{{short description|Design, construction, use, and application of robots}} {{pp-move}}
{{Use American English|date=December 2025}} {{use dmy dates|cs1-dates=ly|date=April 2023}} [[File:Puma Robotic Arm - GPN-2000-001817.jpg|thumb|Programmable Universal Machine for Assembly, one of the first industrial robots (1990)]]
'''Robotics''' is the interdisciplinary study and practice of the design, construction, operation, and use of robots.<ref>{{cite web|title=German National Library|url=https://portal.dnb.de/opac.htm?method=simpleSearch&cqlMode=true&query=nid%3D4261462-4|website=International classification system of the German National Library (GND)|archive-date=2020-08-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819180203/https://portal.dnb.de/opac.htm?method=simpleSearch&cqlMode=true&query=nid=4261462-4|url-status=live}}</ref> A '''roboticist''' is someone who specializes in robotics.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-09-26 |title=Roboticist Definition & Synonyms - Robotics24 Glossary |url=https://robotics24.net/blog/glossary/roboticist/ |access-date=2026-02-12 |language=en-GB}}</ref> Robotics usually combines four aspects of design work: a power source (e.g. a battery), mechanical construction, a control system (electrical circuits), and software (run by remote control or artificial intelligence).
The goal of most robotics is to design machines that can assist humans in various fields, such as agriculture, construction, domestic work, food processing, inventory management, manufacturing, medicine, military, mining, space exploration, and transportation.
Robots impact humans by displacing workers. Some expect this to occur at an increasing rate, leading to proposed solutions such as basic income. Robotics is itself a lucrative business that creates careers, especially for postgraduates. Roboticists often aim to create machines that seem to interface naturally with humans. The field is under active research and development, with areas of interest including robot kinematics and quantum robotics.
==Design==
Robotics usually combines four aspects of design work to create a robot:
* '''Power source''': Potential energy sources include wired electricity, a battery, and/or petrol. * '''Mechanical construction''': A physical form or combination of forms is designed to functionally achieve tasks within a given range of environments. This can include locomotive elements such as wheels and caterpillar tracks, as well as hydraulic limbs and manipulators (e.g. hands). * '''Control system''': Electrical circuits (utilizing components such as diodes and transistors) are used to run software, govern motor movement, and read sensors. * '''Software''': A program is how a robot decides when or how to do something. Robotic programs can be run by remote control, artificial intelligence (AI), or a hybrid of the two. AI programming is an important part of robotic navigation and human–robot interaction.
=== Power source === {{further|Power supply|Energy storage}} [[File:PIA19664-MarsInSightLander-Assembly-20150430.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|The ''InSight'' lander with solar panels]]
Many different types of batteries can be used as a power source. Most are lead–acid batteries, which are safe and have relatively long shelf lives but are rather heavy compared to silver–cadmium batteries, which are much smaller in volume and much more expensive. Designing a battery-powered robot needs to take into account factors such as safety, cycle lifetime, and weight.
Generators, often some type of internal combustion engine, can also be used, but are often mechanically complex and inefficient. Additionally, a tether could connect the robot to a power supply, saving weight and space, but requiring a cumbersome cable.<ref name="Power Sources">{{cite web|last=Dowling |first=Kevin|title=Power Sources for Small Robots |url= https://www.cs.cmu.edu/afs/cs.cmu.edu/Web/People/motionplanning/papers/sbp_papers/integrated1/dowling_power_sources.pdf |publisher=Carnegie Mellon University|access-date=11 May 2012|archive-date=25 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201125161704/https://www.cs.cmu.edu/afs/cs.cmu.edu/Web/People/motionplanning/papers/sbp_papers/integrated1/dowling_power_sources.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Potential power sources include: * Flywheel energy storage * Hydraulics * Nuclear * Organic garbage (through anaerobic digestion) * Pneumatics (compressed gases) * Solar power
=== Mechanical construction === {{See also|Mechanical engineering}}[[File:2005-11-14 ShadowLeg Finished medium.jpg|thumb|upright|A robotic leg powered by air muscles]]
Actuators are the "muscles" of a robot, the parts which convert stored energy into movement.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Roozing |first1=Wesley |last2=Li |first2=Zhibin |last3=Tsagarakis |first3=Nikos |last4=Caldwell |first4=Darwin |year=2016 |title=Design Optimisation and Control of Compliant Actuation Arrangements in Articulated Robots for Improved Energy Efficiency |journal=IEEE Robotics and Automation Letters |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=1110–1117 |bibcode=2016IRAL....1.1110R |doi=10.1109/LRA.2016.2521926 |s2cid=1940410}}</ref> The most popular actuators are electric motors that rotate a wheel or gear and linear actuators that control factory robots. Most robots use electric motors—often brushed and brushless DC motors in portable robots or AC motors in industrial robots and computer numerical control machines—especially in systems with lighter loads and where the predominant form of motion is rotational. Meanwhile, linear actuators move in and out and often have quicker direction changes, particularly when large forces are needed, such as with industrial robotics. They are typically powered by oil or compressed air, but can also be powered by electricity, usually via a motor and a leadscrew. The mechanical rack and pinion is common.
Recent alternatives to DC motors are piezoelectric motors, including ultrasonic motors, in which tiny piezoceramic elements vibrate many thousands of times per second, causing linear or rotary motion. One type uses the vibration of the piezo elements to step the motor in a circle or a straight line;<ref>{{cite web |title=Piezo LEGS – -09-26 |url=http://www.piezomotor.se/pages/PLtechnology.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080130125244/http://www.piezomotor.se/pages/PLtechnology.html |archive-date=30 January 2008 |access-date=28 October 2007}}</ref> another type uses the piezo elements to vibrate a nut or drive a screw. The advantages of these motors are nanometer resolution, speed, and force for their size.<ref>{{cite web |title=Squiggle Motors: Overview |url=http://www.newscaletech.com/squiggle_overview.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071007173712/http://www.newscaletech.com/squiggle_overview.html |archive-date=7 October 2007 |access-date=8 October 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Nishibori |display-authors=etal |year=2003 |title=Robot Hand with Fingers Using Vibration-Type Ultrasonic Motors (Driving Characteristics) |journal=Journal of Robotics and Mechatronics |volume=15 |issue=6 |pages=588–595 |doi=10.20965/jrm.2003.p0588 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Otake |first1=Mihoko |last2=Kagami |first2=Yoshiharu |last3=Ishikawa |first3=Kohei |last4=Inaba |first4=Masayuki |last5=Inoue |first5=Hirochika |date=6 April 2001 |title=Shape design of gel robots made of electroactive polymer gel |journal=Smart Materials |volume=4234 |pages=194–202 |bibcode=2001SPIE.4234..194O |doi=10.1117/12.424407 |s2cid=30357330 |editor-first1=Alan R. |editor-first2=Hiroshi |editor-last1=Wilson |editor-last2=Asanuma}}</ref>
Series elastic actuation (SEA) relies on introducing intentional elasticity between the motor actuator and the load for robust force control. Due to the resultant lower reflected inertia, series elastic actuation improves safety during robot interactions or collisions.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Pratt |first1=G. A. |title=Proceedings 1995 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems. Human-Robot Interaction and Cooperative Robots |last2=Williamson |first2=M. M. |year=1995 |isbn=0-8186-7108-4 |volume=1 |pages=399–406 |chapter=Series elastic actuators |doi=10.1109/IROS.1995.525827 |hdl=1721.1/36966 |s2cid=17120394}}</ref> Further, it provides energy efficiency and shock absorption (mechanical filtering) while reducing excessive wear on the transmission and other components. This approach has successfully been employed in various robots, particularly advanced manufacturing robots<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Furnémont |first1=Raphaël |last2=Mathijssen |first2=Glenn |last3=Verstraten |first3=Tom |last4=Lefeber |first4=Dirk |last5=Vanderborght |first5=Bram |date=27 January 2016 |title=Bi-directional series-parallel elastic actuator and overlap of the actuation layers |url=https://biblio.vub.ac.be/vubirfiles/26787873/201511_bidirectionalspea.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Bioinspiration & Biomimetics |volume=11 |issue=1 |bibcode=2016BiBi...11a6005F |doi=10.1088/1748-3190/11/1/016005 |pmid=26813145 |s2cid=37031990 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221001045819/https://biblio.vub.ac.be/vubirfiles/26787873/201511_bidirectionalspea.pdf |archive-date=1 October 2022 |access-date=15 March 2023 |article-number=016005}}</ref> and walking humanoid robots.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Pratt |first1=Jerry E. |title=Unmanned Ground Vehicle Technology VI |last2=Krupp |first2=Benjamin T. |year=2004 |editor1-last=Gerhart |editor1-first=Grant R |volume=5422 |pages=135–144 |chapter=Series Elastic Actuators for legged robots |doi=10.1117/12.548000 |editor2-last=Shoemaker |editor2-first=Chuck M |editor3-last=Gage |editor3-first=Douglas W |s2cid=16586246}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Zhibin |last2=Tsagarakis |first2=Nikos |last3=Caldwell |first3=Darwin |year=2013 |title=Walking Pattern Generation for a Humanoid Robot with Compliant Joints |journal=Autonomous Robots |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=1–14 |doi=10.1007/s10514-013-9330-7 |s2cid=624563}}</ref> The controller design of a series elastic actuator is most often performed within the passivity framework as it ensures the safety of interaction with unstructured environments.<ref>{{cite thesis |last1=Colgate |first1=J. Edward |title=The control of dynamically interacting systems |date=1988 |hdl=1721.1/14380}}</ref> However, this framework suffers from stringent limitations imposed on the controller, which may impact performance.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Calanca |first1=Andrea |last2=Muradore |first2=Riccardo |last3=Fiorini |first3=Paolo |date=November 2017 |title=Impedance control of series elastic actuators: Passivity and acceleration-based control |journal=Mechatronics |volume=47 |pages=37–48 |doi=10.1016/j.mechatronics.2017.08.010}}</ref>{{Verify source|date=February 2026}}
