycling Yards |url=https://www.gmsinc.net/article/greening-ship-recycling-yards-eu-regulation}}</ref>The Gujarat Maritime Board has already allocated funding to build a trauma centre in Alang,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Before the National Green Tribunal Principal Bench, New Delhi |url=https://www.greentribunal.gov.in/gen_pdf_test.php?filepath=L25ndF9kb2N1bWVudHMvbmd0L2Nhc2Vkb2MvanVkZ2VtZW50cy9ERUxISS8yMDIwLTExLTI3LzE2MDY0NTMyNTExMjQ5OTcxNDk4NWZjMDg4MDNiNGFlMS5wZGY%3D}}</ref> but these investments have not changed the approval outcome.
The method of beaching ships is another area of concern. While the EUSRR does not explicitly prohibit beaching, the lack of approvals for yards using this method suggests an indirect disqualification. Technical assessments show that when managed with strict environmental and safety controls, beaching can achieve safe and environmentally sound recycling comparable to alternative methods.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sustainable ship recycling in India legal economic and political analysis |url=https://maritimeindia.org/sustainable-ship-recycling-in-india-legal-economic-and-political-analysis/}}</ref>
Economic data further illustrates the challenge. Unskilled labour wages in South Asia range from 4 to 6 US dollars per day. In Turkey, wages are about 16 to 17 US dollars per day. For a 10,000 light displacement tonnage (LDT) vessel requiring four months of recycling and about 100 workers, the wage difference adds about 144,000 US dollars or roughly 15 US dollars per LDT. Hazardous waste disposal is also less costly in India. Disposal of asbestos costs about 300 US dollars per ton in India compared to 800 US dollars per ton in Turkey. Paint chip disposal costs about 200 US dollars per ton in India compared to 500 US dollars per ton in Turkey. A typical recycling project can save about 150,000 US dollars in environmental and waste management costs when performed in India instead of Turkey.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ahmad |first1=Mazyar |title=Ship recycling in India- environmental stock taking |journal=Indian Law Review |date=2 September 2022 |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=465–478 |doi=10.1080/24730580.2022.2082100 |hdl=10037/28135 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
The market value of recycled steel compounds the disparity. Turkey and other EU-approved yards send most recovered ferrous material for melting, which generates lower domestic value compared to the direct reuse of steel plates common in South Asia. This reduces the price per LDT that EU-approved yards can offer. Turkey often pays 90 to 160 US dollars less per LDT than South Asian yards, and some EU-listed yards pay 200 to 300 US dollars less.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Shipowners face recycling disruption as EU fails to approve Indian subcontinent yards |url=https://www.seatrade-maritime.com/regulations/shipowners-face-recycling-disruption-as-eu-fails-to-approve-indian-subcontinent-yards }}</ref>
Evidence also shows that higher costs do not always equate to better environmental results. A 2012 study reported heavy metal contamination at levels above prescribed limits in the Aliağa ship recycling zone in Turkey.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Neşer |first1=Gökdeniz |last2=Kontas |first2=Aynur |last3=Ünsalan |first3=Deniz |last4=Uluturhan |first4=Esin |last5=Altay |first5=Oya |last6=Darılmaz |first6=Enis |last7=Küçüksezgin |first7=Filiz |last8=Tekoğul |first8=Nermin |last9=Yercan |first9=Funda |title=Heavy metals contamination levels at the Coast of Aliağa (Turkey) ship recycling zone |journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin |date=April 2012 |volume=64 |issue=4 |pages=882–887 |doi=10.1016/j.marpolbul.2012.02.006 |pmid=22386800 |bibcode=2012MarPB..64..882N }}</ref> This raises questions about whether EUSRR requirements guarantee superior environmental outcomes.
Experts recommend that the EU consider a bilateral agreement with India to address these issues and to reflect actual safety and environmental performance in its yard approvals. Such an approach could strengthen global compliance and create a more balanced economic framework for ship recycling.
