Resource depletion

{{short description|Depletion of natural organic and inorganic resources}}

{{other uses|Depletion (disambiguation){{!}}Depletion}}

[[file:tar sands in alberta 2008.jpg|thumb|335x335px|Tar sands in Alberta, 2008. Oil is one of the most used resources by humans.]]

'''Resource depletion''' occurs when a natural resource is consumed faster than it can be replenished. The value of a resource depends on its availability in nature and the cost of extracting it. By the law of supply and demand, the scarcer the resource the more valuable it becomes.<ref>{{cite journal | bibcode = 2014PSEP...92..849R | date = 2014-11-01 | doi = 10.1016/j.psep.2013.06.001 | first1 = Shaun | first2 = Andrew F. A. | first3 = David J. | issn = 0957-5820 | issue = 6 | journal = Process Safety and Environmental Protection | last1 = Rimos | last2 = Hoadley | last3 = Brennan | pages = 849–861 | title = Environmental consequence analysis for resource depletion | volume = 92 }}</ref> There are several types of resource depletion, including but not limited to: wetland and ecosystem degradation, soil erosion, aquifer depletion, and overfishing.<ref>{{cite journal | article-number = 103531 | bibcode = 2023RePol..8303531X | date = 2023-06-01 | doi = 10.1016/j.resourpol.2023.103531 | first1 = Yi | first2 = Fang | issn = 0301-4207 | journal = Resources Policy | last1 = Xu | last2 = Zhao | pmc = 10132086 | pmid = 37128260 | title = Impact of energy depletion, human development, and income distribution on natural resource sustainability | volume = 83 }}</ref> The depletion of wildlife populations is called ''defaunation''.<ref name="def ant">{{cite journal | access-date = 2018-06-01 | archive-date = 2017-05-11 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170511160501/uv.mx/personal/tcarmona/files/2010/08/Science-2014-Dirzo-401-6-2.pdf | author2 = Hillary S. Young | author3 = Mauro Galetti | author4 = Gerardo Ceballos | author5 = Nick J. B. Isaac | author6 = Ben Collen | bibcode = 2014Sci...345..401D | date = 2014 | doi = 10.1126/science.1251817 | first = Rodolfo | issue = 6195 | journal = Science | last = Dirzo | pages = 401–406 | pmid = 25061202 | s2cid = 206555761 | title = Defaunation in the Anthropocene | url = https://uv.mx/personal/tcarmona/files/2010/08/Science-2014-Dirzo-401-6-2.pdf | url-status = live | volume = 345 }}</ref>

It is a matter of research and debate how humanity will be impacted and what the future will look like if resource consumption continues at the current rate, and when specific resources will be completely exhausted.

== History of resource depletion ==

The depletion of resources has been an issue since the beginning of the 19th century amidst the First Industrial Revolution. The extraction of both renewable and non-renewable resources increased drastically, much further than thought possible pre-industrialization, due to the technological advancements and economic development that lead to an increased demand for natural resources.<ref name=":52">{{cite journal | date = 2004 | first = Heike K. | issn = 0171-8630 | journal = Marine Ecology Progress Series | jstor = 24867655 | last = Lotze | pages = 282–285 | title = Repetitive history of resource depletion and mismanagement: the need for a shift in perspective | volume = 274 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | access-date = 2024-03-22 | archive-date = 2024-03-23 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20240323022335/theconversation.com/earth-day-colonialisms-role-in-the-overexploitation-of-natural-resources-113995 | date = 2019-04-18 | first = Joseph | language = en-US | last = McQuade | title = Earth Day: Colonialism's role in the overexploitation of natural resources | url = http://theconversation.com/earth-day-colonialisms-role-in-the-overexploitation-of-natural-resources-113995 | url-status = live | website = The Conversation }}</ref>

Although resource depletion has roots in both colonialism and the Industrial Revolution, it has only been of major concern since the 1970s.<ref>{{cite thesis|last=Wood|first=Lawrence|date=2015|title=The Environmental Impacts of Colonialism|publisher=BSU Honors Program Theses and Projects|issue=119|url=http://vc.bridgew.edu/honors_proj/119}}</ref>{{better source needed|reason=The current source is insufficiently reliable (WP:NOTRS).|date=April 2024}} Before this, many people believed in the "myth of inexhaustibility", which also has roots in colonialism.{{cn|date=April 2024}} This can be explained as the belief that both renewable and non-renewable natural resources cannot be exhausted because there is seemingly an overabundance of these resources. This belief has caused people to not question resource depletion and ecosystem collapse when it occurred, and continues to prompt society to simply find these resources in areas which have not yet been depleted.<ref name=":52" /><ref>{{cite journal | date = 2010-07-01 | doi = 10.1057/jphp.2010.12 | first = Angela | issn = 1745-655X | issue = 2 | journal = Journal of Public Health Policy | language = en | last = Mawle | pages = 272–277 | pmid = 20535108 | title = Climate change, human health, and unsustainable development | volume = 31 }}</ref>

== Depletion accounting ==

In an effort to offset the depletion of resources, theorists have come up with the concept of depletion accounting. Related to green accounting, depletion accounting aims to account for nature's value on an equal footing with the market economy.<ref name=":9">{{cite journal | bibcode = 2007EcoEc..61..716B | date = 15 March 2007 | doi = 10.1016/j.ecolecon.2006.06.016 | first = James | issue = 4 | journal = Ecological Economics | last = Boyd | pages = 716–723 | title = Nonmarket benefits of nature: What should be counted in green GDP? | volume = 61 }}</ref> Resource depletion accounting uses data provided by countries to estimate the adjustments needed due to their use and depletion of the natural capital available to them.<ref name=":5">{{cite journal | bibcode = 2000EDevE...5...13V | date = February 2000 | doi = 10.1017/S1355770X00000024 | first = Jeffrey | issue = 1 | journal = Environment and Development Economics | last = Vincent | pages = 13–24 | s2cid = 155001289 | title = Green accounting: from theory to practice | volume = 5 }}</ref> Natural capital refers to natural resources such as mineral deposits or timber stocks. Depletion accounting factors in several different influences such as the number of years until resource exhaustion, the cost of resource extraction, and the demand for the resource.<ref name=":5" /> Resource extraction industries make up a large part of the economic activity in developing countries. This, in turn, leads to higher levels of resource depletion and environmental degradation in developing countries.<ref name=":5" /> Theorists argue that the implementation of resource depletion accounting is necessary in developing countries. Depletion accounting also seeks to measure the social value of natural resources and ecosystems.<ref name=":10">{{cite journal | access-date = 2020-08-29 | archive-date = 2017-09-23 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170923011436/ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/10586/files/dp060002.pdf | bibcode = 2007EcoEc..63..616B | date = August 2007 | doi = 10.1016/j.ecolecon.2007.01.002 | first1 = Spencer | first2 = James | issue = 2–3 | journal = Ecological Economics | last1 = Banzhafa | last2 = Boyd | pages = 616–626 | title = What are ecosystem services? The need for standardized environmental accounting units | url = http://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/10586/files/dp060002.pdf | url-status = live | volume = 63 }}</ref> Measurement of social value is sought through ecosystem services, which are defined as the benefits of nature to households, communities and economies.<ref name=":10" />