Pneumatic artificial muscles, also known as air muscles, are special tubes that expand (typically up to 42%) when air is forced inside them; they are used in some robot applications.<ref>{{cite web |last=www.imagesco.com |first=Images SI Inc - |title=Air Muscle actuators, going further, page 6 |url=http://www.imagesco.com/articles/airmuscle/AirMuscleDescription06.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201114000531/https://www.imagesco.com/articles/airmuscle/AirMuscleDescription06.html |archive-date=2020-11-14 |access-date=2010-05-24}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Air Muscles |url=http://www.shadowrobot.com/airmuscles/overview.shtml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927065220/http://www.shadowrobot.com/airmuscles/overview.shtml |archive-date=27 September 2007 |publisher=Shadow Robot}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Tondu, Bertrand |year=2012 |title=Modelling of the McKibben artificial muscle: A review |journal=Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=225–253 |doi=10.1177/1045389X11435435 |s2cid=136854390}}</ref> Muscle wire, also known as shape memory alloy, is a material that contracts (under 5%) when electricity is applied; they have been used for some small robots.<ref>{{cite web |title=TALKING ELECTRONICS Nitinol Page-1 |url=http://talkingelectronics.com/projects/Nitinol/Nitinol-1.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200118123516/http://www.talkingelectronics.com/projects/Nitinol/Nitinol-1.html |archive-date=18 January 2020 |access-date=27 November 2010 |publisher=Talkingelectronics.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=1 November 2001 |title=lf205, Hardware: Building a Linux-controlled walking robot |url=http://www.ibiblio.org/pub/linux/docs/LDP/linuxfocus/English/May2001/article205.shtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303225135/http://www.ibiblio.org/pub/linux/docs/LDP/linuxfocus/English/May2001/article205.shtml |archive-date=3 March 2016 |access-date=27 November 2010 |publisher=Ibiblio.org}}</ref> Electroactive polymers are a plastic material that can contract substantially (up to 380% activation strain) from electricity and have been used in the facial muscles and arms of humanoid robots,<ref>{{cite web |title=WW-EAP and Artificial Muscles |url=http://eap.jpl.nasa.gov/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170120030707/http://eap.jpl.nasa.gov/ |archive-date=20 January 2017 |access-date=27 November 2010 |publisher=Eap.jpl.nasa.gov}}</ref> as well as to enable new robots to float,<ref>{{cite web |title=Empa – a117-2-eap |url=http://www.empa.ch/plugin/template/empa/*/72289/---/l=1 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924000314/http://www.empa.ch/plugin/template/empa/*/72289/---/l=1 |archive-date=24 September 2015 |access-date=27 November 2010 |publisher=Empa.ch}}</ref> fly, swim or walk.<ref>{{cite web |title=Electroactive Polymers (EAP) as Artificial Muscles (EPAM) for Robot Applications |url=http://www.hizook.com/blog/2009/12/28/electroactive-polymers-eap-artificial-muscles-epam-robot-applications |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806163953/http://www.hizook.com/blog/2009/12/28/electroactive-polymers-eap-artificial-muscles-epam-robot-applications |archive-date=6 August 2020 |access-date=27 November 2010 |publisher=Hizook}}</ref> Additionally, elastic carbon nanotubes are a promising experimental artificial muscle technology. The absence of defects in carbon nanotubes enables these filaments to deform elastically by several percent, with energy storage levels of perhaps 10 J/cm<sup>3</sup> for metal nanotubes. Human biceps could be replaced with wire of this material measuring {{Convert|8|mm|frac=8}} in diameter, feasibly allowing future robots to outperform humans.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Madden |first1=John D. |date=16 November 2007 |title=Mobile Robots: Motor Challenges and Materials Solutions |journal=Science |volume=318 |issue=5853 |pages=1094–1097 |bibcode=2007Sci...318.1094M |citeseerx=10.1.1.395.4635 |doi=10.1126/science.1146351 |pmid=18006737 |s2cid=52827127}}</ref>
==== Locomotion ==== {{Main|Robot locomotion|Mobile robot}}
Robots with only one or two wheel(s) can have advantages such as greater efficiency, reduced parts, and navigation through confined areas. A one-wheeled robot balances on a round ball; Carnegie Mellon University's Ballbot is the approximate height and width of a person.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Guizzo |first1=Erico |date=29 April 2010 |title=A Robot That Balances on a Ball |url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/042910-a-robot-that-balances-on-a-ball |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230210114351/https://spectrum.ieee.org/042910-a-robot-that-balances-on-a-ball |archive-date=10 February 2023 |access-date=15 March 2023 |work=IEEE Spectrum}}</ref><ref>{{cite press release |title=Carnegie Mellon Researchers Develop New Type of Mobile Robot That Balances and Moves on a Ball Instead of Legs or Wheels |date=9 August 2006 |publisher=Carnegie Mellon |url=http://www.cmu.edu/PR/releases06/060809_ballbot.html |access-date=20 October 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070609180645/http://www.cmu.edu/PR/releases06/060809_ballbot.html |archive-date=9 June 2007}}</ref> Several attempts have also been made to build spherical robots (also known as orb bots<ref>{{cite web |title=Swarm |url=http://orbswarm.com/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126045756/http://orbswarm.com/ |archive-date=26 January 2021 |access-date=27 November 2010 |publisher=Orbswarm.com}}</ref> or ball bots),<ref>{{cite web |date=30 April 2008 |title=Senior Design Projects | College of Engineering & Applied Science| University of Colorado at Boulder |url=http://engineering.colorado.edu/prospective/Senior_Design.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723212022/http://engineering.colorado.edu/prospective/Senior_Design.htm |archive-date=23 July 2011 |access-date=27 November 2010 |publisher=Engineering.colorado.edu}}</ref> which move by spinning a weight inside the ball<ref>{{cite web |title=Spherical Robot Can Climb Over Obstacles |url=http://www.botjunkie.com/2009/10/15/spherical-robot-can-climb-over-obstacles/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120328125513/http://www.botjunkie.com/2009/10/15/spherical-robot-can-climb-over-obstacles/ |archive-date=28 March 2012 |access-date=27 November 2010 |publisher=BotJunkie}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Rotundus |url=http://rotundus.se/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110826094452/http://rotundus.se/ |archive-date=26 August 2011 |access-date=27 November 2010 |publisher=Rotundus.se}}</ref> or rotating outer shells.<ref>{{cite web |date=11 July 2007 |title=OrbSwarm Gets A Brain |url=http://www.botjunkie.com/2008/08/05/orbswarm-gets-a-brain/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120516091401/http://www.botjunkie.com/2008/08/05/orbswarm-gets-a-brain/ |archive-date=16 May 2012 |access-date=27 November 2010 |publisher=BotJunkie}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Rolling Orbital Bluetooth Operated Thing |url=http://www.botjunkie.com/2009/07/13/rolling-orbital-bluetooth-operated-thing/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120328125529/http://www.botjunkie.com/2009/07/13/rolling-orbital-bluetooth-operated-thing/ |archive-date=28 March 2012 |access-date=27 November 2010 |publisher=BotJunkie}}</ref> Two-wheeled balancing robots generally use a gyroscope to detect how much a robot is falling and drive the wheels proportionally up to hundreds of times per second to counterbalance the fall, based on inverted pendulum dynamics.<ref>{{cite web |title=T.O.B.B |url=http://www.mtoussaint.de/tobb/index.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200708001601/http://www.mtoussaint.de/tobb/index.html |archive-date=8 July 2020 |access-date=27 November 2010 |publisher=Mtoussaint.de}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=nBot, a two wheel balancing robot |url=http://geology.heroy.smu.edu/~dpa-www/robo/nbot/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126154620/http://geology.heroy.smu.edu/~dpa-www/robo/nbot/ |archive-date=26 January 2021 |access-date=27 November 2010 |publisher=Geology.heroy.smu.edu}}</ref> NASA's Robonaut has been mounted to a Segway for a similar effect.<ref>{{cite web |date=2004 |title=ROBONAUT Activity Report |url=http://robonaut.jsc.nasa.gov/status/Feb_Robonaut_Status_04.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070820104659/http://robonaut.jsc.nasa.gov/status/Feb_Robonaut_Status_04.htm <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archive-date=20 August 2007 |access-date=20 October 2007 |publisher=NASA}}</ref> Most mobile robots have four wheels or continuous tracks. Six wheels can give better traction in outdoor terrain, while tracks provide even more grip. Tracked wheels are common for outdoor off-road robots, but are difficult to use indoors.<ref>{{cite web |title=JPL Robotics: System: Commercial Rovers |url=https://www-robotics.jpl.nasa.gov/systems/system.cfm?System=4#urbie |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060615093018/http://www-robotics.jpl.nasa.gov/systems/system.cfm?System=4#urbie |archive-date=2006-06-15}}</ref> A small number of skating robots have been developed, one of which is a multimodal walking and skating device with four legs and unpowered wheels.<ref>{{cite web |title=Commercialized Quadruped Walking Vehicle 'TITAN VII' |url=http://www-robot.mes.titech.ac.jp/robot/walking/titan8/titan8_e.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071106024355/http://www-robot.mes.titech.ac.jp/robot/walking/titan8/titan8_e.html |archive-date=6 November 2007 |access-date=23 October 2007 |publisher=Hirose Fukushima Robotics Lab}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Pachal |first=Peter |date=23 January 2007 |title=Plen, the robot that skates across your desk |url=http://blog.scifi.com/tech/archives/2007/01/23/plen_the_robot.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011080732/http://blog.scifi.com/tech/archives/2007/01/23/plen_the_robot.html |archive-date=11 October 2007 |publisher=SCI FI Tech}}</ref>
[[File:Mantis Walking Machine.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Mantis the spider robot in 2012]]
Several robots have been made that can walk on two legs, but not yet as reliably as a human.<ref>{{cite web |title=AMBER Lab |url=http://www.bipedalrobotics.com/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201125112429/http://www.bipedalrobotics.com/ |archive-date=2020-11-25 |access-date=2012-01-23}}</ref> Many other robots have been built that walk on more than two legs, being significantly easier.<ref>{{cite web |title=Micromagic Systems Robotics Lab |url=http://www.hexapodrobot.com/index.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170601065829/http://www.hexapodrobot.com/index.html |archive-date=2017-06-01 |access-date=2009-04-29}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=AMRU-5 hexapod robot |url=http://mecatron.rma.ac.be/pub/2005/ISMCR05_verlinden.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817115931/http://mecatron.rma.ac.be/pub/2005/ISMCR05_verlinden.pdf |archive-date=2016-08-17 |access-date=2009-04-29}}</ref> Walking robots could be used for uneven terrains, providing a high degree of mobility and efficiency, but two-legged robots can currently only handle flat floors or perhaps stairs. Some approaches have included:
* The zero moment point (ZMP) is the algorithm used by robots such as Honda's ASIMO. The robot's onboard computer tries to keep the total inertial forces (the combination of Earth's gravity and the acceleration and deceleration of walking) exactly opposed by the floor reaction force (the force of the floor pushing back on the robot's foot). In this way, the two forces cancel out, leaving no moment (force causing the robot to rotate and fall over).<ref>{{cite web |title=Achieving Stable Walking |url=http://world.honda.com/ASIMO/history/technology2.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111108054353/http://world.honda.com/ASIMO/history/technology2.html |archive-date=8 November 2011 |access-date=22 October 2007 |publisher=Honda Worldwide}}</ref> Human observers note that this is not exactly how a human walks, with some describing ASIMO's walk as looking like it needs use the bathroom.<ref>{{cite web |date=28 December 2004 |title=Funny Walk |url=http://www.pootergeek.com/2004/12/funny-walk/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928173425/http://www.pootergeek.com/2004/12/funny-walk/ |archive-date=28 September 2011 |access-date=22 October 2007 |publisher=Pooter Geek}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |date=9 January 2007 |title=ASIMO's Pimp Shuffle |url=http://popsci.typepad.com/ces2007/2007/01/asimos_pimp_shu.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724230108/http://popsci.typepad.com/ces2007/2007/01/asimos_pimp_shu.html |archive-date=24 July 2011 |access-date=22 October 2007 |magazine=Popular Science}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=25 August 2003 |title=Robot Shows Prime Minister How to Loosen Up > > A drunk robot? |url=http://motegi.vtec.net/forums/one-message?message_id=131434&news_item_id=129834 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200430023339/https://motegi.vtec.net/forums/one-message?message_id=131434&news_item_id=129834 |archive-date=2020-04-30 |website=The Temple of VTEC – Honda and Acura Enthusiasts Online Forums}}</ref> ASIMO's walking algorithm utilizes some dynamic balancing, but requires a flat surface. * Several robots, built in the 1980s by Marc Raibert at the MIT Leg Laboratory, successfully demonstrated very dynamic walking. Initially, a robot with only one leg, and a very small foot could stay upright simply by hopping. The movement is the same as that of a person on a pogo stick. As the robot falls to one side, it would jump slightly in that direction to catch itself.<ref>{{cite web |title=3D One-Leg Hopper (1983–1984) |url=http://www.ai.mit.edu/projects/leglab/robots/3D_hopper/3D_hopper.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180725022157/http://www.ai.mit.edu/projects/leglab/robots/3D_hopper/3D_hopper.html |archive-date=25 July 2018 |access-date=22 October 2007 |publisher=MIT Leg Laboratory}}</ref> Soon, the algorithm was generalized to two and four legs. A bipedal robot was demonstrated running and even performing somersaults.<ref>{{cite web |title=3D Biped (1989–1995) |url=http://www.ai.mit.edu/projects/leglab/robots/3D_biped/3D_biped.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110926225914/http://www.ai.mit.edu/projects/leglab/robots/3D_biped/3D_biped.html |archive-date=2011-09-26 |access-date=2007-10-28 |publisher=MIT Leg Laboratory}}</ref> A quadruped was also demonstrated which could trot, run, pace, and bound.<ref>{{cite web |title=Quadruped (1984–1987) |url=http://www.ai.mit.edu/projects/leglab/robots/quadruped/quadruped.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110823220447/http://www.ai.mit.edu/projects/leglab/robots/quadruped/quadruped.html |archive-date=2011-08-23 |access-date=2007-10-28 |publisher=MIT Leg Laboratory}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=MIT Leg Lab Robots – Main |url=http://www.ai.mit.edu/projects/leglab/robots/robots-main-bottom.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807032416/http://www.ai.mit.edu/projects/leglab/robots/robots-main-bottom.html |archive-date=2020-08-07 |access-date=2007-10-28}}</ref> * A more advanced approach is a dynamic balancing algorithm, which constantly monitors the robot's motion and places the feet to maintain stability.<ref>{{cite web |title=About the Robots |url=http://www.anybots.com/abouttherobots.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070909132949/http://anybots.com/abouttherobots.html |archive-date=9 September 2007 |access-date=23 October 2007 |website=Anybots}}</ref> This technique has been demonstrated by Anybots' Dexter robot<ref>{{cite web |title=Anything, Anytime, Anywhere |url=http://anybots.com/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071027143008/http://anybots.com/ |archive-date=2007-10-27 |access-date=2007-10-23 |website=Anybots}}</ref> (which is so stable it can perform jumps)<ref>{{cite web |date=1 March 2007 |title=Dexter Jumps video |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZnTy_smY3sw |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211030/ZnTy_smY3sw |archive-date=2021-10-30 |access-date=23 October 2007 |publisher=YouTube}}{{cbignore}}</ref> and Delft University's Flame. * Perhaps the most promising approach uses passive dynamics, in which the momentum of swinging limbs is used to power walking, perhaps increasing efficiency to ten times that of ZMP.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Collins |first1=Steve |last2=Ruina |first2=Andy |last3=Tedrake |first3=Russ |last4=Wisse |first4=Martijn |date=18 February 2005 |title=Efficient Bipedal Robots Based on Passive-Dynamic Walkers |journal=Science |volume=307 |issue=5712 |pages=1082–1085 |bibcode=2005Sci...307.1082C |doi=10.1126/science.1107799 |pmid=15718465 |s2cid=1315227}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Collins |first1=S. H. |title=Proceedings of the 2005 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation |last2=Ruina |first2=A. |year=2005 |isbn=0-7803-8914-X |pages=1983–1988 |chapter=A Bipedal Walking Robot with Efficient and Human-Like Gait |doi=10.1109/ROBOT.2005.1570404 |s2cid=15145353}}</ref>
[[File:Mars entomopter.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Visualization of entomopter flying on Mars (NASA)]]
A modern passenger airliner is essentially a flying robot, with two humans to manage it. The autopilot can control the plane through takeoff, normal flight, and landing.<ref>{{cite web |title=Testing the Limits |url=http://www.boeing.com/news/frontiers/archive/2008/feb/i_ca01.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181215121224/http://www.boeing.com/news/frontiers/archive/2008/feb/i_ca01.pdf |archive-date=15 December 2018 |access-date=9 April 2008 |publisher=Boeing |page=29}}</ref> Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) can be smaller and lighter and fly into dangerous territory for military use, perhaps even being triggered to fire automatically. Other flying robots include cruise missiles, the entomopter, and the Epson micro helicopter robot. Additionally, some lighter-than-air robots are propelled by paddles and guided by sonar.
Biomimetic flying robots (BFRs) take inspiration from flying mammals, birds, or insects. They can have flapping wings, which generate the lift and thrust, or they can be propeller-actuated. Flapping-wing designs have increased maneuverability and reduced energy consumption compared to propeller actuation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Jun |last2=Zhao |first2=Ning |last3=Qu |first3=Feiyang |date=2022-11-15 |title=Bio-inspired flapping wing robots with foldable or deformable wings: a review |journal=Bioinspiration & Biomimetics |volume=18 |issue=1 |page=011002 |doi=10.1088/1748-3190/ac9ef5 |issn=1748-3182 |pmid=36317380 |s2cid=253246037}}</ref> BFRs inspired by mammals and birds share similar flight characteristics and design considerations. For instance, they minimize edge fluttering and pressure-induced wingtip curl by increasing the rigidity of the wing edge.
* Mammal-inspired BFRs typically take inspiration from bats, with the flying squirrel also inspiring a prototype.<ref name="Shin-2019">{{Cite journal |last1=Shin |first1=Won Dong |last2=Park |first2=Jaejun |last3=Park |first3=Hae-Won |date=2019-09-01 |title=Development and experiments of a bio-inspired robot with multi-mode in aerial and terrestrial locomotion |journal=Bioinspiration & Biomimetics |volume=14 |issue=5 |page=056009 |bibcode=2019BiBi...14e6009S |doi=10.1088/1748-3190/ab2ab7 |issn=1748-3182 |pmid=31212268 |s2cid=195066183 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ramezani |first1=Alireza |title=2016 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA) |last2=Shi |first2=Xichen |last3=Chung |first3=Soon-Jo |last4=Hutchinson |first4=Seth |date=May 2016 |publisher=IEEE |isbn=978-1-4673-8026-3 |location=Stockholm, Sweden |pages=3219–3226 |chapter=Bat Bot (B2), a biologically inspired flying machine |doi=10.1109/ICRA.2016.7487491 |s2cid=8581750}}</ref><ref name="Daler-2015">{{Cite journal |last1=Daler |first1=Ludovic |last2=Mintchev |first2=Stefano |last3=Stefanini |first3=Cesare |last4=Floreano |first4=Dario |date=2015-01-19 |title=A bioinspired multi-modal flying and walking robot |url=https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-3190/10/1/016005 |journal=Bioinspiration & Biomimetics |volume=10 |issue=1 |bibcode=2015BiBi...10a6005D |doi=10.1088/1748-3190/10/1/016005 |issn=1748-3190 |pmid=25599118 |s2cid=11132948 |article-number=016005}}</ref> Mammal-inspired BFRs can be designed to be multimodal; being capable of both flight and terrestrial movement. Shock absorbers can be implemented to reduce the impact of landing.<ref name="Daler-2015" /> Alternatively, the BFR can pitch up and increase the amount of drag.<ref name="Shin-2019" /> Different land gait patterns can also be implemented.<ref name="Shin-2019" /> * Bird-inspired BFRs can take inspiration from raptors, gulls, and others.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Savastano |first1=E. |last2=Perez-Sanchez |first2=V. |last3=Arrue |first3=B.C. |last4=Ollero |first4=A. |date=July 2022 |title=High-Performance Morphing Wing for Large-Scale Bio-Inspired Unmanned Aerial Vehicles |journal=IEEE Robotics and Automation Letters |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=8076–8083 |bibcode=2022IRAL....7.8076S |doi=10.1109/LRA.2022.3185389 |issn=2377-3766 |s2cid=250008824}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Grant |first1=Daniel T. |last2=Abdulrahim |first2=Mujahid |last3=Lind |first3=Rick |date=June 2010 |title=Flight Dynamics of a Morphing Aircraft Utilizing Independent Multiple-Joint Wing Sweep |journal=International Journal of Micro Air Vehicles |language=en |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=91–106 |doi=10.1260/1756-8293.2.2.91 |issn=1756-8293 |s2cid=110577545 |doi-access=free}}</ref> They can be feathered to increase the angle of range over which the robot can operate before stalling.<ref name="Kilian-2022">{{Cite journal |last1=Kilian |first1=Lukas |last2=Shahid |first2=Farzeen |last3=Zhao |first3=Jing-Shan |last4=Nayeri |first4=Christian Navid |date=2022-07-01 |title=Bioinspired morphing wings: mechanical design and wind tunnel experiments |journal=Bioinspiration & Biomimetics |volume=17 |issue=4 |page=046019 |bibcode=2022BiBi...17d6019K |doi=10.1088/1748-3190/ac72e1 |issn=1748-3182 |pmid=35609562 |s2cid=249045806}}</ref> The wings of bird-inspired BFRs allow for in-plane deformation, which can be adjusted to maximize flight efficiency depending on the flight gait.<ref name="Kilian-2022" /> * Insect-inspired BFRs typically take inspiration from beetles or dragonflies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Phan |first1=Hoang Vu |last2=Park |first2=Hoon Cheol |date=2020-12-04 |title=Mechanisms of collision recovery in flying beetles and flapping-wing robots |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abd3285 |journal=Science |language=en |volume=370 |issue=6521 |pages=1214–1219 |bibcode=2020Sci...370.1214P |doi=10.1126/science.abd3285 |issn=0036-8075 |pmid=33273101 |s2cid=227257247}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hu |first1=Zheng |title=2009 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation |last2=McCauley |first2=Raymond |last3=Schaeffer |first3=Steve |last4=Deng |first4=Xinyan |date=May 2009 |isbn=978-1-4244-2788-8 |pages=3061–3066 |chapter=Aerodynamics of dragonfly flight and robotic design |doi=10.1109/ROBOT.2009.5152760 |s2cid=12291429}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Balta |first1=Miquel |last2=Deb |first2=Dipan |last3=Taha |first3=Haithem E |date=2021-10-26 |title=Flow visualization and force measurement of the clapping effect in bio-inspired flying robots |journal=Bioinspiration & Biomimetics |volume=16 |issue=6 |page=066020 |bibcode=2021BiBi...16f6020B |doi=10.1088/1748-3190/ac2b00 |issn=1748-3182 |pmid=34584023 |s2cid=238217893}}</ref>
thumb|Capuchin, a climbing robot