==Dangers== ===Health risks=== <!-- Commented out: [[File:Bluelady07.jpg|thumb|left|''Blue Lady'' at Alang, India for dismantling, September 2007.]] -->[[File:Safe removal of Hazardous materials from recycled ship.jpg|alt=Safe removal of Hazardous materials from recycled ships in Alang, India|thumb|Safe removal of hazardous materials from recycled ships in Alang, India]] Seventy percent of ships are simply run ashore in developing countries for disassembly, where (particularly in older vessels) potentially toxic materials such as asbestos, lead, polychlorinated biphenyls and heavy metals along with lax industrial safety standards pose a danger for the workers. Burns from explosions and fire, suffocation, mutilation from falling metal, cancer and disease from toxins are regular occurrences in the industry. Asbestos was used heavily in ship construction until it was finally banned in most of the developed world in the mid-1980s. Currently, the costs associated with removing asbestos, along with the potentially expensive insurance and health risks, have meant that shipbreaking in most developed countries is no longer economically viable. Dangerous vapours and fumes from burning materials can be inhaled, and dusty asbestos-laden areas are commonplace.<ref name="amrc">{{Cite web|url=http://errdoc.gabia.io/403.html|title=가비아 호스팅 서비스:웹호스팅,웹메일호스팅,쇼핑몰호스팅,단독서버,동영상호스팅|website=errdoc.gabia.io}}</ref>
Removing the metal for scrap can potentially cost more than the value of the scrap metal itself. In the developing world, however, shipyards can operate without the risk of personal injury lawsuits or workers' health claims, meaning many of these shipyards may operate with high health risks. Protective equipment is sometimes absent or inadequate. The sandy beaches cannot sufficiently support the heavy equipment, which is thus prone to collapse. Many are injured from explosions when flammable gas is not removed from fuel tanks. In Bangladesh, a local watchdog group claims that, on average, one worker dies per week and one is injured per day.<ref>Vidal, John (5 May 2012). [https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/may/05/bangladesh-workers-asia-shipbreaking Bangladeshi workers risk lives in shipbreaking yards]. ''The Guardian.'' Retrieved 16 March 2014.</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url = http://www.shipbreakingplatform.org/shipbrea_wp2011/wp-content/uploads/2011/11/human-cost-of-breaking-ships-greenpeace-fidh-ypsa.pdf|title = END OF LIFE SHIPS THE HUMAN COST OF BREAKING SHIPS|date = December 2005|access-date = 3 August 2015|website = www.shipbreakingplatform.org|publisher = Greenpeace International & FIDH IN COOPERATION WITH YPSA|last = Schuiling|first = Jacqueline}}{{Dead link|date=October 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
The problem is caused by negligence from national governments, shipyard operators and former ship owners disregarding the Basel Convention.<ref name=":3"/> According to the Institute for Global Labour and Human Rights, workers who attempt to unionize are fired and then blacklisted. The employees have no formal contract or any rights, and sleep in overcrowded hostels.<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fxUGONR9pQw Where Ships and Workers Go to Die]. ''Institute for Global Labour and Human Rights via YouTube.'' Retrieved 21 August 2018.</ref> The authorities produce no comprehensive injury statistics, so the problem is underestimated.<ref name=":3"/> Child labour is also widespread: 20% of Bangladesh's ship breaking workforce are below 15 years of age, mainly involved in cutting with gas torches.<ref name=":0"/><ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.shipbreakingplatform.org/shipbrea_wp2011/wp-content/uploads/2011/11/Report-FIDH_Childbreaking_Yards_2008.pdf|title = Child Labour in the Ship Recycling Industry in Bangladesh Childbreaking Yards|date = June 2008|access-date = 3 August 2015|website = www.shipbreakingplatform.org|publisher = International Platform on Shipbreaking, FIDH, YSPA|last = Belhassen|first = Souhayr|archive-date = 17 May 2017|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170517064316/http://www.shipbreakingplatform.org/shipbrea_wp2011/wp-content/uploads/2011/11/Report-FIDH_Childbreaking_Yards_2008.pdf|url-status = dead}}</ref>