=== Importance ===

There are many different groups interested in depletion accounting. Environmentalists are interested in depletion accounting as a way to track the use of natural resources over time, hold governments accountable, or compare their environmental conditions to those of another country.<ref name=":9" /> Economists want to measure resource depletion to understand how financially reliant countries or corporations are on non-renewable resources, whether this use can be sustained and the financial drawbacks of switching to renewable resources in light of the depleting resources.<ref name=":9" />

=== Issues ===

Depletion accounting is complex to implement as nature is not as quantifiable as cars, houses, or bread.<ref name=":9" /> For depletion accounting to work, appropriate units of natural resources must be established so that natural resources can be viable in the market economy. The main issues that arise when trying to do so are, determining a suitable unit of account, deciding how to deal with the "collective" nature of a complete ecosystem, delineating the borderline of the ecosystem, and defining the extent of possible duplication when the resource interacts in more than one ecosystem.<ref name=":9" /> Some economists want to include measurement of the benefits arising from public goods provided by nature, but currently there are no market indicators of value.<ref name=":9" /> Globally, environmental economics has not been able to provide a consensus of measurement units of nature's services.

== Minerals depletion == {{See also|Critical raw materials}}{{more citations needed|section|date=November 2015}} Minerals are needed to provide food, clothing, and housing. A United States Geological Survey (USGS) study found a significant long-term trend over the 20th century for non-renewable resources such as minerals to supply a greater proportion of the raw material inputs to the non-fuel, non-food sector of the economy; an example is the greater consumption of crushed stone, sand, and gravel used in construction.<ref>''Materials Flow and Sustainability'', US Geological Survey.Fact Sheet FS-068-98, June 1998.</ref>

Large-scale exploitation of minerals began in the Industrial Revolution around 1760 in England and has grown rapidly ever since. Technological improvements have allowed humans to dig deeper and access lower grades and different types of ore over that time.<ref>{{cite journal | date = 2011 | doi = 10.1111/j.1530-9290.2011.00334.x | first1 = J | issue = 2 | journal = J Ind Ecol | last1 = West | pages = 165–168 | s2cid = 153886675 | title = Decreasing metal ore grades: are they really being driven by the depletion of high-grade deposits? | volume = 15 }}</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite journal | bibcode = 2016IJLCA..21...85D | date = 2016 | doi = 10.1007/s11367-015-0991-7 | doi-access = free | first1 = Johannes A | first2 = Andrea J | first3 = Thomas | first4 = Tom | first5 = Pär | first6 = Mark | first7 = Laia | issue = 1 | journal = Int J Life Cycle Assess | last1 = Drielsma | last2 = Russell-Vaccari | last3 = Drnek | last4 = Brady | last5 = Weihed | last6 = Mistry | last7 = Perez Simbor | pages = 85–105 | title = Mineral resources in life cycle impact assessment—defining the path forward | volume = 21 }}</ref><ref name=":1">{{cite journal | bibcode = 2016Resou...5...14M | date = 2016 | doi = 10.3390/resources5010014 | doi-access = free | first1 = Lawrence D | first2 = Gilpin R Jr | first3 = Nedal T | issue = 14 | journal = Resources | last1 = Meinert | last2 = Robinson | last3 = Nassar | page = 14 | title = Mineral Resources: Reserves, Peak Production and the Future | volume = 5 }}</ref> Virtually all basic industrial metals (copper, iron, bauxite, etc.), as well as rare earth minerals, face production output limitations from time to time,<ref>{{cite book | first = M. T. | isbn = 978-1-250-02397-1 | last = Klare | publisher = Metropolitan Books | title = The Race for What's Left | url = https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780805091267 | url-access = registration | year = 2012 }}</ref> because supply involves large up-front investments and is therefore slow to respond to rapid increases in demand.<ref name=":0" />

Minerals projected by some to enter production decline during the next 20 years:

* Oil, conventional (2005) * Oil, all liquids (2017). Old expectation: Gasoline (2023)<ref>{{cite book | date = 2010 | last1 = Valero | last2 = Valero | title = Physical geonomics: Combining the exergy and Hubbert peak analysis for predicting mineral resources depletion | volume = 54 | page = 1074 | doi = 10.1016/j.resconrec.2010.02.010 | bibcode = 2010RCR....54.1074V }}</ref> * Copper (2017). Old expectation: Copper (2024).<ref name="sciencedirect.com">{{cite journal | bibcode = 2010RCR....54.1074V | doi = 10.1016/j.resconrec.2010.02.010 | issue = 12 | title = Physical geonomics: Combining the exergy and Hubbert peak analysis for predicting mineral resources depletion | year = 2010 | journal = Resources, Conservation and Recycling | pages = 1074–1083 | last1 = Valero | first1 = Alicia | last2 = Valero | first2 = Antonio | volume = 54 }}</ref> Data from the United States Geological Survey (USGS) suggest that it is very unlikely that copper production will peak before 2040.<ref name=":1" /> * Coal per KWh (2017). Old expectation per ton: (2060)<ref name="sciencedirect.com"/> * Zinc.<ref>{{cite web | access-date = 2014-07-21 | archive-date = 2017-08-27 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170827162745/http://www.roperld.com/science/minerals/zinc.htm | title = Zinc Depletion | url = http://roperld.com/science/minerals/zinc.htm | url-status = live }}</ref> Developments in hydrometallurgy have transformed non-sulfide zinc deposits (largely ignored until now) into large low cost reserves.<ref>{{cite journal | access-date = 2019-07-04 | archive-date = 2020-01-03 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200103103045/nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/508092/1/265.full.pdf | doi = 10.1144/SP393.13 | first1 = G. R. T. | first2 = P. A. J. | first3 = I | first4 = M. P. | first5 = A. J. | first6 = J. J. | journal = Geological Society, London, Special Publications | last1 = Jenkin | last2 = Lusty | last3 = McDonald | last4 = Smith | last5 = Boyce | last6 = Wilkinson | pages = 265–276 | s2cid = 53488911 | title = Ore Deposits in an Evolving Earth | url = http://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/508092/1/265.full.pdf | url-status = live | volume = 393 | year = 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | bibcode = 2003EcGeo..98..685H | date = 2003 | doi = 10.2113/gsecongeo.98.4.685 | first1 = M. W. | first2 = N. A. | first3 = D. F. | first4 = C. R. | first5 = C. F. | issue = 4 | journal = Economic Geology | last1 = Hitzman | last2 = Reynolds | last3 = Sangster | last4 = Allen | last5 = Carman | pages = 685–714 | title = Classification, genesis, and exploration guides for Nonsulfide Zinc deposits | volume = 98 }}</ref>

