Reflexive verb

{{Short description|Verb whose direct object is the same as its subject}} {{mcn|date=December 2025}} {{Transitivity and Valency}} In grammar, a '''reflexive verb''' is, loosely, a verb whose direct object is the same as its subject, for example, "I wash myself". More generally, a reflexive verb has the same semantic agent and patient (typically represented syntactically by the subject and the direct object). For example, the English verb ''to perjure'' is reflexive, since one can only perjure ''oneself''. In a wider sense, the term refers to any verb form whose grammatical object is a reflexive pronoun, regardless of semantics; such verbs are also more broadly referred to as '''pronominal verbs''', especially in the grammar of the Romance languages. Other kinds of pronominal verbs are '''reciprocal''' (''they killed each other''), '''passive''' (''it is told''), '''subjective''', and '''idiomatic.''' The presence of the reflexive pronoun changes the meaning of a verb, e.g., Spanish {{lang|es|abonar}} {{gloss|to pay}}, {{lang|es|abonarse}} {{gloss|to subscribe}}.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.lawlessspanish.com/grammar/verbs/idiomatic-pronominal-verbs/ |title=Idiomatic Pronominal Verbs |last1=Lawless |first1=Laura K |website=Lawless Spanish |access-date=January 19, 2018 |language=en}}</ref>

There are languages that have explicit morphology or syntax to transform a verb into a reflexive form. In many languages, reflexive constructions are rendered by transitive verbs followed by a reflexive pronoun, as in English ''-self'' (e.g., "She ''threw herself'' to the floor."). English employs reflexive derivation idiosyncratically as well, as in "self-destruct".

== Indo-European languages == Romance and Slavic languages make extensive use of reflexive verbs and reflexive forms.

In the Romance languages, there are nonemphatic clitic reflexive pronouns and emphatic ones. In Spanish, for example, the particle {{lang|es|se}} encliticizes to the verb's infinitive, gerund, and imperative ({{lang|es|lavarse}} {{gloss|to wash oneself}}), while in Romanian, the particle procliticizes to the verb ({{lang|ro|a se spăla}} {{gloss|to wash oneself}}). Full reflexive pronouns or pronominal phrases are added for emphasis or disambiguation: {{lang|es|Me cuido a mí mismo}} "I take care of myself" ({{lang|es|mismo}} {{gloss|-self, same}} combines with the prepositional form of the pronoun {{lang|es|mí}} {{gloss|my}} to form an intensive reflexive pronoun).

The enclitic reflexive pronoun ''sa''/''se''/''si''/''się'' is used in Western and South Slavic languages, while Eastern Slavic languages use the suffix -''sja'' (-ся). There is also the non-clitic emphatic pronoun ''sebja''/''себя'', used to emphasize the reflexive nature of the act; it is applicable only to "true" reflexive verbs, where the agent performs a (transitive) action on itself.

The Slavic languages use the same reflexive pronoun for all persons and numbers, while the Romance and North Germanic ones have a special third person pronoun that cliticizes and the other Germanic ones do as well without cliticizing. This is illustrated in the following table for the word "to recall" (e.g., {{lang|fr|Je me souviens}} means "I recall", {{lang|fr|Tu te souviens}} means "You recall", and so on).