There is, however, an active ship-breaker's union in Mumbai, India (Mumbai Port Trust Dock and General Employees' Union) since 2003 with 15,000 members, which strikes to ensure fatality compensation.<ref>{{Cite web|title = NGO Shipbreaking Platform » Video: The Wire Nest…life In Mumbai's Shipbreaking Yards|url = http://www.shipbreakingplatform.org/video-the-wire-nest-life-in-mumbais-shipbreaking-yards/|website = www.shipbreakingplatform.org|access-date = 3 August 2015|publisher = Vega Productions|last = Rane|first = Prathamesh|date = 24 January 2013}}</ref> It has set up a sister branch in Alang, gaining paid holidays and safety equipment for workers since 2005. They hope to expand all along the South Asian coastline.<ref name=":11"/>
Even poor occupational safety record at Alang, the world's largest ship recycling destination, underlines the risks of the shipbreaking industry. Poor worker safety has led to a number of accidents and dozens of workers' deaths at the Alang yards over the years. According the IndustriALL Global Union affiliate, Alang Sosiya Ship Recycling and General Workers' Association (ASSRGWA), between January 2009 and October 2012, at least 54 workers had died in work-related accidents at the Alang shipbreaking yards.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2012-10-08 |title=Again, workers are killed at shipbreaking yard in India |url=https://www.industriall-union.org/again-workers-are-killed-at-shipbreaking-yard-in-india |access-date=2025-01-02 |website=IndustriALL |language=en}}</ref> Besides worker unions, such frequent accidents due to poor safety standards at Alang have also attracted EU scrutiny.<ref>{{Cite web |last=admin_ec |date=2019-09-10 |title=Press Release - Two fatal accidents at Indian yards under EU scrutiny |url=https://shipbreakingplatform.org/fatal-accidents-at-indian-yards-under-eu-scrutiny/ |access-date=2025-01-02 |website=NGO Shipbreaking Platform |language=en-US}}</ref>
In Alang, safety awareness drives with hoardings, posters, films as well as training programmes for different categories of workers under the Safety Training and Labour Welfare Institute,<ref>{{Cite web |title=The unsaid truth of the ship recycling industry by BBC {{!}} GMS Leadership |url=https://www.gmsinc.net/press/details/unsaid-truth-by-bbc-gms-unfolding-the-facts |access-date=2021-10-15 |website=www.gmsinc.net}}</ref> safety evaluation by external teams, personal protective equipment (PPEs) including gloves, gumboot, goggles and masks are provided to workers to mitigate the hazards of their work. In addition to this, GMB has also included regular medical examinations of workers exposed to biohazardous materials,<ref name="auto1" /> provision of medical facilities at the Red Cross Hospital in Alang, mobile medical vans and health awareness programmes.<ref name="auto4" />
Several United Nations committees are increasing their coverage of ship-breakers' human rights. In 2006, the International Maritime Organisation developed legally binding global legislation which concerns vessel design, vessel recycling and the enforcement of regulation thereof and a 'Green Passport' scheme. Watercraft must have an inventory of hazardous material before they are scrapped, and the facilities must meet health and safety requirements.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Ship recycling: The IMO develops a new legally binding instrument|url = http://www.dnv.no/din_bransje/maritime/publikasjoner/publications/maritime_news/2006/1_2006/ShiprecyclingTheIMOdevelopsanewlegallybindinginstrument.asp|website = www.dnv.no|access-date = 3 August 2015|date = 13 March 2006|last = Haugen|first = Eivind|publisher = DNV Corporate Communications|archive-date = 23 September 2015|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150923215525/http://www.dnv.no/din_bransje/maritime/publikasjoner/publications/maritime_news/2006/1_2006/ShiprecyclingTheIMOdevelopsanewlegallybindinginstrument.asp|url-status = dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.imo.org/en/OurWork/Environment/ShipRecycling/Documents/981.pdf|title = Adopted on 1 December 2005 (Agenda item 11) NEW LEGALLY BINDING INSTRUMENT ON SHIP RECYCLING|date = 6 February 2006|access-date = 3 August 2015|website = imo.org|publisher = INTERNATIONAL MARITIME ORGANIZATION|archive-date = 24 September 2015|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150924044247/http://www.imo.org/en/OurWork/Environment/ShipRecycling/Documents/981.pdf|url-status = dead}}</ref> The International Labour Organization created a voluntary set of guidelines for occupational safety in 2003. Nevertheless, Greenpeace found that even pre-existing mandatory regulation has had little noticeable effect for labourers, due to government corruption, yard owner secrecy and a lack of interest from countries who prioritise economic growth. There are also guards who look out for any reporters.