Minerals projected by some to enter production decline during the present century:

* Aluminium (2057)<ref name="sciencedirect.com"/> * Iron (2068)<ref name="sciencedirect.com"/> Such projections may change, as new discoveries are made<ref name="sciencedirect.com" /> and typically misinterpret available data on Mineral Resources and Mineral Reserves.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> * Phosphor (2048). The last 80% of world reserves are only one mine.{{Cn|date=April 2024}}

Peak minerals marks the point in time when the largest production of a mineral will occur in an area, with production declining in subsequent years.{{Citation needed|date=February 2026}} While most mineral resources will not be exhausted in the near future, global extraction and production has become more challenging.<ref>Mudd, G M, 2010, The Environmental Sustainability of Mining in Australia: Key Mega-Trends and Looming Constraints. Resources Policy, {{doi|10.1016/j.resourpol.2009.12.001}}.</ref> Miners have found ways over time to extract deeper and lower grade ores<ref>{{cite book | last =Klare | first= M. T. | title = The Race for What's Left | url =https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780805091267 | url-access =registration | publisher = Metropolitan Books | date =2012 | isbn=9781250023971 }}</ref> with lower production costs. More than anything else, declining average ore grades are indicative of ongoing technological shifts that have enabled inclusion of more 'complex' processing – in social and environmental terms ''as well as'' economic – and structural changes in the minerals exploration industry<ref name=":0a">{{cite web|last1=Schodde|first1=Richard C|title=Exploration trends, finds and issues in Australia|url=http://www.minexconsulting.com/publications/nov2015.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307123029/http://www.minexconsulting.com/publications/nov2015.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=7 March 2016|website=External Presentations and Publications|publisher=MinEx Consulting|access-date=3 March 2016}}</ref> and these have been accompanied by significant increases in identified Mineral Reserves.<ref name=":1a">{{Cite journal|last=West|first=J|year=2011|title=Decreasing metal ore grades: are they really being driven by the depletion of high-grade deposits?|journal=J Ind Ecol |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=165–68|doi=10.1111/j.1530-9290.2011.00334.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Drielsma|first1=Johannes A|last2=Russell-Vaccari|first2=Andrea J|last3=Drnek|first3=Thomas|last4=Brady|first4=Tom|last5=Weihed|first5=Pär|last6=Mistry|first6=Mark|last7=Perez Simbor|first7=Laia|title=Mineral resources in life cycle impact assessment – defining the path forward|journal=Int J Life Cycle Assess|year=2016|volume=21|issue=1 |pages=85–105|doi=10.1007/s11367-015-0991-7|doi-access=free|bibcode=2016IJLCA..21...85D }}</ref>

===Peak minerals=== The concept of peak minerals offers a useful model for representing the changing impacts associated with processing declining resource qualities in the lead up to, and following, peak mineral production in a particular region within a certain time-frame.<ref>Giurco, D., Prior, T., Mudd, G., Mason, L. and Behrisch, J. (2009). Peak minerals in Australia: a review of changing impacts and benefits. Prepared for CSIRO Minerals Down Under Flagship, by the Institute for Sustainable Futures (University of Technology, Sydney) and Department of Civil Engineering (Monash University), March 2010.</ref>{{Request quotation|date=February 2026}}

Peak minerals provides an analytical framework within which the economic, social and environmental trajectories of a particular mining industry can be explored in relation to the continuing (and often increasing) production of mineral resources. It focuses consideration on the change in costs and impacts associated with processing easily accessible, lower cost ores before peak production of an individual mine or group of mines for a given mineral. It outlines how the economy might respond as processing becomes characterised by higher costs as the peak is approached and passed. Issues associated with the concept of peak minerals include: * Average processed ore grades are in global decline for some minerals whilst production is increasing. * Average ''discovered'' ore grades (e.g., in porphyry copper deposits) have remained remarkably steady over the last 150 years.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Drielsma|author-link1=Indicators of Resource Depletion: Views of the Mining Industries|editor1-last=Mancini|editor1-first=L|editor2-last=De Camillis|editor2-first=C|editor3-last=Pennington|editor3-first=D|title=Security of supply and scarcity of raw materials. Towards a methodological framework for sustainability assessment.|year=2013|publisher=European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Publications Office of the European Union|location=Luxemburg|url=http://lct.jrc.ec.europa.eu/pdf-directory/Mancini-WorkshopReport-2013.pdf|access-date=8 March 2016}}{{Dead link|date=July 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> * Structural changes in the minerals exploration industry and the recent focus on "brownfields" exploration<ref name=":0a" /><ref name=":1a" /> * Mining is extending to deeper, more remote deposits.{{citation needed|date = November 2015}} * Individual mines or mining provinces can eventually become exhausted, though changes in demand and mining technology can act to prolong their productive lives.{{citation needed|date = November 2015}}

====Resource depletion and recoverability==== {{See also|Recycling #Energy and material flows|Mining #Metal reserves and recycling}} Giurco et al. (2009)<ref name="Giurco, D. 2009">Giurco, D., Evans, G., Cooper, C., Mason, L. & Franks, D. (2009) "Mineral Futures Discussion Paper: Sustainability Issues, Challenges and Opportunities". Institute for Sustainable Futures, UTS and Sustainable Minerals Institute, University of Queensland.</ref> indicate that the debate about how to analytically describe resource depletion is ongoing. Traditionally, a fixed stock paradigm has been applied, but Tilton and Lagos (2007)<ref>Tilton, J. & Lagos, G. (2007) "Assessing the long-run availability of copper." ''Resources Policy'', 32, 19–23</ref> suggest using an opportunity cost paradigm is better because the usable resource quantity is represented by price and the opportunity cost of using the resource. Unlike energy minerals such as coal or oil – or minerals used in a dissipative or metabolic fashion like phosphorus<ref>Cordell, D., Drangert, J.-O. & White, S. (2009) "The story of phosphorus: Global food security and food for thought". ''Global Environmental Change'', 19, 292–305.</ref> – most non-energy minerals and metals are unlikely to run out. Metals are inherently recyclable and more readily recoverable from end uses where the metal is used in a pure form and not transformed or dissipated; in addition, metal ore is accessible at a range of different grades. So, although metals are not facing exhaustion, they have become more challenging to obtain in the quantities that society demands, and the energy, environmental and social cost of acquiring them could constrain future increases in production and usage.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Meinert|first1=Lawrence D|last2=Robinson|first2=Gilpin R Jr|last3=Nassar|first3=Nedal T|title=Mineral Resources: Reserves, Peak Production and the Future|journal=Resources|year=2016|volume=5|issue=14|pages=14|doi=10.3390/resources5010014|doi-access=free |bibcode=2016Resou...5...14M }}</ref>

