Screw axis

{{Short description|Geometric axis of rotation and translation}} [[File:Pure screw.svg|thumb|A helix on a screw axis]]

A '''screw axis''' ('''helical axis''' or '''twist axis''') is a line that is simultaneously the axis of rotation and the line along which translation of a body occurs. Chasles' theorem shows that each Euclidean displacement in three-dimensional space has a screw axis, and the displacement can be decomposed into a rotation about and a slide along this screw axis.<ref>Bottema, O., and B. Roth, ''Theoretical Kinematics,'' Dover Publications (September 1990), [https://books.google.com/books?id=f8I4yGVi9ocC link to Google books]</ref><ref>Hunt, K. H., ''Kinematic Geometry of Mechanism,'' Oxford University Press, 1990</ref>

Plücker coordinates are used to locate a screw axis in space, and consist of a pair of three-dimensional vectors. The first vector identifies the direction of the axis, and the second locates its position. The special case when the first vector is zero is interpreted as a pure translation in the direction of the second vector. A screw axis is associated with each pair of vectors in the algebra of screws, also known as screw theory.<ref>R.S. Ball, A Treatise on the Theory of Screws, Hodges, Dublin, 1876, Appendix 1, University Press, Cambridge, 1900, p. 510</ref>

The spatial movement of a body can be represented by a continuous set of displacements. Because each of these displacements has a screw axis, the movement has an associated ruled surface known as a ''screw surface''. This surface is not the same as the ''axode'', which is traced by the instantaneous screw axes of the movement of a body. {{anchor|Instantaneous}}The ''instantaneous screw axis'', or ''instantaneous helical axis'' (IHA), is the axis of the helicoidal field generated by the velocities of every point in a moving body.

When a spatial displacement specializes to a planar displacement, the screw axis becomes the ''displacement pole'', and the instantaneous screw axis becomes the ''velocity pole'', or instantaneous center of rotation, also called an ''instant center''. The term ''centro'' is also used for a velocity pole, and the locus of these points for a planar movement is called a ''centrode''.<ref>Homer D. Eckhardt, '' Kinematic Design of Machines and Mechanisms'', McGraw-Hill (1998) p. 63 {{ISBN|0-07-018953-6}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=GGBv_Gcy5g8C on-line at Google books]</ref>

==History== The proof that a spatial displacement can be decomposed into a rotation around, and translation along, a line in space is attributed to Michel Chasles in 1830.<ref>M. Chasles, Note sur les Propriétés Generales du Système de Deux Corps Semblables entr'eux, Bullettin de Sciences Mathématiques, Astronomiques Physiques et Chimiques, Baron de Ferussac, Paris, 1830, pp. 321±326</ref> Recently the work of Giulio Mozzi has been identified as presenting a similar result in 1763.<ref>G. Mozzi, Discorso matematico sopra il rotamento momentaneo dei corpi, Stamperia di Donato Campo, Naples, 1763</ref><ref>M. Ceccarelli, Screw axis defined by Giulio Mozzi in 1763 and early studies on helicoidal motion, Mechanism and Machine Theory 35 (2000) 761-770</ref>

==Screw axis symmetry== [[File:Coxeter helix.png|thumb|The Boerdijk–Coxeter helix is an example of a screw axis symmetry that is nonperiodic.]] A '''screw displacement''' (also '''screw operation''' or '''rotary translation''') is the composition of a rotation by an angle ''φ'' about an axis (called the '''screw axis''') with a translation by a distance ''d'' along this axis. A positive rotation direction usually means one that corresponds to the translation direction by the right-hand rule. This means that if the rotation is clockwise, the displacement is away from the viewer. Except for ''φ'' = 180°, we have to distinguish a screw displacement from its mirror image. Unlike for rotations, a righthand and lefthand screw operation generate different groups.

The combination of a rotation about an axis and a translation in a direction perpendicular to that axis is a rotation about a parallel axis. However, a screw operation with a nonzero translation vector along the axis cannot be reduced like that. Thus the effect of a rotation combined with ''any'' translation is a screw operation in the general sense, with as special cases a pure translation, a pure rotation and the identity. Together these are all the direct isometries in 3D.

[[File:Te chains.png|thumb|200px|3₁ screw axis in crystal structure of tellurium]]

In crystallography, a '''screw axis symmetry''' is a combination of rotation about an axis and a translation parallel to that axis which leaves a crystal unchanged. If ''φ'' = {{sfrac|360°|''n''}} for some positive integer ''n'', then screw axis symmetry implies translational symmetry with a translation vector which is ''n'' times that of the screw displacement.