<ref>{{Cite web |title=May 2014 |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2014/05/ |url-status=dead |website=Magazine |access-date=12 September 2019 |archive-date=10 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180310152442/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2014/05/shipbreakers/gwin-text }}</ref> To safeguard worker health, the report recommends that developed countries create a fund to support their families, certify carriers as 'gas-free' (i.e. safe for cutting) and to remove toxic materials in appropriate facilities before export.<ref name=":3"/> To supplement the international treaties, organisations such as the NGO Shipbreaking Platform, the Institute for Global Labour and Human Rights and ToxicsWatch Alliance are lobbying for improvements in the industry.<ref>[http://www.globallabourrights.org/reports/murder-in-the-shipbreaking-yards Murder in the Shipbreaking Yards]. Institute for Global Labour and Human Rights, 2 December 2015.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.toxicswatch.org/2015/11/comment-of-toxicswatch-alliance-twa-on.html|title=COMMENT OF TOXICSWATCH ALLIANCE (TWA) ON "CHANGES PROPOSED IN THE SHIP BREAKING CODE 2013 | ToxicsWatch, Journal of Earth, Science, Economy and Justice|website=www.toxicswatch.org}}</ref>
=== Environmental risks === Ship recycling was once a major environmental and occupational health concern. Many yards lacked strict controls and allowed hazardous materials to contaminate air, soil and water, creating risks for workers and local communities. Since then, large recycling nations have upgraded their facilities to comply with the Hong Kong International Convention for the Safe and Environmentally Sound Recycling of Ships (HKC), which entered into force on 25 June 2025, bringing mandatory global standards for hazardous materials management, worker safety and environmental protection.<ref>{{Cite web |title=New era for ship recycling as Hong Kong Convention enters into force |url=https://www.imo.org/en/mediacentre/pressbriefings/pages/hong-kong-convention-entry-into-force.aspx }}</ref> Environmental and worker safety groups such as Greenpeace and International Labour Organization (ILO) continue to monitor compliance. Earlier assessments highlighted risks to mangroves, biodiversity and coastal stability. Recent studies and international oversight indicate that certified yards in Bangladesh and India now operate under improved waste management and coastal protection measures in line with HKC requirements.<ref>{{Cite web |title=One step closer to green and sustainable ship recycling in Asia |url=https://www.imo.org/en/mediacentre/pages/whatsnew-2176.aspx }}</ref>
The Hong Kong International Convention for the Safe and Environmentally Sound Recycling of Ships, adopted in 2009 and entered into force on 25 June 2025, was designed to address these concerns on a global scale. The Convention sets legally binding requirements for the design, construction, operation and preparation of ships so they can be recycled without endangering human health or the environment. It also requires ship recycling facilities to meet strict standards for hazardous waste handling, worker safety and environmental protection, and to obtain certification and provide detailed reporting.
The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal of 1989 has been ratified by 166 countries, including India and Bangladesh, and in 2004, end-of-life ships were subjected to its regulations. It aims to stop the transportation of dangerous substances to less-developed countries and mandate the use of regulated facilities. The decision to scrap a ship is often made in international waters, beyond the Basel Convention's scope.