=== Cheap and easy in the past; costly and difficult in future === Peak production poses a problem for resource rich countries like Australia, which have developed a comparative advantage in the global resources sector, which may diminish in the future. The costs of mining, once primarily reflected in economic terms, are increasingly being considered in social and environmental terms, although these are yet to meaningfully inform long-term decision-making in the sector. Such consideration is particularly important if the industry is seeking to operate in a socially, environmentally and economically sustainable manner into the next 30–50 years.<ref name="Giurco, D. 2009"/>

==== Benefits from dependence on the resource sector ==== In 2008–09, minerals and fuel exports made up around 56% of Australia's total exports. Consequently, minerals play a major role in Australia's capacity to participate in international trade and contribute to the international strength of its currency.<ref>AusI MM (2006) Australian Mineral Economics, Carlton, The Australian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy. </ref> Whether this situation contributes to Australia's economic wealth or weakens its economic position is contested. While those supporting Australia's reliance on minerals cite the theory of comparative advantage, opponents suggest a reliance on resources leads to issues associated with 'Dutch disease' (a decline in other sectors of the economy associated with natural resource exploitation) and ultimately the hypothesised ‘resource curse’.{{Citation needed|date=February 2026}}

==== Threats from dependence on the resource sector ==== Contrary to the theory of the comparative advantage, many mineral resource-rich countries are often outperformed by resource-poor countries.<ref>Auty, R. M. & Mikesell, R. F. (1998) ''Sustainable development in mineral economies'', Oxford, Oxford University {{ISBN?}}</ref> This paradox, where natural resource abundance actually has a negative impact on the growth of the national economy is termed the resource curse. After an initial economic boost, brought on by the booming minerals economy, negative impacts linked to the boom surpass the positive, causing economic activity to fall below the pre-resource windfall level.{{Citation needed|date=February 2026}}

===== Mineral supply and demand ===== The economics of a commodity are generally determined by supply and demand. Mineral supply and demand will change dramatically as all costs (economic, technological, social and environmental) associated with production, processing and transportation of minerals increases with falling ore grades. These costs will ultimately influence the ability of companies to supply commodities, and the ability of consumers to purchase them. It is likely that social and environmental issues will increasingly drive economic costs associated with supply and demand patterns.<ref>Esteves, A. M. (2008) "Mining and social development: Refocusing community investment using multi-criteria decision analysis". Resources Policy, 33, 39–47. </ref><ref>Hamann, R. (2004) "Corporate social responsibility, partnerships, and institutional change: The case of mining companies in South Africa". Natural Resources Forum, 28, 278–90.</ref><ref name="Jenkins, H. 2006">Jenkins, H. & Yakovleva, N. (2006) [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/223730765_Corporate_Social_Responsibility_in_the_Mining_Industry_Exploring_Trends_in_Social_and_Environmental_Disclosure Corporate social responsibility in the mining industry: Exploring trends in social and environmental disclosure]. Journal of Cleaner Production, 14, 271–84.</ref>

===== Economic scarcity as a constraint to mineral supply ===== As neither overall stocks nor future markets are known, most economists normally do not consider physical scarcity as a good indicator for the availability of a resource for society.<ref>Barnett, HJ, GM Van Muiswinkel and M. Schechter, (1981). "Are Minerals Costing More?" Int. Inst Appi. Syst. Anal., Work. Pap. No. WP-81-20. П ASA, Laxenburg, Austria</ref>

===== Demand for minerals ===== While the ability to supply a commodity determines its availability as has been demonstrated, demand for minerals can also influence their availability. How minerals are used, where they are distributed and how, trade barriers, downstream use industries, substitution and recycling can potentially influence the demand for minerals, and ultimately their availability. While economists are cognisant of the role of demand as an availability driver, historically they have not considered factors besides depletion as having a long-term impact on mineral availability.<ref>Yaksic, A. & Tilton, J. E. (2009) "Using the cumulative availability curve to assess the threat of mineral depletion: The case of lithium". Resources Policy, 34(4): 185–94.</ref>

=== Future production === There are a variety of indicators that show production will become more difficult and more expensive. Key environmental indicators that reflect increasingly expensive production are primarily associated with the decline in average ore grades of many minerals.<ref>Mudd, G. M. (2007) "Gold mining in Australia: linking historical trends and environmental and resources sustainability". ''Environmental Science & Policy'', 10, 629–44.</ref> This has consequences in mineral exploration, for mine depth, the energy intensity of mining, and the increasing quantity of waste rock.{{Citation needed|date=February 2026}}

=== Social context === Different social issues must be addressed through time in relation to peak minerals at a national scale, and other issues manifest on the local scale.{{Citation needed|date=February 2026}}

As global mining companies seek to expand operations to access larger mining areas, competition with farmers for land and for scare water is likely to increase.<ref name="Jenkins, H. 2006"/><ref>Hamann, R. (2003) "Mining companies' role in sustainable development: the 'why' and 'how' of corporate social responsibility from a business perspective". ''Development Southern Africa'', 20, 237–54.</ref> Negative relationships with near neighbours influence companies' ability to establish and maintain a ''social license to operate'' within the community.<ref>Brereton, D., Moran, C. J., McIlwain, G., McIntosh, J. & Parkinson, K. (2008) "Assessing the cumulative impacts of mining on regional communities: An exploratory study of coal mining in the Muswellbrook area of New South Wales". ACARP Project C14047, Centre for Social Responsibility in Mining, Centre for Water in the Minerals Industry, and the Australian Coal Association Research Program.</ref>

Access to identified resources is likely to become harder as questions are asked about the benefit from the regional economic development mining is reputed to bring.{{Citation needed|date=February 2026}}

=== Petroleum ===

== Deforestation ==

=== Controlling deforestation ===

{{excerpt|Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation}}

== Overfishing ==

thumb|A visualization of the depletion of fish stocks through overfishing and overconsumption.