Several different approaches have been used to develop robots that have the ability to climb vertical surfaces. One approach mimics the movements of a human climber on a wall with protrusions; adjusting the center of mass and moving each limb in turn to gain leverage.<ref>{{YouTube|JzHasc4Vhm8|Capuchin}}</ref> Another approach uses the specialized toe-pad method of wall-climbing geckoes, which can run on smooth surfaces such as vertical glass,<ref>{{YouTube|Tq8Yw19bn7Q|Wallbot}}</ref><ref>{{YouTube|k2kZk6riGWU|Stanford University: Stickybot}}</ref> one example being named Speedy Freelander. A third approach is to mimic the motion of a snake climbing a pole.<ref name="Automation and Robotics">{{cite book |last1=Arreguin |first1=Juan |url=https://archive.org/details/ost-engineering-automation-and-robotics |title=Automation and Robotics |publisher=I-Tech and Publishing |year=2008 |location=Vienna, Austria}}</ref> Separately, snake robots can be used for horizontal navigation, possibly being able to search through confined spaces<ref>{{cite web |last=Miller |first=Gavin |title=Introduction |url=http://www.snakerobots.com/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110817015904/http://www.snakerobots.com/ |archive-date=17 August 2011 |access-date=22 October 2007 |publisher=snakerobots.com}}</ref> and navigate amphibiously.<ref>{{cite web |title=ACM-R5 |url=http://www-robot.mes.titech.ac.jp/robot/snake/acm-r5/acm-r5_e.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111011030934/http://www-robot.mes.titech.ac.jp/robot/snake/acm-r5/acm-r5_e.html |archive-date=11 October 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Swimming snake robot (commentary in Japanese) |url=http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=139523333240485714 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120208074204/http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=139523333240485714 |archive-date=2012-02-08 |access-date=2007-10-28}}</ref>
It is calculated that when swimming, some fish can achieve a propulsive efficiency greater than 90%.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sfakiotakis |first1=M. |last2=Lane |first2=D. M. |last3=Davies |first3=J. B. C. |date=April 1999 |title=Review of fish swimming modes for aquatic locomotion |journal=IEEE Journal of Oceanic Engineering |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=237–252 |bibcode=1999IJOE...24..237S |citeseerx=10.1.1.459.8614 |doi=10.1109/48.757275 |s2cid=17226211}}</ref> Furthermore, they can accelerate and maneuver far better than any man-made boat or submarine and cause less disturbance, being a desirable ability for aquatic robots,<ref>{{cite web |author=Mason |first=Richard |title=What is the market for robot fish? |url=http://rjmason.com/ramblings/robotFishMarket.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090704021443/http://rjmason.com/ramblings/robotFishMarket.html |archive-date=4 July 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Robotic fish powered by Gumstix PC and PIC |url=http://cswww.essex.ac.uk/staff/hhu/HCR-Group.html#Entertainment |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110814141015/http://cswww.essex.ac.uk/staff/hhu/HCR-Group.html#Entertainment |archive-date=14 August 2011 |access-date=25 October 2007 |publisher=Human Centred Robotics Group at Essex University}}</ref> one of which models fish locomotion.<ref>{{cite web |author=Juwarahawong |first=Witoon |title=Fish Robot |url=http://fibo.kmutt.ac.th/project/eng/current_research/fish.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071104081550/http://fibo.kmutt.ac.th/project/eng/current_research/fish.html |archive-date=4 November 2007 |access-date=25 October 2007 |publisher=Institute of Field Robotics}}</ref> One example copies the streamlined shape and propulsion of the front 'flippers' of penguins.<ref>{{cite web |date=17 April 2009 |title=Festo – AquaPenguin |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u8tfES8gImc |via=YouTube}}</ref> Others emulate the locomotion of the manta ray and jellyfish. In 2014, a robotic fish outperformed some real fish in average maximum velocity and endurance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=High-Speed Robotic Fish |url=http://www.isplash-robotics.com/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200311234913/https://isplash-robotics.com/ |archive-date=11 March 2020 |access-date=7 January 2017 |website=iSplash-Robotics |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=iSplash-II: Realizing Fast Carangiform Swimming to Outperform a Real Fish |url=http://cswww.essex.ac.uk/staff/hhu/Papers/IEEE-IROS-2014-1080-1086.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150930224555/http://cswww.essex.ac.uk/staff/hhu/Papers/IEEE-IROS-2014-1080-1086.pdf |archive-date=30 September 2015 |access-date=29 September 2015 |publisher=Robotics Group at Essex University}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=iSplash-I: High Performance Swimming Motion of a Carangiform Robotic Fish with Full-Body Coordination |url=http://cswww.essex.ac.uk/staff/hhu/Papers/IEEE-ICRA-2014-322-327.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150930183444/http://cswww.essex.ac.uk/staff/hhu/Papers/IEEE-ICRA-2014-322-327.pdf |archive-date=30 September 2015 |access-date=29 September 2015 |publisher=Robotics Group at Essex University}}</ref>
Sailboat robots, such as ''Vaimos'', have been developed in order to make measurements at the surface of the ocean.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jaulin |first1=Luc |last2=Le Bars |first2=Fabrice |date=February 2013 |title=An Interval Approach for Stability Analysis: Application to Sailboat Robotics |journal=IEEE Transactions on Robotics |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=282–287 |bibcode=2013ITRob..29..282J |citeseerx=10.1.1.711.7180 |doi=10.1109/TRO.2012.2217794 |s2cid=4977937}}</ref> Since saiboat robots are wind-propelled, the batteries only power the computer, communication and actuators (to tune the rudder and sail). Two major sailboat robot competitions occur at the Microtransat Challenge and the World Robotic Sailing Championship.
==== Manipulators ==== {{further|Mobile manipulator}}
[[File:Baxter 1.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Baxter, a robot with versatile arms]] [[File:Futur en Seine 2012 51.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|A robotic hand]]
A definition of robotic manipulation has been described by Matthew T. Mason as the robot's "control of its environment through selective contact".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mason |first=Matthew T. |title=Mechanics of Robotic Manipulation |date=2001 |isbn=978-0-262-25662-9 |doi=10.7551/mitpress/4527.001.0001 |s2cid=5260407}}</ref> Robots need to manipulate objects; pick up, modify, destroy, move or otherwise have an effect. Thus a robotic arm is referred to as a ''manipulator''<ref>{{cite book |last=Crane |first=Carl D. |url=http://www.cambridge.org/us/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn=0-521-57063-8 |title=Kinematic Analysis of Robot Manipulators |author2=Joseph Duffy |date=1998 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-57063-3 |access-date=16 October 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200402054835/http://www.cambridge.org/us/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn=0-521-57063-8 |archive-date=2 April 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> and its functional end (e.g. a tool or hand) is known as an ''end effector''.<ref>{{cite web |year=2007 |title=What is a robotic end-effector? |url=http://www.ati-ia.com/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201217184230/https://www.ati-ia.com/ |archive-date=17 December 2020 |access-date=16 October 2007 |publisher=ATI Industrial Automation}}</ref> Most robot arms have replaceable end effectors, each allowing them to perform some small range of tasks. Some have a fixed manipulator that cannot be replaced, including highly versatile manipulators like a humanoid hand.<ref>G. J. Monkman, S. Hesse, R. Steinmann & H. Schunk (2007). ''Robot Grippers''. Berlin, Germany: Wiley.</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Tijsma |first1=H. A. |title=9th International Conference on Rehabilitation Robotics, 2005. ICORR 2005 |last2=Liefhebber |first2=F. |last3=Herder |first3=J. L. |year=2005 |isbn=0-7803-9003-2 |pages=258–263 |chapter=Evaluation of New User Interface Features for the MANUS Robot Arm |doi=10.1109/ICORR.2005.1501097 |s2cid=36445389}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Allcock |first=Andrew |date=2006 |title=Anthropomorphic hand is almost human |url=http://www.machinery.co.uk/article/7593/Anthropomorphic-hand-is-almost-human.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928203040/http://www.machinery.co.uk/article/7593/Anthropomorphic-hand-is-almost-human.aspx |archive-date=28 September 2007 |access-date=17 October 2007 |publisher=Machinery}}</ref> Some of these have powerful dexterity intelligence, up to 20 degrees of freedom, and hundreds of tactile sensors.<ref>{{cite web |title=Welcome |url=http://www.shadowrobot.com/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130510102833/http://www.shadowrobot.com/wp-content/uploads/shadow_dexterous_hand_technical_specification_E1_20130101.pdf |archive-date=2013-05-10 |access-date=2007-10-28}}</ref>
One of the most common types of end effectors are 'grippers'. In its simplest manifestation, it consists of just two fingers that can open and close to pick up and let go of small objects. Fingers can be made of a chain with a metal wire running through it.<ref>{{cite web |title=Annotated Mythbusters: Episode 78: Ninja Myths – Walking on Water, Catching a Sword, Catching an Arrow |url=http://kwc.org/mythbusters/2007/04/episode_78_ninja_myths_walking.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112030019/http://kwc.org/mythbusters/2007/04/episode_78_ninja_myths_walking.html |archive-date=2020-11-12 |access-date=2010-02-13}} (Discovery Channel's Mythbusters making mechanical gripper from the chain and metal wire)</ref> Hands that resemble and work more like a human hand include the Shadow Hand and the Robonaut hand.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Robonaut hand |url=http://er.jsc.nasa.gov/seh/Robotics/index.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200222021039/https://er.jsc.nasa.gov/seh/Robotics/index.html |archive-date=2020-02-22 |access-date=2011-11-21}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Delft hand |url=http://www.dbl.tudelft.nl/over-de-faculteit/afdelingen/biomechanical-engineering/onderzoek/dbl-delft-biorobotics-lab/delft-arm-and-hand/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120203150043/http://www.dbl.tudelft.nl/over-de-faculteit/afdelingen/biomechanical-engineering/onderzoek/dbl-delft-biorobotics-lab/delft-arm-and-hand |archive-date=3 February 2012 |access-date=21 November 2011 |publisher=TU Delft}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=M & C |title=TU Delft ontwikkelt goedkope, voorzichtige robothand |url=http://tudelft.nl/nl/actueel/laatste-nieuws/artikel/detail/tu-delft-ontwikkelt-goedkope-voorzichtige-robothand/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170313102533/http://tudelft.nl/nl/actueel/laatste-nieuws/artikel/detail/tu-delft-ontwikkelt-goedkope-voorzichtige-robothand/ |archive-date=2017-03-13 |access-date=2011-11-21 |work=TU Delft}}</ref> Mechanical grippers can come in various types, including friction and encompassing jaws. Friction jaws use all the force of the gripper to hold the object in place using friction. Encompassing jaws cradle the object in place, using less friction.
Suction end effectors, powered by vacuum generators, are very simple astrictive<ref>{{cite web |title=astrictive definition – English definition dictionary – Reverso |url=http://dictionary.reverso.net/english-definitions/astrictive |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200430084428/https://dictionary.reverso.net/english-definition/astrictive |archive-date=2020-04-30 |access-date=2008-01-06}}</ref> devices that can hold very large loads provided the prehension surface is smooth enough to ensure suction. Pick-and-place robots for electronic components and for large objects like car windscreens, often use very simple vacuum end effectors. Suction is a highly used type of end effector in industry, in part because the natural compliance of soft suction end effectors can be less likely to damage objects.