The European Union Ship Recycling Regulation, fully applicable since 2018 and under regular review, requires EU-flagged vessels to be dismantled in facilities listed on the European List of approved yards. Under these rules, if a vessel has a European flag, it must be disposed of in a shipyard on an EU "green list". The facilities would have to show that they are compliant, and it would be regulated internationally in order to bypass corrupt local authorities. However, there is evidence of shipowners changing their vessel's flag to evade the regulations.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Off the beach|url = https://vimeo.com/55772746|website = www.offthebeach.org|access-date = 3 August 2015|publisher = NGO Shipbreaking Platform|date = 17 December 2012}}</ref> China's scrap industry has vehemently protested against the proposed European regulations. Although Chinese recycling businesses are less damaging than their South Asian counterparts, European and American ship-breakers comply with far more stringent legislation.<ref name=":8" />
That being said, ship recycling yard owners have made investments into upgrading their recycling facilities and safety infrastructure in the recent past, including 100% impervious floors with drainage systems,<ref name="auto2">{{Cite web |title=Our response to BBC misrepresenting ship recycling in India {{!}} GMS Leadership |url=https://www.gmsinc.net/press/details/response-to-recent-british-broadcasting-corporation-bbc-article |access-date=2021-10-15 |website=www.gmsinc.net}}</ref> setting up of hazardous waste processing facilities like the Common Hazardous Wastes Treatment, Storage and Disposal Facility (CHW-TSDF) in Alang,<ref name="auto4" /> and adherence to various internationally recognised conventions. The ship recycling industry also produces about 4.5 million tons of re-rollable steel per year.<ref name="auto2" /> That comes up to nearly 2% of total steel produced in India, coming from a process that does not exploit natural resources and thereby saves nonrenewable natural resources and energy.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Deshpande |first1=Paritosh C. |last2=Kalbar |first2=Pradip P. |last3=Tilwankar |first3=Atit K. |last4=Asolekar |first4=Shyam R. |title=A novel approach to estimating resource consumption rates and emission factors for ship recycling yards in Alang, India |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |date=November 2013 |volume=59 |pages=251–259 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2013.06.026 |bibcode=2013JCPro..59..251D }}</ref> Recycling of one ton of scrap saves 1.1 tons of iron ore, 0.6–0.7 tons of coking coal and around 0.2–0.3 tons of fluxes. Specific energy consumption for production of steel through BF-BOF (primary) and EAF& IF (secondary routes) is 14 MJ/kg and 11.7 MJ/kg, respectively. Thus, it leads to savings in energy by 16–17%. It also reduces the water consumption and GHG emission by 40% and 58%, respectively.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Why the Beaching Method of Ship Recycling Should Not Be Criticized {{!}} Hellenic Shipping News Worldwide|url=https://www.hellenicshippingnews.com/why-the-beaching-method-of-ship-recycling-should-not-be-criticized/|access-date=2021-10-15|website=www.hellenicshippingnews.com}}</ref>
==List of ship-breaking yards== The following are some of the world's largest ship breaking yards:<ref name=":1"/>
===Bangladesh=== * Chittagong Ship Breaking Yard at Chittagong
=== Belgium === * Galloo, Ghent, formerly Van Heyghen Recycling<ref>{{Cite web|title = NGO Shipbreaking Platform » Tradewinds – Galloo Gent joins green-recycling body|url = http://www.shipbreakingplatform.org/tradewinds-galloo-gent-joins-green-recycling-body/|website = www.shipbreakingplatform.org|access-date = 4 August 2015|last = Boonzaier|first = Johnothan|date = 27 February 2013|publisher = NGO Shipbreaking Platform|archive-date = 26 July 2021|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210726010653/http://www.shipbreakingplatform.org/tradewinds-galloo-gent-joins-green-recycling-body/|url-status = dead}}</ref>
===China=== * Changjiang Ship Breaking Yard, located in Jiangyin, China
===India=== {{anchor | India }}
As of 2025, India remains one of the world's largest ship recycling centres, handling about 30 percent of global ship breaking by volume. India ratified the Hong Kong International Convention for the Safe and Environmentally Sound Recycling of Ships in 2019 through its ''Recycling of Ships Act, 2019'', and the Convention entered into force on 25 June 2025.<ref>{{Cite web |title=New era for ship recycling as Hong Kong Convention enters into force |url=https://www.imo.org/en/mediacentre/pressbriefings/pages/hong-kong-convention-entry-into-force.aspx }}</ref>
Nearly all active yards in Alang and other centres now operate with Statements of Compliance issued by internationally recognised classification societies, meeting Hong Kong Convention standards for worker safety, hazardous-waste management and environmental protection.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sustainable ship recycling in India social technological and environmental analysis |url=https://maritimeindia.org/sustainable-ship-recycling-in-india-social-technological-and-environmental-analysis/}}</ref>
These measures have positioned India to receive a growing share of end-of-life vessels from Europe, Japan, and other Hong Kong Convention Parties, supporting continued expansion of the country’s recycling revenue and capacity.