Overfishing refers to the overconsumption and/or depletion of fish populations which occurs when fish are caught at a rate that exceeds their ability to breed and replenish their population naturally.'''<ref name=":02">{{cite web | access-date = 2024-02-18 | archive-date = 2024-02-19 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20240219022635/msc.org/what-we-are-doing/oceans-at-risk/overfishing | language = en | title = What Is Overfishing | url = https://msc.org/what-we-are-doing/oceans-at-risk/overfishing | url-status = live | website = MSC International - English }}</ref>''' Regions particularly susceptible to overfishing include the Arctic, coastal east Africa, the Coral Triangle (located between the Pacific and Indian oceans), Central and Latin America, and the Caribbean.<ref name=":15">World Wildlife Fund. (n.d.). ''What is overfishing? facts, effects and overfishing solutions''. WWF. Retrieved 2024-02-18 from <nowiki>https://worldwildlife.org/threats/overfishing</nowiki></ref> The depletion of fish stocks can lead to long-term negative consequences for marine ecosystems, economies, and food security.<ref name=":15" /> The depletion of resources hinders economic growth because growing economies leads to increased demand for natural, renewable resources like fish. Thus, when resources are depleted, it initiates a cycle of reduced resource availability, increased demand and higher prices due to scarcity, and lower economic growth.<ref>{{cite book |last=Steer |first=Andrew |chapter=Resource Depletion, Climate Change, and Economic Growth |date=2014-09-04 |title=Towards a Better Global Economy |pages=381–426 |url=https://academic.oup.com/book/11948/chapter/161165975 |access-date=2024-03-22 |edition=1 |publisher=Oxford University Press |language=en |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198723455.003.0006 |isbn=978-0-19-872345-5 |archive-date=2024-04-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240422061039/academic.oup.com/book/11948/chapter-abstract/161165975?redirectedFrom=fulltext |url-status=live }}</ref> Overfishing can lead to habitat and biodiversity loss, through specifically habitat degradation, which has an immense impact on marine/aquatic ecosystems. Habitat loss refers to when a natural habitat cannot sustain/support the species that live in it, and biodiversity loss refers to when there is a decrease in the population of a species in a specific area and/or the extinction of a species. Habitat degradation is caused by the depletion of resources, in which human activities are the primary driving force.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Pons-Hernández |first=Mònica |title=Habitat Loss |date=2024-01-30 |encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Criminology and Criminal Justice |url=https://oxfordre.com/criminology/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190264079.001.0001/acrefore-9780190264079-e-764 |access-date=2024-03-22 |language=en |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190264079.013.764 |isbn=978-0-19-026407-9 |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name=":32">{{cite journal |last1=Worm |first1=Boris |last2=Barbier |first2=Edward B. |last3=Beaumont |first3=Nicola |last4=Duffy |first4=J. Emmett |last5=Folke |first5=Carl |last6=Halpern |first6=Benjamin S. |last7=Jackson |first7=Jeremy B. C. |last8=Lotze |first8=Heike K. |last9=Micheli |first9=Fiorenza |last10=Palumbi |first10=Stephen R. |last11=Sala |first11=Enric |last12=Selkoe |first12=Kimberley A. |last13=Stachowicz |first13=John J. |last14=Watson |first14=Reg |date=2006-11-03 |title=Impacts of Biodiversity Loss on Ocean Ecosystem Services |url=https://science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1132294 |journal=Science |language=en |volume=314 |issue=5800 |pages=787–790 |doi=10.1126/science.1132294 |pmid=17082450 |bibcode=2006Sci...314..787W |issn=0036-8075 |access-date=2024-03-23 |archive-date=2024-03-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240322211624/science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1132294 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> One major impact that the depletion of fish stocks causes is a dynamic change and erosion to marine food webs, which can ultimately lead to ecosystem collapse because of the imbalance created for other marine species.<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":4">{{cite book |last1=Jennings |first1=Simon |chapter=The Effects of Fishing on Marine Ecosystems |date=1998 |title=Advances in Marine Biology |pages=201–352 |publisher=Elsevier |doi=10.1016/s0065-2881(08)60212-6 |isbn=978-0-12-026134-5 |last2=Kaiser |first2=Michel J. }}</ref> Overfishing also causes instability in marine ecosystems because these ecosystems are less biodiverse and more fragile. This occurs mainly because, due to overfishing, many fish species are unable to naturally sustain their populations in these damaged ecosystems.<ref name=":32" /><ref name=":4" /> Common causes of overfishing include:<ref name=":02" />

* Increasing consumption: According to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), aquatic foods like fish significantly contribute to food security and initiatives to end worldwide hunger. However, global consumption of aquatic foods has increased at twice the rate of population growth since the 1960s, significantly contributing to the depletion of fish stocks.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Record fisheries and aquaculture production makes critical contribution to global food security |url=https://www.fao.org/newsroom/detail/record-fisheries-aquaculture-production-contributes-food-security-290622/en |access-date=2024-02-18 |publisher=FAO |language=en |archive-date=2024-02-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240219022634/https://www.fao.org/newsroom/detail/record-fisheries-aquaculture-production-contributes-food-security-290622/en |url-status=live }}</ref> * Climate change: Due to climate change and the sudden increasing temperatures of our oceans, fish stocks and other marine life are being negatively impacted. These changes force fish stocks to change their migratory routes, and without a reduction in fishing, this leads to overfishing and depletion because the same amount of fish are being caught in areas that now have lower fish populations.<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":22">{{Cite web |title=Climate change and fishing |url=https://www.msc.org/what-we-are-doing/oceans-at-risk/climate-change-and-fishing |access-date=2024-02-18 |website=MSC International - English |language=en |archive-date=2024-02-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240219022634/https://www.msc.org/what-we-are-doing/oceans-at-risk/climate-change-and-fishing |url-status=live }}</ref> * Illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fishing: Illegal fishing involves conducting fishing operations that break the laws and regulations at the regional and international levels around fishing, including fishing without a license or permit, fishing in protected areas, and/or catching protected species of fish.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Illegal And Destructive Fishing |url=https://www.msc.org/what-we-are-doing/oceans-at-risk/illegal-unreported-unregulated-iuu-destructive-fishing |access-date=2024-02-18 |website=MSC International - English |language=en |archive-date=2024-02-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240219022636/https://www.msc.org/what-we-are-doing/oceans-at-risk/illegal-unreported-unregulated-iuu-destructive-fishing |url-status=live }}</ref> Unreported fishing involves conducting fishing operation which are not reported, or are misreported to authorities according to the International and Regional Fisheries Management Organizations (RFMOs). Unregulated fishing involves conducting fishing operations in areas which do not have conservation measures put in place, and cannot be effectively monitored because of the lack of regulations.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-08-06 |title=Understanding Illegal, Unreported, and Unregulated Fishing |publisher=NOAA Fisheries |url=https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/insight/understanding-illegal-unreported-and-unregulated-fishing |access-date=2024-02-18 |language=en |archive-date=2024-02-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240218103952/https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/insight/understanding-illegal-unreported-and-unregulated-fishing |url-status=live }}</ref> * Fisheries subsidies:<ref>{{Cite web |title=Agreement on Fisheries Subsidies |url=https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/rulesneg_e/fish_e/fish_e.htm |access-date=2024-02-18 |publisher=WTO |language=en |archive-date=2024-02-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240217092614/https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/rulesneg_e/fish_e/fish_e.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> A subsidy is financial assistance paid by the government to support a particular activity, industry, or group. Subsidies are often provided to reduce start up costs, stimulate production, or encourage consumption. In the case of fisheries subsidies, it enables fishing fleets to catch more fish by fishing further out in a body of water, and fish for longer periods of time.<ref>{{Cite web |title=4. WHAT IS A FISHERIES SUBSIDY? |url=https://www.fao.org/3/y4446e/y4446e0k.htm#:~:text=Fisheries%20subsidies%20are%20government%20actions,Box%201:%20WTO%20definition |access-date=2024-02-18 |publisher=FAO |archive-date=2024-02-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240219022634/https://www.fao.org/3/y4446e/y4446e0k.htm#:~:text=Fisheries%20subsidies%20are%20government%20actions,Box%201:%20WTO%20definition |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-05-10 |title=Fisheries Subsidies Agreement: What's the Big Deal? |url=https://pew.org/3pr0Eft |access-date=2024-02-18 |publisher=Pew Research |language=en |archive-date=2024-04-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240422061543/https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/fact-sheets/2023/05/fisheries-subsidies-agreement-whats-the-big-deal |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Wetlands ==