{| class="wikitable" |- ! colspan="2" | ! French ! Danish ! Serbo-Croatian |- ! rowspan="2" | 1st person ! Singular | {{lang|fr|Je ''me'' souviens|italic=unset}} | {{lang|da|Jeg lægger ''mig''|italic=unset}} | {{lang|sh|Ja ''se'' sjećam|italic=unset}} |- ! Plural | {{lang|fr|Nous ''nous'' souvenons|italic=unset}} | {{lang|da|Vi lægger ''os''|italic=unset}} | {{lang|sh|Mi ''se'' sjećamo|italic=unset}} |- ! rowspan="2" | 2nd person ! Singular | {{lang|fr|Tu ''te'' souviens|italic=unset}} | {{lang|da|Du lægger ''dig''|italic=unset}} | {{lang|sh|Ti ''se'' sjećaš|italic=unset}} |- ! Plural | {{lang|fr|Vous ''vous'' souvenez|italic=unset}} | {{lang|da|I lægger ''jer''|italic=unset}} | {{lang|sh|Vi ''se'' sjećate|italic=unset}} |- ! rowspan="2" | 3rd person ! Singular | {{lang|fr|Il ''se'' souvient|italic=unset}} | {{lang|da|Han lægger ''sig''|italic=unset}} | {{lang|sh|On ''se'' sjeća|italic=unset}} |- ! Plural | {{lang|fr|Ils ''se'' souviennent|italic=unset}} | {{lang|da|De lægger ''sig''|italic=unset}} | {{lang|sh|Oni ''se'' sjećaju|italic=unset}} |}

In all of these language groups, reflexive forms often present an obstacle for foreign learners<ref name="Davies">{{cite web|url=http://www.ugr.es/~talc6/talc_search/proceedings/74.html|title=Syntactic features, register variation, and the language learner: the case of se in Spanish.|author1=Mark Davies|author2=James Jones|author3=Nicole Tracy|publisher=Ugr.es|access-date=2015-05-29|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130311050637/http://www.ugr.es/~talc6/talc_search/proceedings/74.html|archive-date=2013-03-11}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://spanish.about.com/library/beginning/aa-beg-verbs-reflexive.htm|title=Reflexive Verbs: An Introduction|publisher=Spanish.about.com|access-date=2015-05-29}}{{Dead link|date=August 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> (notably native speakers of English,{{citation needed|date=January 2025}} where the feature is practically absent) due to the variety of uses. Even in languages which contain the feature, it is not always applicable to the same verbs and uses (although a common subset can be generally extracted, as outlined below). For example, the Spanish reflexive construct "''se hundió el barco''" ("the boat sank") has no reflexive equivalent in some Slavic languages (which use an intransitive equivalent of ''sink''), though for example Czech and Slovak do use a reflexive verb: "loď se potopila"/"loď sa potopila". Reflexive verbs can have a variety of uses and meanings, which often escape consistent classification. Some language-common identified uses are outlined below.<ref name="Rivero">{{cite web|url=http://aix1.uottawa.ca/~romlab/5PDF-Leipzig.pdf|title=On Impersonal se / się in Slavic|author1=María Luisa Rivero|author2=Milena M. Sheppard|name-list-style=amp|publisher=Current Issues in Formal Slavic Linguistics. G. Zybatow, et al., Eds. 137-147. Peter Lang, Frankfurt am Main. 2002.|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070205071800/http://aix1.uottawa.ca/~romlab/5PDF-Leipzig.pdf |archive-date=2007-02-05}}</ref> For example, Davies et al.<ref name="Davies"/> identify 12 uses for Spanish reflexive constructions, while Vinogradov<ref>{{cite book |title=Russkiy Yazik: Grammatičeskoe učenie o slove |author=V. V. Vinogradov |year=1947 |location=Moscow}}</ref> divides Russian reflexive verbs into as many as 16 groups.

Martin Haspelmath also has a useful distinction between the reflexive types mentioned below, which he calls introverted reflexives, and so-called extroverted reflexives, which are used for verbs that are usually not reflexive, like hate oneself, love oneself, hear oneself, and kill oneself. Some Indo-European languages have a different reflexive morpheme for extroverted reflexives. For example: *The Russian ненавидеть себя (nenavidet' sebja) "to hate oneself", which uses a reflexive pronoun, compares to мыться (myt'-sja) "to wash (oneself)", which uses a reflexive suffix (Russian can also say мыть себя (myt' sebja), with a reflexive pronoun, but only when the pronoun needs to be stressed for emphasis or contrast). *Or Dutch "zij haat zichzelf" "she hates herself", versus "zij wast zich" "she washes (herself)". *The distinction exists similarly in English, where introverted reflexive verbs usually have no reflexive pronoun, unlike extroverted.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://wwwstaff.eva.mpg.de/~haspelmt/Berlin04.pdf |title=A frequentist explanation of some universals of reflexive marking |author=MARTIN HASPELMATH |publisher=Staff.eva.mpg.de |access-date=2015-05-29 |archive-date=2015-02-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150215232214/http://wwwstaff.eva.mpg.de/~haspelmt/Berlin04.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> *In ancient Greek, the introverted reflexive was expressed using the middle voice rather than a pronoun. Similarly, in modern Greek, it is expressed using the middle usage of the mediopassive voice. On the other hand, the extroverted reflexive was a true reflexive in ancient Greek and modern Greek. *Similarly, Claire Moyse-Faurie distinguishes between middle and reflexive in Oceanic languages.<ref>Claire Moyse-Faurie. Reflexives markers in Oceanic languages. Studia Linguistica, In press, 71 (1/2), pp.107-135. ffhal-02875517f</ref>