Applicable for space groups is a rotation by {{sfrac|360°|''n''}} about an axis, combined with a translation along the axis by a multiple of the distance of the translational symmetry, divided by ''n''. This multiple is indicated by a subscript. So, 6₃ is a rotation of 60° combined with a translation of one half of the lattice vector, implying that there is also 3-fold rotational symmetry about this axis. The possibilities are 2₁, 3₁, 4₁, 4₂, 6₁, 6₂, and 6₃, and the enantiomorphous 3₂, 4₃, 6₄, and 6₅.<ref>{{cite book | author=Walter Borchardt-Ott | title=Crystallography | publisher=Springer-Verlag | year=1995 | isbn=3-540-59478-7}}</ref>

Considering a screw axis ''n''{{sub|''m''}}, if ''g'' is the greatest common divisor of ''n'' and ''m'', then there is also a ''g''-fold rotation axis. When {{sfrac|''n''|''g''}} screw operations have been performed, the displacement will be {{sfrac|''m''|''g''}}, which since it is a whole number means one has moved to an equivalent point in the lattice, while carrying out a rotation by {{sfrac|360°|''g''}}. So 4{{sub|2}}, 6{{sub|2}} and 6{{sub|4}} create two-fold rotation axes, while 6{{sub|3}} creates a three-fold axis.

A non-discrete screw axis isometry group contains all combinations of a rotation about some axis and a proportional translation along the axis (in rifling, the constant of proportionality is called the twist rate); in general this is combined with ''k''-fold rotational isometries about the same axis (''k'' ≥ 1); the set of images of a point under the isometries is a ''k''-fold helix; in addition there may be a 2-fold rotation about a perpendicularly intersecting axis, and hence a ''k''-fold helix of such axes.

==Screw axis of a spatial displacement==

<!-- ===Geometric argument=== Let f: '''R'''³ → '''R'''³ denote a rigid motion of '''R'''³, and let '''v''' denote an arbitrary vector of '''R'''³.

Now let '''v'''₀ denote the vector f('''0'''). We may now define the rigid motion rot: '''R'''³ →'''R'''³ via rot('''v''') := f('''v''') − '''v'''₀ for all '''v''' in '''R'''³. This guarantees that rot('''0''') = '''0'''.

Since rot('''0''') = '''0''' (and being a motion of '''R'''³, rot preserves orientation), rot must be a rotation.

'''If''' rot is equal to the identity '''I''', then in this very simple case, the screw motion is merely translation by the original vector '''v'''₀ and does not involve a rotation. From here on we assume rot is not the identity '''I'''.

We know that each rotation of '''R'''³ must have an axis (a bi-infinite straight line) that is pointwise fixed by the rotation. Call that line '''L'''.

Therefore the original rigid motion f satisfies rot('''v''') = f('''v''') − '''v'''₀ for all '''v''' in '''R'''³, and hence :f('''v''') = rot('''v''') + '''v'''₀ for all '''v''' in '''R'''³.

This means that f is the result of applying a rotation rot, followed by a translation by '''v'''₀.

Finally, we may uniquely resolve the vector '''v'''₀ into a sum of two vectors, one parallel to the line '''L''', and the other perpendicular to '''L''', as follows: :'''v'''₀ = '''v'''_'''L''' + '''v'''_'''⊥'''.

We may now add the translation vector '''v'''₀ by first adding '''v'''_'''⊥''', and next adding '''v'''_'''L''', as follows: :f('''v''') = (rot('''v''') + '''v'''_'''⊥''') + '''v'''_'''L'''

Now, the first portion (rot('''v''') + '''v'''_'''⊥''') of f('''v''') may be thought of a taking place purely within any given plane '''P''' perpendicular to '''L''', where '''v'''_'''⊥''' is a vector in the plane '''P'''. In fact, define :f₁('''v''') := rot('''v''') + '''v'''_'''⊥''', where both the rotation rot and the vector '''v'''_'''⊥''' are thought of as lying in the plane '''P'''.

Then, there is a unique point '''x''' in the plane '''P''' such that f₁('''x''') = rot('''x''') + '''v'''_'''⊥''' = x. Or in other words, a unique point '''x''' in '''P''' that is fixed by the mapping f₁.

Since we want rot('''x''') + '''v'''_'''⊥''' = '''x''', or in other words ('''I''' - rot)'''x''' = '''v'''_'''⊥''' (where '''I''' is the identity on '''P'''), we may easily solve this uniquely for '''x''' by writing :'''x''' = ('''I''' - rot)⁻¹('''v'''_'''⊥''').

This makes sense as long as ('''I''' − rot) is invertible, or in other words as long as rot is not equal to the identity '''I''', and we excluded that case above.

Since ''f''₁: '''P''' → '''P''' is a rigid motion of a plane with a fixed point (''f''₁('''x''') = '''x'''), it must be a rotation of '''P'''.