Wetlands are ecosystems that are often saturated by enough surface or groundwater to sustain vegetation that is usually adapted to saturated soil conditions, such as cattails, bulrushes, red maples, wild rice, blackberries, cranberries, and peat moss.<ref name="ncsu">{{cite web|url=http://www.water.ncsu.edu/watershedss/info/wetlands/wetloss.html|title=Major Causes of Wetland Loss and Degradation|publisher=NCSU|access-date=2016-12-11|archive-date=2018-07-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180727220532/http://www.water.ncsu.edu/watershedss/info/wetlands/wetloss.html}}</ref> Because some varieties of wetlands are rich in minerals and nutrients and provide many of the advantages of both land and water environments, they contain diverse species and provide a distinct basis for the food chain. Wetland habitats contribute to environmental health and biodiversity.<ref name="ncsu" /> Wetlands are a nonrenewable resource on a human timescale and in some environments cannot ever be renewed.<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Davidson|first=Nick C.|date=January 2014|title=How much wetland has the world lost? Long-term and recent trends in global wetland area|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/266388496|journal=Marine and Freshwater Research|volume=60|pages=936–941|via=ResearchGate|access-date=2019-04-09|archive-date=2019-12-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191223083611/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/266388496|url-status=live}}</ref> Recent studies indicate that global loss of wetlands could be as high as 87% since 1700 AD, with 64% of wetland loss occurring since 1900.<ref name=":11" /> Some loss of wetlands resulted from natural causes such as erosion, sedimentation, subsidence, and a rise in the sea level.<ref name="ncsu" /> thumb|Sign at a wetland in Pilliga National Park which is trying to reduce resource depletion and wetland degradation through prohibiting certain activities. Wetlands provide environmental services for:

# Food and habitat # Improving water quality # Commercial fishing # Floodwater reduction # Shoreline stabilization # Recreation

=== Resources in wetlands ===

Some of the world's most successful agricultural areas are wetlands that have been drained and converted to farmland for large-scale agriculture.<ref name="ncsu" /> Large-scale draining of wetlands also occurs for real estate development and urbanization.<ref name=":12">{{Cite book|title=Wetland Ecology: Principles and Conservation|last=Keddy|first=Paul A.|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0-521-73967-2}}</ref> In contrast, in some cases wetlands are also flooded to be converted to recreational lakes or hydropower generation.<ref name="ncsu" /> In some countries ranchers have also moved their property onto wetlands for grazing due to the nutrient rich vegetation.<ref name=":12" /> Wetlands in Southern America also prove a fruitful resource for poachers, as animals with valuable hides such a jaguars, maned wolves, caimans, and snakes are drawn to wetlands.<ref name=":12" /> The effect of the removal of large predators is still unknown in South African wetlands.<ref name=":12" />

Humans benefit from wetlands in indirect ways as well. Wetlands act as natural water filters, when runoff from either natural or man-made processes pass through, wetlands can have a neutralizing effect.<ref name=":13">{{cite news | url=https://cbc.ca/news/technology/don-t-drain-the-swamp-why-wetlands-are-so-important-1.3962917 | title=Don't drain the swamp! Why wetlands are so important | last=Kachur | first=Torah | date=2 February 2017 | publisher=CBC | access-date=8 April 2019 | archive-date=7 June 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190607205903/cbc.ca/news/technology/don-t-drain-the-swamp-why-wetlands-are-so-important-1.3962917 | url-status=live }}</ref> If a wetland is in between an agricultural zone and a freshwater ecosystem, fertilizer runoff will be absorbed by the wetland and used to fuel the slow processes that occur happen, by the time the water reaches the freshwater ecosystem there will not be enough fertilizer to cause destructive algal blooms that poison freshwater ecosystems.<ref name=":13" /> thumb|Bramiana Wetlands

=== Non-natural causes of wetland degradation ===

* Hydrologic alteration<ref>{{cite web | archive-date = 2024-02-02 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20240202010045/epa.gov/sites/default/files/2021-01/documents/threats_to_wetlands.pdf | date = September 2001 | publisher = United States Environmental Protection Agency | title = Threats to wetlands | url = https://epa.gov/sites/default/files/2021-01/documents/threats_to_wetlands.pdf }}</ref> ** drainage ** dredging ** stream channelization ** ditching ** levees ** deposition of fill material ** stream diversion ** groundwater drainage ** impoundment * Urbanization and urban development * Marinas/boats * Industrialization and industrial development * Agriculture * Silviculture/Timber harvest * Mining * Atmospheric deposition

To preserve the resources extracted from wetlands, current strategies are to rank wetlands and prioritize the conservation of wetlands with more environmental services, create more efficient irrigation for wetlands being used for agriculture, and restricting access to wetlands by tourists.<ref name=":12" />

== Groundwater ==

thumb|upright=1.75|Groundwater flow paths vary greatly in length, depth and travel time from points of recharge to points of discharge in the groundwater system.