* Alang Ship Breaking Yard * [https://steelindustrials.kerala.gov.in/hr Steel Industrials Kerala Limited]
===Pakistan=== * Gadani Ship Breaking Yard
===Turkey=== * Aliaga Ship Breaking Yard, at Aliağa
===United Kingdom=== * Able UK, Graythorpe Dock, Teesside<ref name=":2"/>
===United States=== * SA Recycling, Brownsville, Texas * International Shipbreaking, Brownsville, Texas * Mare Island Dry Docks, Vallejo, California
== Notable ship breaking yards == This is a list of notable ship breaking yards: {| class="wikitable sortable" !Ship breaking yard !Country !City !Province !Founded !Plots !L (km) !ref |- |Chittagong Ship Breaking Yard |Bangladesh |Chittagong |Chittagong |1960 | |18 | |- |Alang Ship Breaking Yard |India |Alang |Gujarat |1983 |183 | | |- |Gadani Ship Breaking Yard |Pakistan |Balochistan |Gadani |1947 |132 |10 | |- |Aliaga Ship Breaking Yard |Turkey |Aliağa |Izmir |1976 |28 | |<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Neşer |first1=Gökdeniz |last2=Ünsalan |first2=Deniz |last3=Tekoğul |first3=Nermin |last4=Stuer-Lauridsen |first4=Frank |title=The shipbreaking industry in Turkey: environmental, safety and health issues |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |date=February 2008 |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=350–358 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2006.08.018 |bibcode=2008JCPro..16..350N }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Turkey |url=https://shipbreakingplatform.org/our-work/the-problem/turkey/ |access-date=2023-09-29 |website=NGO Shipbreaking Platform |language=en-US}}</ref> |- |Able UK at Graythorpe Dock |United Kingdom |Teesside |Teesside |1966 | | | |- |Galloo, Ghent, formerly Van Heyghen Recycling |Belgium |Ghent |East Flanders | | | | |- |SA Recycling, Brownsville, Texas |United States |Brownsville |Texas | | | | |- |International Shipbreaking, Brownsville, Texas |United States |Brownsville |Texas | | | | |- |Mare Island Dry Docks, Vallejo, California |United States |Vallejo |California | | | | |- |Changjiang Ship Breaking Yard |China |Jiangyin |Jiangsu | | | |}
==Gallery== <gallery mode="packed" heights="110"> File:Safe Accesses to the ships during recycling.jpg|Safe accesses to the ships during recycling<ref>{{Cite web |title=Stability of vessel's hull during recycling {{!}} GMS Leadership |url=https://www.gmsinc.net/article/demystifying-ship-recycling-stability-of-vessels-hull-during-recycling-at-hkc-compliant-recycling-facilities |access-date=2021-03-18 |website=www.gmsinc.net}}</ref> File:Hong Kong Convention compliant yard in Alang, india.jpg|Ground view of Hong Kong Convention–compliant ship recycling yard in Alang, india File:End of the life vessel beached in ship recycling yard.jpg|Ship recycling in Alang File:Chittagong Ship breaking yard.JPG|Jafrabad Chittagong ship breaking File:Impermeable Floor at the Recycling Facilities.jpg|Cutterman in ship recycling yard File:Jafrabad Chittagong shipbreaking (7).JPG|Jafrabad Chittagong ship breaking File:Cleaning of oil stained sections of recycled ship.jpg|Cleaning of oil-stained sections at Hong Kong Convention–compliant ship recycling yard in Alang, India File:Ship recycling yard workers.jpg|Impermeable floor in ship recycling yard<ref>{{Cite web|title=GMS Leadership {{!}} World's Largest Buyer of Ships and Offshore Assets|url=https://www.gmsinc.net/gms_new/index.php/blog-details?rowId=67|access-date=2021-03-18|website=www.gmsinc.net}}</ref> File:Slicing of vessel hull using gas cutting.jpg|Slicing of recycled vessel's hull using gas cutter in Hong Kong Convention–compliant yard in India File:Window cut for Ventilation & illumination of hull for stability.png|Window cut for ventilation and illumination<ref name="gmsinc.net">{{Cite web|title=GMS Leadership {{!