=== Control system === {{Further|Control system|Principles of motion sensing}} [[File:Computer Circuit Board MOD 45153624.jpg|thumb|An electrical circuit]]
The mechanical structure of a robot must be controlled to perform tasks.<ref name="Corke-2017">{{Cite book |last=Corke |first=Peter |url=https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-319-54413-7 |title=Robotics, Vision and Control |date=2017 |isbn=978-3-319-54412-0 |series=Springer Tracts in Advanced Robotics |volume=118 |language=en-gb |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-54413-7 |issn=1610-7438 |access-date=2023-03-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221020220053/https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-319-54413-7 |archive-date=2022-10-20 |url-status=live}}</ref> The control of a robot involves three distinct phases – perception, processing, and action (robotic paradigms).<ref name="Lee-1987">{{Cite book |last1=Lee |first1=C S. G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_oYYRzSohJgC |title=Robotics: Control Sensing. Vis. |last2=Fu |first2=K. S. |last3=Gonzalez |first3=Ralph |date=1987 |publisher=McGraw-Hill |isbn=978-0-07-026510-3 |language=en |access-date=2023-03-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230315185507/https://books.google.com/books?id=_oYYRzSohJgC |archive-date=2023-03-15 |url-status=live}}</ref> Sensors give information about the environment or the robot itself (e.g. the position of its joints or its end effector).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Brogårdh |first=Torgny |date=January 2007 |title=Present and future robot control development—An industrial perspective |journal=Annual Reviews in Control |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=69–79 |doi=10.1016/j.arcontrol.2007.01.002 |issn=1367-5788}}</ref> This information is then processed to be stored or transmitted and to calculate the appropriate signals to the actuators (motors), which move the mechanical structure to achieve the required coordinated motion or force actions.
The processing phase can range in complexity. At a reactive level, it may translate raw sensor information directly into actuator commands (e.g. firing motor power electronic gates based directly upon encoder feedback signals to achieve the required torque/velocity of the shaft). Sensor fusion and internal models may first be used to estimate parameters of interest (e.g. the position of the robot's gripper) from noisy sensor data. An immediate task (such as moving the gripper in a certain direction until an object is detected with a proximity sensor) is sometimes inferred from these estimates. Techniques from control theory are generally used to convert the higher-level tasks into individual commands that drive the actuators, most often using kinematic and dynamic models of the mechanical structure.<ref name="Corke-2017" /><ref name="Lee-1987" /><ref name="Short-2011">{{Cite journal |last1=Short |first1=Michael |last2=Burn |first2=Kevin |date=2011-04-01 |title=A generic controller architecture for intelligent robotic systems |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S073658451000092X |journal=Robotics and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing |series= |language=en |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=292–305 |doi=10.1016/j.rcim.2010.07.013 |issn=0736-5845}}</ref>
At longer time scales or with more sophisticated tasks, the robot may need to build and reason with a cognitive model, which try to represent the robot, the world, and how the two interact. Pattern recognition and computer vision can be used to track objects.<ref name="Corke-2017" /> Mapping, motion planning and other AI techniques may be used to figure out how to act and avoid obstacles.
Robotic control systems integrate multiple sensors and effectors, have many interacting degrees of freedom and require operator interfaces, programming tools and real-time capabilities.<ref name="Lee-1987" /> They are often connected to wider communication networks, including the Internet of things, a network correlating physical objects.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ray |first=Partha Pratim |date=2016 |title=Internet of Robotic Things: Concept, Technologies, and Challenges |journal=IEEE Access |volume=4 |pages=9489–9500 |bibcode=2016IEEEA...4.9489R |doi=10.1109/ACCESS.2017.2647747 |issn=2169-3536 |s2cid=9273802 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Progress towards open architecture, layered, user-friendly and 'intelligent' sensor-based interconnected robots has emerged from earlier concepts related to flexible manufacturing systems. Further, several 'open or 'hybrid' reference architectures provide advantages over prior 'closed' robot control systems.<ref name="Short-2011" /> Open-architecture controllers are said to be better able to meet the growing requirements of a wide range of robot users, including system developers, end users and research scientists, and are better positioned to contribute advanced industrial concepts.<ref name="Short-2011" /> In addition to utilizing many established features of robot controllers, such as position, velocity and force control of end effectors, they{{Clarify|reason=What's the subject here?|date=March 2026}} also enable interconnection and the implementation of more advanced sensor fusion and control techniques, including adaptive control, fuzzy control and artificial neural network–based control.<ref name="Short-2011" /> When implemented in real time, such techniques can potentially enabling more adaptive control systems working in unfamiliar environments.<ref name="Burn-2003">{{Cite journal |last1=Burn |first1=K. |last2=Short |first2=M. |last3=Bicker |first3=R. |date=July 2003 |title=Adaptive and Nonlinear Fuzzy Force Control Techniques Applied to Robots Operating in Uncertain Environments |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/rob.10093 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Robotic Systems |volume=20 |issue=7 |pages=391–400 |doi=10.1002/rob.10093 |issn=0741-2223 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221126053006/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/rob.10093 |archive-date=2022-11-26 |access-date=2023-03-15}}</ref> Generic reference architecture and associated interconnected, open-architecture robot and controller implementation has been used in a number of studies.<ref name="Burn-2003" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Burn |first1=Kevin |last2=Home |first2=Geoffrey |date=2008-05-01 |title=Environment classification using Kohonen self-organizing maps |journal=Expert Systems |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=98–114 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0394.2008.00441.x |issn=0266-4720 |s2cid=33369232 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
==== Sensing ==== {{Main|Robotic sensing|Robotic sensors}} {{See also|Sensory-motor map}} thumb|A color sensor on a robot
Sensors allow robots to receive information about the environment or internal components. This is essential for robots to perform their tasks and respond to changes with the appropriate response. Sensors are used for various forms of measurements, to provide real-time information, and to give the robots warnings; they can include cameras and microphones, as well as those that monitor network signals, power level, pressure, and temperature.
Current robotic and prosthetic hands receive far less tactile information than the human hand. Recent research has developed a tactile sensor array that mimics the mechanical properties and touch receptors of human fingertips.<ref>{{cite web |title=Syntouch LLC: BioTac(R) Biomimetic Tactile Sensor Array |url=http://www.syntouchllc.com/technology.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091003150719/http://syntouchllc.com/technology.htm |archive-date=3 October 2009 |access-date=10 August 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wettels |first1=Nicholas |last2=Santos |first2=Veronica J. |last3=Johansson |first3=Roland S. |last4=Loeb |first4=Gerald E. |date=January 2008 |title=Biomimetic Tactile Sensor Array |journal=Advanced Robotics |volume=22 |issue=8 |pages=829–849 |doi=10.1163/156855308X314533 |s2cid=4594917}}</ref> The sensor array is constructed as a rigid core surrounded by conductive fluid contained by an elastomeric skin. Electrodes are mounted on the surface of the rigid core and connected to an impedance-measuring device within the core. When the artificial skin touches an object, the fluid path around the electrodes is deformed, producing impedance changes that map the forces received from the object. An important function of artificial fingertips will likely be adjusting the grip on held objects. Scientists from several European countries and Israel developed a prosthetic hand in 2009 which functions like a real one—allowing patients to write, type on a keyboard, and perform other fine movements. The prosthesis has sensors which enable the patient to sense through its fingertips.<ref name="SmartHand">{{cite web |title=What is The SmartHand? |url=http://www.elmat.lth.se/~smarthand/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150303105100/http://www.elmat.lth.se/~smarthand/ |archive-date=3 March 2015 |access-date=4 February 2011 |publisher=SmartHand Project}}</ref>
Other common forms of sensing in robotics use lidar, radar, and sonar.<ref name="Automation and Robotics" /> Lidar measures the distance to a target by illuminating the target with laser light and measuring the reflected light with a sensor. Radar uses radio waves to determine the range, angle, or velocity of objects. Sonar uses sound propagation to navigate, communicate with or detect objects on or under the surface of the water. More abstractly, robot forms inspired by origami are designed to sense and analyze in extreme environments.<ref>{{cite web |title=Origami-Inspired Robots Can Sense, Analyze and Act in Challenging Environments |url=https://samueli.ucla.edu/origami-inspired-robots-can-sense-analyze-and-act-in-challenging-environments/ |publisher=UCLA |access-date=10 April 2023}}</ref>
Cameras can capture visible light and other forms of electromagnetic radiation such as infrared. Multiple sensors and particular lenses may be used to achieve a certain field of view and depth perception. Computer-vision has increasingly utilized machine learning.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Khan |first=Asharul Islam |last2=Al-Habsi |first2=Salim |date=2020-01-01 |title=Machine Learning in Computer Vision |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1877050920308218 |journal=Procedia Computer Science |series=International Conference on Computational Intelligence and Data Science |volume=167 |pages=1444–1451 |doi=10.1016/j.procs.2020.03.355 |issn=1877-0509}}</ref> Barcode scanning may be utilized, but is not necessarily universally effective.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-12-09 |title=How Amazon Robotics is working on new ways to eliminate the need for barcodes |url=https://www.amazon.science/latest-news/how-amazon-robotics-is-working-on-new-ways-to-eliminate-the-need-for-barcodes |access-date=2026-03-21 |website=Amazon Science |language=en}}</ref>
=== Software === [[File:TOPIO 3.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|TOPIO, a ping pong–playing robot]] [[File:ElementBlack2.jpg|thumb|GPS, radar, and lidar are combined in a vehicle developed for 2007's DARPA Urban Challenge.]]
A program is how a robot decides when or how to do something. They can be run by remote control, AI, or a hybrid of the two.
A robot with remote-control programming, possibly operated by haptic or teleoperated devices, has a preexisting set of commands that it will only perform when it receives a signal from a control source—essentially a form of automation, with humans having nearly complete control over the robot.
Meanwhile, AI-supported autonomous robots operate without a control source and use their programming to determine responses to various stimuli.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Raj |first=Aditi |date=August 26, 2024 |title=AI & Robotics: The Role of AI in Robots |url=https://www.thestellify.com/transforming-role-of-ai-in-robots/1519/ |access-date=August 29, 2024 |work=The Stellify}}</ref> They do not require complex cognition, e.g. industrial robots performing repetitive tasks.