Water is an essential resource needed for survival. Water access has a profound influence on a society's prosperity and success.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Peterson|first1=Erik|last2=Posner|first2=Rachel|date=January 2010|title=The World's Water Challenge|journal=Current History|volume=109|issue=723|pages=31–34|doi=10.1525/curh.2010.109.723.31|doi-access=free}}</ref> Groundwater is water that is in saturated zones underground, the upper surface of the saturated zone is called the water table.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|url=https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/what-groundwater?qt-news_science_products=0#qt-news_science_products|title=What is groundwater? |publisher=USGS |language=en|access-date=2019-04-02|archive-date=2019-04-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403231526/https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/what-groundwater?qt-news_science_products=0#qt-news_science_products|url-status=live}}</ref> Groundwater is held in the pores and fractures of underground materials like sand, gravel and other rock, these rock materials are called aquifers.<ref name=":6" /> Groundwater can either flow naturally out of rock materials or can be pumped out. Groundwater supplies wells and aquifers for private, agricultural, and public use and is used by more than a third of the world's population every day for their drinking water. Globally there is 22.6 million cubic kilometers of groundwater available; of this, only 0.35 million of that is renewable.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/technology/groundwater-study-1.3318137|title=Most Groundwater is Effectively a Non-renewable Resource, Study Finds|last=Chung|first=Emily|publisher=CBC News|access-date=2017-07-08|archive-date=2017-06-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170615151405/http://www.cbc.ca/news/technology/groundwater-study-1.3318137|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Groundwater as a non-renewable resource ===

Groundwater is considered to be a non-renewable resource because less than six percent of the water around the world is replenished and renewed on a human timescale of 50 years.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/technology/groundwater-study-1.3318137|title=Most groundwater is effectively a non-renewable resource, study finds|access-date=2020-03-19|archive-date=2019-09-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190929020604/https://www.cbc.ca/news/technology/groundwater-study-1.3318137|url-status=live}}</ref> People are already using non-renewable water that is thousands of years old, in areas like Egypt they are using water that may have been renewed a million years ago which is not renewable on human timescales.<ref name=":2" /> Of the groundwater used for agriculture, 16–33% is non-renewable.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last1=Wada|first1=Yoshihide|last2=Beek|first2=Ludovicus P. H. van|last3=Kempen|first3=Cheryl M. van|last4=Reckman|first4=Josef W. T. M.|last5=Vasak|first5=Slavek|last6=Bierkens|first6=Marc F. P.|date=2010|title=Global depletion of groundwater resources|journal=Geophysical Research Letters|language=en|volume=37|issue=20|article-number=2010GL044571 |pages=n/a|doi=10.1029/2010GL044571|bibcode=2010GeoRL..3720402W|issn=1944-8007|url=https://dspace.library.uu.nl/bitstream/1874/209122/1/2010GL044571.pdf|hdl=1874/209122|s2cid=42843631|access-date=2019-09-02|archive-date=2024-04-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240422061543/https://dspace.library.uu.nl/bitstream/1874/209122/1/2010GL044571.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> It is estimated that since the 1960s groundwater extraction has more than doubled, which has increased groundwater depletion.<ref name=":7" /> Due to this increase in depletion, in some of the most depleted areas use of groundwater for irrigation has become impossible or cost prohibitive.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last1=Konikow|first1=Leonard F.|last2=Kendy|first2=Eloise|date=2005-03-01|title=Groundwater depletion: A global problem|journal=Hydrogeology Journal|language=en|volume=13|issue=1|pages=317–320|doi=10.1007/s10040-004-0411-8|bibcode=2005HydJ...13..317K|s2cid=21715061|issn=1435-0157}}</ref>

=== Environmental impacts ===

Overusing groundwater, old or young, can lower subsurface water levels and dry up streams, which could have a huge effect on ecosystems on the surface.<ref name=":2" /> When the most easily recoverable fresh groundwater is removed this leaves a residual with inferior water quality. This is in part from induced leakage from the land surface, confining layers or adjacent aquifers that contain saline or contaminated water.<ref name=":8" /> Worldwide the magnitude of groundwater depletion from storage may be so large as to constitute a measurable contributor to sea-level rise.<ref name=":7" />

=== Mitigation ===

Currently, societies respond to water-resource depletion by shifting management objectives from location and developing new supplies to augmenting conserving and reallocation of existing supplies.<ref name=":8" /> There are two different perspectives to groundwater depletion, the first is that depletion is considered literally and simply as a reduction in the volume of water in the saturated zone, regardless of water quality considerations.<ref name=":8" /> A second perspective views depletion as a reduction in the usable volume of fresh groundwater in storage.<ref name=":8" />

Augmenting supplies can mean improving water quality or increasing water quantity. Depletion due to quality considerations can be overcome by treatment, whereas large volume metric depletion can only be alleviated by decreasing discharge or increasing recharge.<ref name=":8" /> Artificial recharge of storm flow and treated municipal wastewater, has successfully reversed groundwater declines.<ref name=":8" /> In the future improved infiltration and recharge technologies will be more widely used to maximize the capture of runoff and treated wastewater.

== Resource depletion and the future ==

=== Earth Overshoot Day ===

Earth Overshoot Day (EOD) is the date when humanity's demand for ecological resources exceeds Earth's ability to regenerate these resources in a given year. EOD is calculated by the Global Footprint Network, and organization that develops annual impact reports, based on data bout resource use in the previous year. EOD is announced each year on June 5, which is World Environment Day, and continues to get earlier each year. For example, Earth Overshoot Day 2023 was August 2, compared to in 2010 where it fell on August 10 and in 2000 where it fell on September 17.<ref name=":62">{{cite web | title=About Earth Overshoot Day - #MoveTheDate of Earth Overshoot Day | url=https://overshoot.footprintnetwork.org/about-earth-overshoot-day | access-date=2024-04-10 | website=Earth Overshoot Day | language=en-US | archive-date=2024-04-12 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240412152119/overshoot.footprintnetwork.org/about-earth-overshoot-day | url-status=live }}</ref> The Global Footprint Network calculates Earth Overshoot Day by dividing world biocapacity by world ecological footprint and multiplying that by 365 days (366 days during a leap year).<ref name=":62" /> World biocapacity refers to the total amount of natural resources that Earth can regenerate in a year.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Wackernagel|first1=M.|last2=Beyers|first2=B.|date=2019|title=Ecological footprint: Managing our biocapacity budget|publisher=New Society Publishers}}</ref> World ecological footprint refers to the total amount of resource that society consumes in a year, including things like energy, food, water, agricultural land, forest land, etc.<ref>Moore, D., Cranston, G., Reed, A., & Galli, A. (2012). Projecting future human demand on the Earth's regenerative capacity. ''Ecological Indicators'', ''16'', 3-10.</ref> Earth Overshoot Day can be calculated for Earth as a whole, but also for each country individually. For example, in a middle income country like Morocco, their 2023 country specific overshoot day was December 22, compared to a high income country like the United States of America which consumes a lot more resources, their 2023 country specific overshoot day was March 14.<ref name=":62" /> The goal is to push Earth Overshoot Day back far enough to where humanity would be living within Earth's ecological means and not surpassing what it can sustainably provide each year.<ref name=":62" />