}} World's Largest Buyer of Ships and Offshore Assets|url=https://www.gmsinc.net/gms_new/index.php/blog-details?rowId=74|access-date=2021-03-18|website=www.gmsinc.net}}</ref> during ship recycling File:Safety inspection during as recycling of offshore asset.jpg|Sustainable Ship and Offshore Recycling Program team conducting safety inspections as part of safe recycling of offshore assets in Hong Kong Convention–complaint yards in India File:Jafrabad Chittagong shipbreaking (6).JPG|Jafrabad Chittagong ship breaking File:Jafrabad Chittagong shipbreaking (2).JPG|Jafrabad Chittagong ship breaking File:Jafrabad Chittagong shipbreaking (1).JPG|Jafrabad Chittagong ship breaking File:Beached vessel hull cut for stability.png|Beached end-of-the-life vessel cut in zig-zag for stability<ref name="gmsinc.net" /> during ship recycling File:Jafrabad Chittagong shipbreaking (3).JPG|Jafrabad Chittagong ship breaking File:Safe removal of Hazardous materials from recycled ship.jpg|Safe removal of Hazardous material in Ship Recycling yard in India File:Window cut for Ventilation & illumination of hull during ship recycling.png|Window cut for ventilation and illumination of hull<ref name="gmsinc.net" /> during ship recycling File:Jafrabad Chittagong shipbreaking (4).JPG|Jafrabad Chittagong ship breaking File:Jafrabad Chittagong shipbreaking (5).JPG|Jafrabad Chittagong ship breaking File:Worlds biggest ship breaking yard in Bangladesh by Idolhunter Lckuang.jpg|Chittagong Ship Breaking Yard File:Shipbreakingbangladesh.jpg|Ship-breaking in Sitakunda File:Shipbreaking Yard Bhatiari, Sitakunda.jpg|Shipbreaking Yard Bhatiari, Sitakunda File:Fire fighting mock drill at ship recycling yard in India.jpg|Firefighting mock drill at ship recycling yard in Alang, India File:Dhaka - boats in shipyard at Buriganga River.JPG|Dhaka shipyard on Buriganga River File:Safe Accesses to the beached end of the life ships for recycling.jpg|Safe access to beached vessel<ref name="gmsinc.net"/> in Alang File:Chittagong Ship Breaking Yard (4115574808).jpg|Chittagong Ship Breaking Yard File:Used spare parts recovered during ship recycling in India.jpg|Indian second-hand shop selling used spare parts recovered during ship recycling </gallery>
==See also== {{div col|colwidth=23em}} * Bo'ness * ''Clemenceau'' disposal controversy * Flotsam, jetsam, lagan and derelict * Marine debris * Marine pollution * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5jdEG_ACXLw Shipbreakers] (film), by the National Film Board of Canada * Ship decommissioning * ''Ship Breaker'', a young-adult novel by Paolo Bacigalupi * Scrap * Wrecking (shipwreck) * List of dry docks * List of the largest shipbuilding companies * List of shipbuilders and shipyards * ''Hardspace: Shipbreaker'', a video game based on the ship breaking profession set in space * Israel Shipyards {{div col end}}
==References== {{Reflist}}
==Further reading== * {{cite book |last=Langewiesche |first=William |title=The Outlaw Sea: Chaos and Crime on the World's Oceans |year=2004 |publisher=Granta Books |location=London |isbn=0-86547-581-4 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/outlawseaworld00lang }} Contains an extensive section on the shipbreaking industry in India and Bangladesh. * {{cite book |last=Buxton |first=Ian L. |title=Metal Industries: shipbreaking at Rosyth and Charlestown |year=1992 |publisher=World Ship Society |oclc=28508051|page=104}} Ships scrapped