Hybrid robots may be assisted by an operator who commands general actions or selects certain modes, with AI guiding the necessary specific motions.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Synthiam Exosphere combines AI, human operators to train robots |url=https://www.therobotreport.com/synthiam-exosphere-trains-ai-robots-human-operators |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201006121841/https://www.therobotreport.com/synthiam-exosphere-trains-ai-robots-human-operators/ |archive-date=2020-10-06 |access-date=2020-04-29 |magazine=The Robot Report}}</ref>
==== Navigation and collision avoidance ====
Robots that can operate autonomously in a dynamic environment require a combination of mapping and navigation hardware and software to traverse their environment and avoid colliding with other objects. Besides humanoids such as ASIMO and Meinü robots, this particularly applies to self-driving cars, which variously employ the Global Positioning System (GPS), radar, lidar, cameras, an inertial navigation system and/or swarms of autonomous robots.<ref name="Search and foraging">{{cite book |author=Kagan |first=Eugene |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b-r5CQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1 |title=Search and foraging: individual motion and swarm dynamics |author2=Ben-Gal, Irad |publisher=Chapman and Hall/CRC |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-4822-4210-2 |access-date=2020-08-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230315185446/https://books.google.com/books?id=b-r5CQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1 |archive-date=2023-03-15 |url-status=live}}</ref>
==== Human–robot interaction ==== {{main|Human–robot interaction}}
For effective use in domestic environments, the way robots receive commands should be intuitive even for people with no technological skillset. Science-fiction authors and futurists often envision humans communicating with robots via speech, gestures, and facial expressions <ref>{{cite book |last=Goodrich |first=Michael A. |last2=Schultz |first2=Alan C. |title=Human–Robot Interaction: An Introduction |publisher=Now Publishers Inc |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-60198-096-0}}</ref> rather than a command-line interface.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Banks |first1=Jaime |date=2020 |title=Optimus Primed: Media Cultivation of Robot Mental Models and Social Judgments |journal=Frontiers in Robotics and AI |volume=7 |doi=10.3389/frobt.2020.00062 |pmc=7805817 |pmid=33501230 |doi-access=free |article-number=62}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Breazeal |first=Cynthia |title=Role of Facial Expression in Social Dialogue with Cognitively Adept Robots |journal=IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems |date=2001 |doi=10.1109/IROS.2001.976211}}</ref> Studies have shown that, for some people, interacting with a robot or imagining doing so can reduce negative feelings they may have about robots,<ref name="Wullenkord Fraune Eyssel et al 2016">{{cite book |last1=Wullenkord |first1=Ricarda |title=2016 25th IEEE International Symposium on Robot and Human Interactive Communication (RO-MAN) |last2=Fraune |first2=Marlena R. |last3=Eyssel |first3=Friederike |last4=Sabanovic |first4=Selma |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-5090-3929-6 |pages=980–985 |chapter=Getting in Touch: How imagined, actual, and physical contact affect evaluations of robots |doi=10.1109/ROMAN.2016.7745228 |s2cid=6305599}}</ref> but this can also bolster strong negative prejudices.<ref name="Wullenkord Fraune Eyssel et al 2016" /> Researchers are trying to create robots that demonstrate personality,<ref>{{cite news |title=Robot Receptionist Dishes Directions and Attitude |url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5067678 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201201161355/https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5067678 |archive-date=2020-12-01 |access-date=2018-04-05 |newspaper=NPR}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=New Scientist: A good robot has personality but not looks |url=http://viterbi.usc.edu/tools/download/?asset=/assets/023/49186.pdf&name=nsmaja.pdf |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20060929205205/http://viterbi.usc.edu/tools/download/?asset=/assets/023/49186.pdf&name=nsmaja.pdf |archive-date=29 September 2006}}</ref> regardless of whether this is desirable in commercial machines.<ref>{{cite report |title=Synthetic Personality in Robots and its Effect on Human-Robot Relationship |last1=Park |first1=S. |last2=Sharlin |first2=Ehud |last3=Kitamura |first3=Y. |last4=Lau |first4=E. |date=29 April 2005 |doi=10.11575/PRISM/31041 |hdl=1880/45619}}</ref> Sounds, facial expressions, and body language can be used to convey emotions, e.g. in the toy robot dinosaur Pleo ({{Circa|2006}}).<ref>{{cite web |date=25 September 2008 |title=Playtime with Pleo, your robotic dinosaur friend |url=https://www.ted.com/talks/caleb_chung_playtime_with_pleo_your_robotic_dinosaur_friend |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190120221644/https://www.ted.com/talks/caleb_chung_plays_with_pleo#t-17244 |archive-date=20 January 2019 |access-date=14 December 2014}}</ref> Further, robots may incorporate awareness of personal space to their interactions.
Other hurdles exist when a voice is used to interact with humans. For social reasons, synthetic voice proves suboptimal as a communication medium,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Walters |first1=M. L. |title=RO-MAN 2008 – the 17th IEEE International Symposium on Robot and Human Interactive Communication |last2=Syrdal |first2=D. S. |last3=Koay |first3=K. L. |last4=Dautenhahn |first4=K. |last5=Te Boekhorst |first5=R. |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-4244-2212-8 |pages=707–712 |chapter=Human approach distances to a mechanical-looking robot with different robot voice styles |doi=10.1109/ROMAN.2008.4600750 |s2cid=8653718}}</ref> making it necessary to develop the emotional component of robotic voice through various techniques.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Pauletto |first1=Sandra |title=Proceedings of the 5th Audio Mostly Conference on a Conference on Interaction with Sound – AM '10 |last2=Bowles |first2=Tristan |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-4503-0046-9 |pages=1–8 |chapter=Designing the emotional content of a robotic speech signal |doi=10.1145/1859799.1859804 |s2cid=30423778}}</ref><ref>{{cite conference |last1=Bowles |first1=Tristan |last2=Pauletto |first2=Sandra |year=2010 |title=Emotions in the Voice: Humanising a Robotic Voice |url=http://smc.afim-asso.org/smc10/proceedings/30.pdf |conference=Proceedings of the 7th Sound and Music Computing Conference |location=Barcelona |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230210114351/http://smc.afim-asso.org/smc10/proceedings/30.pdf |archive-date=2023-02-10 |access-date=2023-03-15 |url-status=live}}</ref> One of the earliest examples is a teaching robot developed in 1974 by Michael J. Freeman,<ref>{{Cite web |title=World of 2-XL: Leachim |url=http://www.2xlrobot.com/robots/leachim.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200705150824/http://www.2xlrobot.com/robots/leachim.html |archive-date=5 July 2020 |access-date=28 May 2019 |website=www.2xlrobot.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=23 June 1974 |title=The Boston Globe from Boston, Massachusetts on June 23, 1974 · 132 |url=http://www.newspapers.com/newspage/435961844/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200110063249/https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/435961844/ |archive-date=10 January 2020 |access-date=28 May 2019 |website=Newspapers.com |language=en}}</ref> who converted digital memory to rudimentary verbal speech via pre-recorded computer discs.<ref name="cyberneticzoo.com">{{Cite web |title=A history of cybernetic animals and early robots |url=http://cyberneticzoo.com/page/135/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806194159/http://cyberneticzoo.com/page/135/ |archive-date=6 August 2020 |access-date=28 May 2019 |website=cyberneticzoo.com |page=135 |language=en-US}}</ref> Freeman's robot was programmed to teach students in The Bronx, New York.<ref name="cyberneticzoo.com" />
Meanwhile, recognizing human speech in real time is a difficult task for a computer, mostly because of speech's great variability.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Norberto Pires |first1=J. |date=December 2005 |title=Robot-by-voice: experiments on commanding an industrial robot using the human voice |journal=Industrial Robot |volume=32 |issue=6 |pages=505–511 |doi=10.1108/01439910510629244}}</ref> The sound of a word can vary greatly depending on accent, acoustics, volume, the previous word spoken, and the speaker's health.<ref>{{cite web |title=Survey of the State of the Art in Human Language Technology: 1.2: Speech Recognition |url=http://cslu.cse.ogi.edu/HLTsurvey/ch1node4.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071111023818/http://cslu.cse.ogi.edu/HLTsurvey/ch1node4.html |archive-date=11 November 2007}}</ref> Strides have been made in the field since the first "voice input system" was designed in 1952.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fournier |first1=Randolph Scott |last2=Schmidt |first2=B. June |year=1995 |title=Voice input technology: Learning style and attitude toward its use |journal=Delta Pi Epsilon Journal |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=1–12 |id={{ProQuest|1297783046}}}}</ref> By the end of the 20th century, the best systems could recognize continuous, natural speech up to 160 words per minute with 95% accuracy.<ref>{{cite web |title=History of Speech & Voice Recognition and Transcription Software |url=http://www.dragon-medical-transcription.com/history_speech_recognition.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150813223326/http://dragon-medical-transcription.com/history_speech_recognition.html |archive-date=13 August 2015 |access-date=27 October 2007 |publisher=Dragon Naturally Speaking}}</ref> AI-assisted machines can use voice to identify emotions.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cheng Lin |first1=Kuan |last2=Huang |first2=Tien-Chi |last3=Hung |first3=Jason C. |last4=Yen |first4=Neil Y. |last5=Ju Chen |first5=Szu |date=7 June 2013 |title=Facial emotion recognition towards affective computing-based learning |journal=Library Hi Tech |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=294–307 |doi=10.1108/07378831311329068}}</ref> Social robots will likely need to be able to recognize gestures (and perhaps perform them) to assist verbal communication.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Waldherr |first1=Stefan |last2=Romero |first2=Roseli |last3=Thrun |first3=Sebastian |date=1 September 2000 |title=A Gesture Based Interface for Human-Robot Interaction |journal=Autonomous Robots |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=151–173 |doi=10.1023/A:1008918401478 |s2cid=1980239}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Ling Hua |last2=Du |first2=Ji Fang |date=December 2012 |title=Visual Based Hand Gesture Recognition Systems |journal=Applied Mechanics and Materials |volume=263-266 |pages=2422–2425 |bibcode=2012AMM...263.2422L |doi=10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMM.263-266.2422 |s2cid=62744240}}</ref> The processing and simulation of emotions by AI is known as ''affective computing''.[[File:Kismet-IMG 6007-gradient.jpg|thumb|Kismet can produce a range of facial expressions.]]