Hence the effect on '''R'''³ of mapping any '''v''' to rot('''v''') + '''v'''_'''⊥''' is just a rotation (by the same angle as rot) about the line '''L'''₁ that is parallel to '''L''', and passes through the point '''x'''.

Recall that he original rigid motion ''f'' on '''R'''³ is given by f('''v''') = (rot('''v''') + '''v'''_'''⊥''').

This implies that the original rigid motion ''f'' is the same as first rotating '''R'''³ about the line '''L'''₁, and following this by translation by the vector '''v'''_'''L''' (which is in the same direction as '''L'''₁).

Conclusion: every rigid motion of '''R'''³ is the result of a rotation of '''R'''³ followed by a translation along the axis of the rotation — which is the definition of a screw motion. -->

===Geometric argument=== Let {{nowrap|''D'' : '''R'''³ → '''R'''³}} be an orientation-preserving rigid motion of '''R'''³. The set of these transformations is a subgroup of Euclidean motions known as the special Euclidean group SE(3). These rigid motions are defined by transformations of '''x''' in '''R'''³ given by :<math> D(\mathbf{x})=A(\mathbf{x}) + \mathbf{d} </math> consisting of a three-dimensional rotation ''A'' followed by a translation by the vector '''d'''.

A three-dimensional rotation ''A'' has a unique axis that defines a line ''L''. Let the unit vector along this line be '''S''' so that the translation vector '''d''' can be resolved into a sum of two vectors, one parallel and one perpendicular to the axis ''L'', that is, :<math>\mathbf{d}=\mathbf{d}_L + \mathbf{d}_{\perp},\quad \mathbf{d}_L =(\mathbf{d}\cdot\mathbf{S})\mathbf{S}, \quad \mathbf{d}_{\perp}=\mathbf{d}- \mathbf{d}_L.</math> In this case, the rigid motion takes the form :<math> D(\mathbf{x})=(A(\mathbf{x}) + \mathbf{d}_{\perp}) + \mathbf{d}_L. </math>

Now, the orientation preserving rigid motion ''D''* = ''A''('''x''') + '''d'''_⊥ transforms all the points of '''R'''³ so that they remain in planes perpendicular to ''L''. For a rigid motion of this type there is a unique point '''c''' in the plane ''P'' perpendicular to ''L'' through '''0''', such that :<math> D^*(\mathbf{C})=A(\mathbf{C})+\mathbf{d}_{\perp}=\mathbf{C}.</math> The point '''C''' can be calculated as :<math> \mathbf{C}=[I-A]^{-1}\mathbf{d}_{\perp},</math> because '''d'''_⊥ does not have a component in the direction of the axis of ''A''.

A rigid motion ''D''* with a fixed point must be a rotation of around the axis ''L''_'''c''' through the point '''c'''. Therefore, the rigid motion :<math> D(\mathbf{x})=D^*(\mathbf{x}) + \mathbf{d}_L,</math> consists of a rotation about the line ''L''_'''c''' followed by a translation by the vector '''d'''_''L'' in the direction of the line ''L''_'''c'''.

Conclusion: every rigid motion of '''R'''³ is the result of a rotation of '''R'''³ about a line ''L''_'''c''' followed by a translation in the direction of the line. The combination of a rotation about a line and translation along the line is called a screw motion.

===Computing a point on the screw axis=== A point '''C''' on the screw axis satisfies the equation:<ref name="McCarthy">[https://books.google.com/books?id=jv9mQyjRIw4C&q=geometric+design+of+linkages J. M. McCarthy and G. S. Soh, ''Geometric Design of Linkages'', 2nd Edition, Springer 2010]</ref> :<math> D^*(\mathbf{C})=A(\mathbf{C})+\mathbf{d}_{\perp}=\mathbf{C}.</math> Solve this equation for '''C''' using Cayley's formula for a rotation matrix :<math> [A]=[I-B]^{-1}[I+B],</math> where [B] is the skew-symmetric matrix constructed from Rodrigues' vector :<math> \mathbf{b}=\tan\frac{\phi}{2}\mathbf{S},</math> such that :<math>[B]\mathbf{y}=\mathbf{b}\times\mathbf{y}.</math>

Use this form of the rotation ''A'' to obtain :<math>\mathbf{C} =[I-B]^{-1}[I+B]\mathbf{C} + \mathbf{d}_{\perp},\quad [I-B]\mathbf{C} =[I+B]\mathbf{C} + [I-B]\mathbf{d}_{\perp},</math> which becomes :<math> -2[B]\mathbf{C} =[I-B]\mathbf{d}_{\perp}.</math> This equation can be solved for '''C''' on the screw axis '''P'''(t) to obtain, :<math> \mathbf{C} = \frac{\mathbf{b}\times\mathbf{d} - \mathbf{b}\times(\mathbf{b}\times\mathbf{d})}{2\mathbf{b}\cdot\mathbf{b}}.</math>