include Mauretania and much of the German Fleet at Scapa Flow. Ships listed with owners and dates sold. * {{cite book |last=Buerk |first=Roland |authorlink=Roland Buerk |title=Breaking Ships: How supertankers and cargo ships are dismantled on the shores of Bangladesh |year=2006 |publisher=Chamberlain brothers |isbn=1-59609-036-7|page=192}} Breaking Ships follows the demise of the Asian Tiger, a ship destroyed at one of the twenty ship-breaking yards along the beaches of Chittagong. BBC Bangladesh correspondent Roland Buerk takes us through the process—from beaching the vessel to its final dissemination, from wealthy shipyard owners to poverty-stricken ship cutters, and from the economic benefits for Bangladesh to the pollution of its once pristine beaches and shorelines. * {{cite web |url=http://www.ilo.org/public/english/dialogue/sector/papers/shpbreak/index.htm |title=Is there a decent way to break up ships? |access-date=29 May 2007 |last=Bailey |first=Paul J. |year=2000 |work=Sectoral Activities Programme |publisher=International Labour Organization }} * {{cite journal |last1=Rousmaniere |first1=Peter |last2=Raj |first2=Nikhil |title=Shipbreaking in the Developing World: Problems and Prospects |journal=International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health |date=October 2007 |volume=13 |issue=4 |pages=359–368 |doi=10.1179/oeh.2007.13.4.359 |pmid=18085049 }} Analysis of the economics of shipbreaking, the status of worldwide reform efforts, and occupational health and safety of shipbreaking including results of interviewing Alang shipbreakers. * Siddiquee, N.A. 2004. Impact of ship breaking on marine fish diversity of the Bay of Bengal.DFID SUFER Project, Dhaka, Bangladesh. 46 pp. * Siddiquee, N. A., Parween, S., and Quddus, M. M. A., Barua, P., 2009 ‘Heavy Metal Pollution in sediments at ship breaking area of Bangladesh ‘Asian Journal of Water, Environment and Pollution, 6 (3) : 7–12
==External links== {{Commons category|Shipbreaking}} {{external media | float = right | width = 220px | video1 = {{YouTube|a4cVGWTzKo8|Scrapped: the deadly business of dismantling ships in Bangladesh}}}}
* [https://www.imo.org International Maritime Organization (IMO)]
* [https://www.gmsinc.net GMS Leadership]
* [http://www.shipbreakingplatform.org/ NGO Platform on Shipbreaking] * [https://www.osha.gov/OshDoc/data_MaritimeFacts/shipbreaking-factsheet.pdf OSHA Fact Sheet – Shipbreaking] * {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20091104054211/http://www.nauticpal.com/content/international-ship-recycling-convention Regulatory information on Ship recycling]}} * [http://www.martinhurley.com/bangladesh-ship-breaking-photos/ Bangladesh ship breaking photos] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181126181029/http://www.martinhurley.com/bangladesh-ship-breaking-photos/ |date=26 November 2018 }} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20210228113640/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/article/The-Ship-Breakers The Ship-Breakers] at ''National Geographic.'' * [http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2014/05/shipbreakers/gwin-text The Ship-Breakers] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180310152442/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2014/05/shipbreakers/gwin-text |date=10 March 2018 }} at ''National Geographic.'' *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ekMteVBDgVQ Ship breaking by Drachinifel]
{{Shiplife}} {{waste}} {{recycling}} {{Authority control}}
Category:Ship breaking Category:Demolition Category:Ship disposal Category:Vehicle recycling