=== The World Counts ===

According to The World Counts, a source which collects data from a number of organizations, research institutes, and news services, and produces statistical countdown clocks that illustrate the negative trends related to the environment and other global challenges, humanity is in trouble if current consumption patterns continue. At society's current consumption rate, approximately 1.8 Earths are needed in order to provide resources in a sustainable capacity, and there is just under 26 years until resources are depleted to a point where Earth's capacity to support life may collapse. It is also estimated that approximately 29% of all species on Earth are currently at risk of extinction. As well, 25 billion tons of resources have been extracted this year alone, this includes but is not limited to natural resources like fish, wood, metals, minerals, water, and energy. The World Counts shows that there is 15 years until Earth is exhausted of freshwater, and 23 years until there are no more fish in the oceans. They also estimate that 15 billion trees are cut down every year, while only 2 billion trees are planted every year, and that there is only 75 years until rainforests are completely gone.<ref>{{cite web | title=The World Counts | url=https://theworldcounts.com/challenges/state-of-the-planet/the-end-of-the-world | access-date=2024-04-10 | website=theworldcounts.com | archive-date=2023-08-19 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230819024919/theworldcounts.com/challenges/state-of-the-planet/the-end-of-the-world | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | last=Kilgore | first=Georgette | date=2022-07-19 | title=How Many Trees Are Planted Each Year? Full List By Country, Type, Year | url=https://8billiontrees.com/trees/how-many-trees-are-planted-each-year | access-date=2024-04-10 | website=8 Billion Trees: Carbon Offset Projects & Ecological Footprint Calculators | language=en-US | archive-date=2024-04-22 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240422061632/8billiontrees.com/trees/how-many-trees-are-planted-each-year | url-status=live }}</ref>

== Resource scarcity as a moral problem ==

thumb|Protestors carry sign stating "Greed isn't green, Earth is not for sale" against resource depletion and climate change

Researchers who produced an update of the Club of Rome's ''Limits to Growth'' report find that many people deny the existence of the problem of scarcity, including many leading scientists and politicians.<ref>{{cite web | archive-date = 2010-12-27 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20101227213430/mnforsustain.org/meadows_limits_to_growth_30_year_update_2004.htm | date = 2004 | first1 = D. | first2 = J. | first3 = D. | last1 = Meadows | last2 = Randers | last3 = Meadows | title = Limits to growth, the 30-years update: A synopsis | url = https://mnforsustain.org/meadows_limits_to_growth_30_year_update_2004.htm | url-status = dead }}</ref> This may be due, for example, to an unwillingness to change one's own consumption patterns or to share scarce natural resources more equally, or to a psychological defence mechanism.

The scarcity of resources raises a central moral problem concerning the distribution and allocation of natural resources. Competition means that the most advanced get the most resources, which often means the developed West. The problem here is that the West has developed partly through colonial slave labour and violence, and partly through protectionist policies, which together have left many other, non-Western countries underdeveloped.<ref>{{cite book | date = 2005 | first = S. | last = Hall | place = Tampere, Finland | publisher = Vastapaino | title = Identiteetti }}</ref>

In the future, international cooperation in sharing scarce resources will become increasingly important. Where scarcity is concentrated on the non-renewable resources that play the most important role in meeting needs, the most essential element for the realisation of human rights is an adequate and equitable allocation of scarcity. Inequality, taken to its extreme, causes intense discontent, which can lead to social unrest and even armed conflict. Many experts believe that ensuring equitable development is the only sure way to a peaceful distribution of scarcity.{{cn|date=April 2024}}

Another approach to resource depletion is a combined process of de-resourcification and resourcification. Where one strives to put an end to the social processes of turning unsustainable things into resources, for example, non-renewable natural resources, and the other strives to instead develop processes of turning sustainable things into resources, for example, renewable human resources.<ref>{{cite journal | article-number = 107703 | bibcode = 2023EcoEc.20507703C | date = 2023-03-01 | doi = 10.1016/j.ecolecon.2022.107703 | doi-access = free | first1 = Hervé | first2 = Alexander | issn = 0921-8009 | journal = Ecological Economics | language = en | last1 = Corvellec | last2 = Paulsson | s2cid = 254388285 | title = Resource shifting: Resourcification and de-resourcification for degrowth | volume = 205 }}</ref>

== External links == * [http://www.isf.uts.edu.au ''The Institute for Sustainable Futures''] * [http://resourcefutures.net.au/sites/default/files/resourcefutures.net.au/UTS-RR-1-2-MinFutures_Peak_Min_Review_FINAL4.pdf ''Peak Minerals in Australia: a review of changing impacts and benefits'' ]{{Dead link|date=July 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * [http://www.elsevier.com/locate/resourpol/ ''The Environmental Sustainability of Mining in Australia: Key Mega-Trends and Looming Constraints (Gavin Mudd, 2010)''] * [http://civil.eng.monash.edu.au/about/staff/muddpersonal/2008-NZ-SustEngSci-Mudd-Ward-SustConstraints-v-Peak-Minerals.pdf ''Will Sustainability Constraints Cause 'Peak Minerals'?''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100702230508/http://civil.eng.monash.edu.au/about/staff/muddpersonal/2008-NZ-SustEngSci-Mudd-Ward-SustConstraints-v-Peak-Minerals.pdf |date=2 July 2010 }} * [http://epress.lib.uts.edu.au/dspace/bitstream/handle/2100/926/giurcoetal2009mineralfuturesdiscussion.pdf?sequence=1 ''Mineral Futures Discussion Paper: Sustainability Issues, Challenges and Opportunities''] * [http://phosphorusfutures.net/ ''The Global Phosphorus Research Initiative''] * [http://www.theoildrum.com/node/3451 ''The Oil Drum: Ugo Bardi''] * [https://arxiv.org/abs/1107.4753 ''Peak Nothing: Recent Trends in Mineral Resource Production'']

Category:Minerals Minerals

* Ecological economics * Holocene extinction * Jevons paradox * Malthusianism * Overexploitation * Overfishing * Overpopulation * Peak coal * Peak gas * Peak gold * Peak oil * Peak water * Planetary boundaries * Progress trap * Resource war

== References ==

{{reflist|2}}{{human impact on the environment}}{{population}}{{natural resources}}{{portal bar|Environment}}{{Doomsday}}

category:environmental issues * category:resource economics