The screw axis {{nowrap|1='''P'''(t) = '''C''' + t'''S'''}} of this spatial displacement has the Plücker coordinates {{nowrap|1=''S'' = ('''S''', '''C''' × '''S''')}}.<ref name="McCarthy"/>

==Dual quaternion== The screw axis appears in the dual quaternion formulation of a spatial displacement {{nowrap|1=D = ([A], '''d''')}}. The dual quaternion is constructed from the dual vector {{nowrap|1=S = ('''S''', '''V''')}} defining the screw axis and the dual angle {{nowrap|(''φ'', ''d'')}}, where ''φ'' is the rotation about and ''d'' the slide along this axis, which defines the displacement D to obtain, :<math> \hat{S} = \cos\frac{\hat{\varphi}}{2} + \sin\frac{\hat{\varphi}}{2} \mathsf{S}. </math>

A spatial displacement of points '''q''' represented as a vector quaternion can be defined using quaternions as the mapping :<math>\mathbf{q} \mapsto S\mathbf{q}S^{-1} + \mathbf{d}</math> where '''d''' is translation vector quaternion and ''S'' is a unit quaternion, also called a versor, given by :<math>S=\cos \theta + \mathbf{S} \sin \theta , \ \ \mathbf{S}^2 = -1 ,</math> that defines a rotation by 2''θ'' around an axis '''S'''.

In the proper Euclidean group E⁺(3) a rotation may be conjugated with a translation to move it to a parallel rotation axis. Such a conjugation, using quaternion homographies, produces the appropriate screw axis to express the given spatial displacement as a screw displacement, in accord with Chasles’ theorem.

==Mechanics== The instantaneous motion of a rigid body may be the combination of rotation about an axis (the screw axis) and a translation along that axis. This screw move is characterized by the velocity vector for the translation and the angular velocity vector in the same or opposite direction. If these two vectors are constant and along one of the principal axes of the body, no external forces are needed for this motion (moving and spinning]]). As an example, if gravity and drag are ignored, this is the motion of a bullet fired from a rifled gun.

===Biomechanics=== This parameter is often used in biomechanics, when describing the motion of joints of the body. For any period of time, joint motion can be seen as the movement of a single point on one articulating surface with respect to the adjacent surface (usually distal with respect to proximal). The total translation and rotations along the path of motion can be defined as the time integrals of the instantaneous translation and rotation velocities at the IHA for a given reference time.<ref>Woltring HJ, de Lange A, Kauer JMG, Huiskes R. 1987 Instantaneous helical axes estimation via natural, cross-validated splines. In: Bergmann G, Kölbel R, Rohlmann A (Editors). Biomechanics: Basic and Applied Research. Springer, pp 121-128. [http://library.tue.nl/csp/dare/LinkToRepository.csp?recordnumber=587036 full text]</ref>

In any single plane, the path formed by the locations of the moving instantaneous axis of rotation (IAR) is known as the 'centroid', and is used in the description of joint motion. <!----duplicated above ==Crystallography== thumb|200px|3₁ screw axis in crystal structure of tellurium In crystallography, a '''screw axis''' is a symmetry operation describing how a combination of rotation about an axis and a translation parallel to that axis leaves a crystal unchanged.<ref>{{cite book | author=Walter Borchardt-Ott | title=Crystallography | publisher=Springer-Verlag | year=1995 | isbn=3-540-59478-7}}</ref>

Screw axes are noted by a number, ''n'', where the angle of rotation is {{sfrac|360°|''n''}}. The degree of translation is then added as a subscript showing how far along the axis the translation is, as a portion of the parallel lattice vector. For example, 2₁ is a 180° (twofold) rotation followed by a translation of one half of the lattice vector. 3₁ is a 120° (threefold) rotation followed by a translation of one third of the lattice vector. The possible screw axes are 2₁, 3₁, 4₁, 4₂, 6₁, 6₂, and 6₃, and the enantiomorphous 3₂, 4₃, 6₄, and 6₅. --->

==See also== *Corkscrew (roller coaster element) *Euler's rotation theorem – rotations without translation *Glide reflection *Helical symmetry *Line group *Screw theory *Space group

==References== <!--<nowiki> See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Footnotes for an explanation of how to generate footnotes using the <ref> and </ref> tags, and the template below. </nowiki>--> {{Reflist}}

Category:Crystallography Category:Euclidean geometry Category:Kinematics Category:Machines Category:Rigid bodies Category:Symmetry Category:Line (geometry)