A robot should be able to interact with a human appropriately based upon their facial expressions and body language. Expressive synthetic faces have been constructed by Hanson Robotics using an elastic polymer (rubber) skin mesh animated by subsurface motors (servos), which are in turn embedded on a metal skull.<ref>{{cite web |title=Frubber facial expressions |url=http://www.hansonrobotics.com/innovations.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090207121306/http://hansonrobotics.com/innovations.html |archive-date=7 February 2009}}</ref> Robots like Kismet can produce a range of facial expressions, enabling engagement in meaningful social exchanges.<ref>{{cite web |title=Kismet: Robot at MIT's AI Lab Interacts With Humans |url=http://www.samogden.com/Kismet.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012035539/http://samogden.com/Kismet.html |archive-date=12 October 2007 |access-date=28 October 2007 |publisher=Sam Ogden}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |date=29 October 2008 |title=Best Inventions of 2008 – TIME |url=http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,1852747_1854195_1854135,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081102044536/http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,1852747_1854195_1854135,00.html |archive-date=November 2, 2008 |magazine=Time |via=www.time.com}}</ref> The interactive {{ill|Robin the Robot|hy|Ռոբին ռոբոտ}} similarly uses AI-based analysis and displays emotions to try to overcome exhibitions of stress and anxiety.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Armenian Robin the Robot to comfort kids at U.S. clinics starting July |url=https://en.armradio.am/2020/06/17/armenian-robin-the-robot-to-comfort-kids-at-u-s-clinics-starting-july/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210513041702/https://en.armradio.am/2020/06/17/armenian-robin-the-robot-to-comfort-kids-at-u-s-clinics-starting-july/ |archive-date=2021-05-13 |access-date=2021-05-13 |website=Public Radio of Armenia |language=en-US}}</ref>
== Applications == Current and potential applications of robots include: * Agriculture,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://age-web.age.uiuc.edu/faculty/teg/Research/BiosystemsAutomation/AgRobots/AgRobots.asp |title=Agricultural Robotics |last=Grift |first=Tony E. |year=2004 |publisher=University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign|archive-url= http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20070504061730/http://age-web.age.uiuc.edu/faculty/teg/Research/BiosystemsAutomation/AgRobots/AgRobots.asp |archive-date=4 May 2007 |access-date=3 December 2018 }}</ref> closely linked to the concept of AI-assisted precision agriculture and drone usage<ref>{{cite web |last=Thomas |first=Jim |date=1 November 2017 |title=How corporate giants are automating the farm |url=https://newint.org/features/2017/11/01/agriculture-robots |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210110074952/https://newint.org/features/2017/11/01/agriculture-robots |archive-date=10 January 2021 |access-date=3 December 2018 |publisher=New Internationalist}}</ref> * AI art creation<ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.cnn.com/2026/03/15/world/video/transformers-ai-robot-painter-hong-kong-digvid-hnk |title=This AI-powered robot is reimagining traditional ink paintings {{!}} CNN |date=2026-03-16 |last=Samra |first=Alkira Reinfrank, Zulfaqar |language=en |access-date=2026-03-16 |via=CNN}}</ref> * Construction, utilizing humanoid robots, robotic arms, or robotic exoskeletons<ref>{{cite web |last=Pollock |first=Emily |date=7 June 2018 |title=Construction Robotics Industry Set to Double by 2023 |url=https://www.engineering.com/BIM/ArticleID/17059/Construction-Robotics-Industry-Set-to-Double-by-2023.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807040533/https://www.engineering.com/BIM/ArticleID/17059/Construction-Robotics-Industry-Set-to-Double-by-2023.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2020 |access-date=3 December 2018 |website=engineering.com}}</ref> * Domestic work such as lawn mowing, vacuum cleaning, and (via humanoid robots) baking and dishwasher operation<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rodriguez |first=Jodhaira |date=2026-01-01 |title=Best Robotic Lawn Mowers, Tested by Our Experts |url=https://www.consumerreports.org/home-garden/lawn-mowers/best-robotic-lawn-mowers-a2310984432/ |access-date=2026-04-28 |website=Consumer Reports |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Corner |first=Stuart |date=23 November 2017 |title=AI-driven robot makes 'perfect' flatbread |url=https://www.iothub.com.au/news/ai-driven-robot-makes-perfect-flatbread-478288 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201124054851/https://www.iothub.com.au/news/ai-driven-robot-makes-perfect-flatbread-478288 |archive-date=24 November 2020 |access-date=3 December 2018 |website=iothub.com.au}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Eyre |first=Michael |date=12 September 2014 |title='Boris' the robot can load up dishwasher |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-29168675 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201221152453/https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-29168675 |archive-date=21 December 2020 |access-date=3 December 2018 |work=BBC News}}</ref> * Education about programming, often as early as middle school<ref name="ACM-SE12">{{cite conference |title=Hands-on Learning of Programming Concepts Using Robotics for Middle and High School Students |first1=Ashraf |last1=Saad |first2=Ryan |last2=Kroutil |conference=Proceedings of the 50th Annual Southeast Regional Conference of the Association for Computing Machinery |publisher=ACM |pages=361–362 |doi=10.1145/2184512.2184605 |date=2012}}</ref> * Electric resistance welding * Energy applications including cleanup of nuclear contaminated areas{{efn|One database, developed by the United States Department of Energy, contains information on almost 500 existing robotic technologies.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dndkm.org/Technology/AdvanceSearch.aspx?Query=Robotics |title=Technology Advanced Search |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806175132/https://www.dndkm.org/Technology/AdvanceSearch.aspx?Query=Robotics |archive-date=2020-08-06 |url-status=live |work=D&D Knowledge Management Information Tool}}</ref>}} and cleaning solar panel arrays * {{anchor|Cooking}}Food processing, including commercial production of burgers, pizza, salads, frozen yogurts, coffee, and cocktails.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kolodny |first=Lora |date=4 July 2017 |title=Robots are coming to a burger joint near you |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2017/07/04/miso-robotics-is-bringing-artificial-intelligence-to-restaurants.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201205175018/https://www.cnbc.com/2017/07/04/miso-robotics-is-bringing-artificial-intelligence-to-restaurants.html |archive-date=5 December 2020 |access-date=3 December 2018 |publisher=CNBC}}</ref> Spyce Kitchen ran two robotic food-bowl restaurants in Massachusetts (2018–2022).<ref>{{cite news |author=Kirsner |first=Scott |date=January 27, 2023 |title=Robots in the kitchen? Local engineers are making it a reality. |url=https://www.bostonglobe.com/2023/01/27/business/local-engineers-are-working-bring-robot-chefs-life/ |newspaper=The Boston Globe}}</ref> * Industrial robots for manufacturing and assembly: Robots have been increasingly used in manufacturing since the 1960s. According to the Robotic Industries Association US data, in 2016 the automotive industry was the main customer of industrial robots with 52% of total sales.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.robotics.org/content-detail.cfm/Industrial-Robotics-News/Robot-density-rises-globally/content_id/7002 |title=Robot density rises globally|date=8 February 2018|publisher=Robotic Industries Association|access-date=3 December 2018 |archive-date=23 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201123163903/https://www.robotics.org/content-detail.cfm/Industrial-Robotics-News/Robot-density-rises-globally/content_id/7002|url-status=live}}</ref> They can perform over half of the labor in the auto industry, including heavy duty such as car assembly.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hunt |first=V. Daniel |title=Smart Robots: A Handbook of Intelligent Robotic Systems |publisher=Chapman and Hall |year=1985 |isbn=978-1-4613-2533-8 |page=141 |chapter=Smart Robots |access-date=2018-12-04 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kpXbBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA141 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230315185447/https://books.google.com/books?id=kpXbBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA141 |archive-date=2023-03-15 |url-status=live}}</ref> By 2003, an IBM keyboard manufacturing factory in Texas was fully automated as a "lights out" factory.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Pinto |first=Jim |date=1 October 2003 |title=Fully automated factories approach reality |url=http://www.automationworld.com/news-220 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111001230609/http://www.automationworld.com/news-220 |archive-date=1 October 2011 |access-date=3 December 2018 |work=Automation World}}</ref> * Inventory management including palletizing, operating pallet jacks and forklifts, opening and breaking down boxes, and stocking shelves<ref>{{Cite web |last=Parkhurst |first=Rich |date=December 12, 2025 |title=Robotic Palletizing Stacks Up to Productivity and Profitability |url=https://www.qualitymag.com/articles/99289-robotic-palletizing-stacks-up-to-productivity-and-profitability |access-date=2026-02-10 |website=Quality Magazine |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Roos |first=Gina |date=2025-12-18 |title=FMCW LiDAR Makes the Leap From Lab to Warehouse |url=https://www.embedded.com/fmcw-lidar-makes-the-leap-from-lab-to-warehouse/ |access-date=2026-04-28 |website=Embedded |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Robot for opening and emptying boxes |url=https://rd.technology/en/realisations/robot-for-opening-and-emptying-boxes/ |access-date=2026-02-10 |work=R&D Technology |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=van de Loo |first=Joost |date=23 September 2022 |title=Shelf-stocking robots with independent movement |url=https://robohub.org/shelf-stocking-robots-with-independent-movement/ |access-date=2026-02-10 |website=Robohub}}</ref> * Medical robots and robot-assisted surgery designed and used in clinics<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Arámbula Cosío |first1=F. |last2=Hibberd |first2=R. D. |last3=Davies |first3=B. L. |date=July 1997 |title=Electromagnetic compatibility aspects of active robotic systems for surgery: the robotic prostatectomy experience |journal=Medical and Biological Engineering and Computing |language=en |volume=35 |issue=4 |pages=436–440 |doi=10.1007/BF02534105 |issn=1741-0444 |pmid=9327627 |s2cid=21479700}}</ref> * Military robots * Mining * Robot sports, including combat and racing (including drone racing) * Space exploration, including Mars rovers * Transportation, including airplane autopilot and self-driving cars
==Employment concerns==
thumb|upright|A robot technician builds small all-terrain robots (courtesy: MobileRobots, Inc.).
The incorporation of robots into industries has increased efficiency and productivity. It is typically seen as a long-term investment for benefactors and perhaps even an essential component of manufacturing. However, it has the potential of replacing most of the work performed by humans, with a 2017 study finding that automation alone puts 47% of US jobs at eventual risk.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Frey |first1=Carl Benedikt |last2=Osborne |first2=Michael A. |title=The future of employment: How susceptible are jobs to computerisation? |journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change |date=January 2017 |volume=114 |pages=254–280 |doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2016.08.019 |citeseerx=10.1.1.395.416}}</ref> Robotics is thus often used as an argument for basic income to replace lost wages. Theoretical physicist Stephen Hawking observed in 2016:<ref>{{Cite web|last=Hawking|first=Stephen|date=1 January 2016 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2016/dec/01/stephen-hawking-dangerous-time-planet-inequality |title=This is the most dangerous time for our planet|website=The Guardian|access-date=22 November 2019 |archive-date=31 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210131191001/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2016/dec/01/stephen-hawking-dangerous-time-planet-inequality|url-status=live}}</ref><blockquote>The automation of factories has already decimated jobs in traditional manufacturing, and the rise of artificial intelligence is likely to extend this job destruction deep into the middle classes, with only the most caring, creative or supervisory roles remaining.</blockquote>As of 2022, China had the greatest number of industrial robots in operation with 1.5 million units and was increasing that figure by more than 20% annually.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Müller |first=Christopher |url=http://archive.org/details/executive-summary-wr-industrial-robots-2023 |title=World Robotics 2023 – Industrial Robots |publisher=IFR Statistical Department, VDMA Services GmbH |year=2023 |location=Frankfurt, Germany}}</ref>
=== Safety and health === {{main|Workplace robotics safety}}
{{See also|Soft robotics}} [[File:Japan-Mobility-Show-2023-RuinDig_586.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|Yamaha Motor's industrial cobot (collaborative robot)]]
The spread of robotics presents both opportunities and challenges for occupational safety and health (OSH).<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://osha.europa.eu/en/tools-and-publications/seminars/focal-points-seminar-review-articles-future-work|title=Focal Points Seminar on review articles in the future of work – Safety and health at work|website=European Agency for Safety and Health at Work|access-date=19 April 2016|archive-date=25 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200125180518/https://osha.europa.eu/en/tools-and-publications/seminars/focal-points-seminar-review-articles-future-work|url-status=live}}</ref> Despite lost wages, the substitution of people working in unhealthy or dangerous environments is an OSH benefit. This not only includes high-risk jobs in space, security, and energy, but also dirty or unsafe work in logistics, maintenance, and inspection that requires exposure to physical and/or psychosocial risks, including those stemming from repetitive or monotonous tasks better suited to machines. Robots are likely to gradually replace such jobs in other sectors like agriculture, cleaning, construction, firefighting, healthcare, and transportation.<ref>{{cite news|title=Robotics: Redefining crime prevention, public safety and security |url=http://www.sourcesecurity.com/news/articles/robotics-redefining-crime-prevention-public-safety-security-co-12903-ga-co-14203-ga.21083.html|publisher=SourceSecurity.com |access-date=2016-09-16|archive-date=2017-10-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171009194145/https://www.sourcesecurity.com/news/articles/robotics-redefining-crime-prevention-public-safety-security-co-12903-ga-co-14203-ga.21083.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
On the other hand, humans are better suited than machines for light-duty jobs involving various levels of creativity, decision-making, and flexibility. Humans and robots increasingly work in parallel within their areas of expertise. The need to work safely in a close space has resulted in ''cobots'' (collaborative robots).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://peshkin.mech.northwestern.edu/publications/2002_T15.1_DraftStandardForTrialUse_IntelligentAssistDevicesPersonnelSafetyRequirements.pdf|title=Draft Standard for Intelligent Assist Devices — Personnel Safety Requirements |access-date=2016-06-01 |archive-date=2020-11-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201125161954/http://peshkin.mech.northwestern.edu/publications/2002_T15.1_DraftStandardForTrialUse_IntelligentAssistDevicesPersonnelSafetyRequirements.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iso.org/iso/catalogue_detail?csnumber=62996|title=ISO/TS 15066:2016 – Robots and robotic devices – Collaborative robots|date=8 March 2016 |access-date=2016-06-01|archive-date=2016-10-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161010194912/http://www.iso.org/iso/catalogue_detail?csnumber=62996|url-status=live}}</ref> Some European countries are including robotics in their national programs, promoting healthy cooperation between robots and operators to increase productivity.<ref>For instance, Germany's Federal Institute for Occupational Safety and Health</ref>
=== Careers === Robotics is an interdisciplinary field, primarily combining mechanical engineering and computer science but also drawing on electronic engineering and other subjects. Undergraduate degrees are usually obtained in one of these subjects prior to the pursuance of a graduate degree in robotics. Robotics engineers design and maintain robots, develop new applications, and conduct research.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.princetonreview.com/careers.aspx?cid=139 |access-date=27 January 2012 |title=Career: Robotics Engineer |year=2012 |work=Princeton Review |archive-date=21 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150121132935/http://www.princetonreview.com/careers.aspx?cid=139 |url-status=live}}</ref> As of 2011, the number of robotics-related jobs was steadily rising as factories increasingly utilized robots.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://tommytoy.typepad.com/tommy-toy-pbt-consultin/2011/06/outlook-for-robotics-and-automation-for-2011-and-beyond-are-excellent-says-expert-.html |title=Outlook for robotics and Automation for 2011 and beyond are excellent says expert |access-date=27 January 2012 |last=Toy |first=Tommy |date=29 June 2011 |publisher=PBT Consulting |archive-date=27 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120127063128/http://tommytoy.typepad.com/tommy-toy-pbt-consultin/2011/06/outlook-for-robotics-and-automation-for-2011-and-beyond-are-excellent-says-expert-.html |url-status=live}}</ref> According to a September 2021 GlobalData report, the robotics industry was worth USD $45 billion in 2020, and by 2030 it will have grown at a compound annual growth rate of 29% to $568 bn, driving jobs in robotics and related industries.<ref name="Robotics – Thematic Research">{{cite web |title=Robotics – Thematic Research |url=https://store.globaldata.com/report/gdtmt-tr-s334--robotics-thematic-research-2/ |website=GlobalData |access-date=22 September 2021 |archive-date=28 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210928191955/https://store.globaldata.com/report/gdtmt-tr-s334--robotics-thematic-research-2/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
== Research == {{Further|Areas of robotics}}
Much of the research in robotics focuses not on specific industrial tasks, but on investigations into new types of robots, alternative ways to think about or design robots, and new ways to manufacture them. In 1997, Professor Hans Moravec, principal research scientist at the Carnegie's Robotics Institute, predicted that robot intelligence would reach the capacity of a lizard by 2010, a mouse by 2020, then a monkey and finally a human by around 2045.<ref>NOVA conversation with Professor Moravec, October 1997. ''[https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/robots/moravec.html NOVA Online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170802140812/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/robots/moravec.html|date=2017-08-02}}''</ref>{{externalvideo|video1=[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5FHtcR78GA0 How the BB-8 Sphero Toy Works]}}
The study of motion can be divided into kinematics and dynamics.<ref>{{cite book |last=Agarwal |first=P. K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SEVnsSy0yF8C&pg=SA2-PA3 |title=Elements of Physics XI |publisher=Rastogi Publications |isbn=978-81-7133-911-2 |page=2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131009084042/https://books.google.com/books?id=SEVnsSy0yF8C&pg=SA2-PA3 |archive-date=2013-10-09 |access-date=2015-10-18 |url-status=live }}</ref> Direct or forward kinematics refers to the manual control of joints to manipulate end effectors, while in inverse kinematics, end-effector states are predetermined and the joint values automated. Kinematics encompasses calculation efficiency, collision avoidance, and stalling prevention. Meanwhile, dynamics are used to study the effect of forces upon given kinematic motions. Direct dynamics refers to the calculation of accelerations once the applied forces are known, used in computer simulations. ''Inverse dynamics'' refers to the calculation of the actuator forces that result in certain end-effector accelerations.
Open-source robotics research seeks standards for defining, and methods for designing and building, robots so that they can easily be reproduced by anyone. Research includes legal and technical definitions; seeking out alternative tools and materials to reduce costs and simplify builds; and creating interfaces and standards for designs to work together. Human usability research also investigates how to best document builds through visual, text or video instructions.
''Evolutionary robotics'' is a methodology that uses evolutionary computation to help design robots, especially the body form, or motion and behavior controllers. In a similar way to natural evolution, a large population of robots is allowed to compete in some way, or their ability to perform a task is measured using a fitness function. Those that perform worst are removed from the population and replaced by a new set with behaviors based on those of the winners. Over time the population improves and eventually a satisfactory robot may appear without direct human intervention. Researchers use this method both to create better robots<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Sandhana |first=Lakshmi |date=5 September 2002 |title=A Theory of Evolution, for Robots |url=https://www.wired.com/science/discoveries/news/2002/09/54900 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140329024116/http://www.wired.com/science/discoveries/news/2002/09/54900 |archive-date=29 March 2014 |access-date=28 October 2007 |magazine=Wired}}</ref> and to explore the nature of evolution.<ref>{{Cite news |date=24 February 2007 |title=Experimental Evolution In Robots Probes The Emergence Of Biological Communication |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/02/070222155713.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181116074704/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/02/070222155713.htm |archive-date=16 November 2018 |access-date=28 October 2007 |work=Science Daily}}</ref> Because the process often requires many generations of robots to be simulated,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Žlajpah |first=Leon |date=15 December 2008 |title=Simulation in robotics |journal=Mathematics and Computers in Simulation |volume=79 |issue=4 |pages=879–897 |doi=10.1016/j.matcom.2008.02.017}}</ref> this technique may be run entirely or mostly in simulation before testing the evolved algorithms on real robots.<ref>{{cite web |title=Evolution trains robot teams TRN 051904 |url=http://www.trnmag.com/Stories/2004/051904/Evolution_trains_robot_teams_051904.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160623012812/http://trnmag.com/Stories/2004/051904/Evolution_trains_robot_teams_051904.html |archive-date=2016-06-23 |access-date=2009-01-22 |website=Technology Research News}}</ref>
Bionics and biomimetics apply the physiology and methods of locomotion of animals to the design of robots. For example, the design of BionicKangaroo was based on the way kangaroos jump.
Swarm robotics is an approach to the coordination of multiple robots as a system which consist of large numbers of mostly simple physical robots. According to one source, "In a robot swarm, the collective behavior of the robots results from local interactions between the robots and between the robots and the environment in which they act."<ref name="Search and foraging" />{{Attribution needed|date=February 2026}}
Quantum robotics is the study of running robotic programs on quantum computers, which will likely outperform digital computers.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tandon |first=Prateek |title=Quantum Robotics |publisher=Morgan & Claypool Publishers |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-62705-913-8}}</ref>
Additional general areas of study include cobots,<ref>{{cite web |last=Dragani |first=Rachelle |date=8 November 2018 |title=Can a robot make you a 'superworker'? |url=https://www.verizon.com/about/our-company/fourth-industrial-revolution/can-robot-make-you-superworker |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806200244/https://www.verizon.com/about/our-company/fourth-industrial-revolution/can-robot-make-you-superworker |archive-date=6 August 2020 |access-date=3 December 2018 |publisher=Verizon Communications}}</ref> drones, and nanorobots. Two major academic conferences for robotics research are the International Conference on Robotics and Automation and International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems.
== See also ==<!-- Please add related topics to Outline of robotics and Index of robotics--> {{div col|colwidth=18em}} * Cloud robotics * Cognitive robotics * Ethics of artificial intelligence * Fog robotics * Glossary of robotics * Index of robotics articles * List of robotics journals * List of robotics software * Mechatronics * Multi-agent system * Outline of robotics * Roboethics * Robotic art * Robotic governance * Self-reconfiguring modular robot * Telerobotics {{div col end}}
== Notes == {{notelist}}
== References == {{Reflist}}
==Further reading== * {{Cite book |year=1990 |author=R. Andrew Russell |title=Robot Tactile Sensing |place=New York |publisher=Prentice Hall |isbn=978-0-13-781592-0 }} * {{cite journal |last1=McGaughey |first1=Ewan |title=Will robots automate your job away? Full employment, basic income, and economic democracy |date=16 October 2019 |doi=10.31228/osf.io/udbj8 |ssrn=3044448 |s2cid=243172487 |journal=LawArXiv Papers|url=https://osf.io/udbj8/ }} * {{cite journal |last1=Autor |first1=David H. |title=Why Are There Still So Many Jobs? The History and Future of Workplace Automation |journal=Journal of Economic Perspectives |date=1 August 2015 |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=3–30 |doi=10.1257/jep.29.3.3 |doi-access=free|hdl=1721.1/109476 |hdl-access=free }} * {{cite magazine |last1=Tooze |first1=Adam |author-link1=Adam Tooze |title=Democracy and Its Discontents |magazine=The New York Review of Books |volume=66 |issue=10 |date=6 June 2019 |url=https://www.nybooks.com/articles/2019/06/06/democracy-and-its-discontents/ }}
==External links== {{Sister project links|wikt=robotics|b=Robotics|n=no|q=no|s=no|v=Robotics|species=no}} * [http://www.ieee-ras.org/ IEEE Robotics and Automation Society] * [http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1002/(ISSN)1556-4967 Journal of Field Robotics]
{{Robotics|state=uncollapsed}} {{Engineering fields}} {{emerging technologies|topics=yes|robotics=yes|manufacture=yes|materials=yes}} {{Glossaries of science and engineering}}
{{Authority control}}
Category:Robotics