=== Properly reflexive === {{uncited section|date=August 2024}} The "true" (literal) reflexive denotes that the agent is simultaneously the patient. The verb is typically transitive and can be used in non-reflexive meaning as well. {|class="wikitable" |- !Language !Examples !Compare |- !English |Peter ''washes'' [himself]. |Peter ''washes'' the cat. |- !French |{{lang|fr|Pierre ''se lave''.|italic=unset}} (Verb: {{wikt-lang|fr|se laver}}) |{{lang|fr|Pierre ''lave'' le chat.|italic=unset}} |- !Spanish |{{lang|es|Pedro ''se lava''.|italic=unset}} (Verb: {{wikt-lang|es|lavarse}}) |{{lang|es|Pedro ''lava'' el gato.|italic=unset}} |- !Portuguese |O Pedro ''lava-se''. (Verb: lavar) |O Pedro ''lava'' o gato. |- !Italian |Pietro ''si lava''. |Pietro ''lava'' il gatto. |- !Catalan |En Pere ''es renta''. |En Pere ''renta'' el gat. |- !Galician |Pedro ''lávase''. |Pedro ''lava'' o gato. |- !Romanian |Petre ''se spală''. |Petre ''spală'' pisica. |- !Serbo-Croatian |Petar ''se kupa''. |Petar ''kupa'' mačku. |- !Slovene |Peter ''se umiva''. |Peter ''umiva'' mačko. |- !Bulgarian |Петър ''се мие.'' {{translit|bg|Petăr ''se mie.''|italic=unset}} |Петър ''мие'' котката. {{translit|bg|Petăr ''mie'' kotkata.|italic=unset}} |- !Polish |Piotr ''się kąpie''. |Piotr ''kąpie'' kota. |- !Russian |Пётр ''моется''. {{translit|ru|Pjotr ''mojetsja''.|italic=unset}} |Пётр ''моет'' кота. {{translit|ru|Pjotr ''mojet'' kota.|italic=unset}} |- !German |Peter ''wäscht sich''. |Peter ''wäscht'' die Katze. |- !Danish |Peter ''vasker sig''. |Peter ''vasker'' katten. |- !Swedish |Peter ''tvättar sig''. |Peter ''tvättar'' katten. |- ! rowspan="2"|Lithuanian |Petras ''prausiasi''. | rowspan="2"|Petras ''prausia'' katę. |- |Petras ''prausia save''. |- !Czech |Petr ''se koupe''. |Petr ''koupe'' kočku. |}

=== Reciprocal === {{see also|Reciprocal pronoun}} {{uncited section|date=August 2024}}

"Reciprocal" reflexive denotes that the agents perform the mutual actions among themselves, as in English constructions using "each other". In most cases, the transitive verbs are also used. {|class="wikitable" |- !Language !Examples !Compare |- !English |Mary and Peter ''kiss'' [each other]. |Mary ''kisses'' Peter. |- !French |{{lang|fr|Marie et Pierre ''s'embrassent''|italic=unset}} |{{lang|fr|Marie ''embrasse'' Pierre|italic=unset}} |- !Spanish |María y Pedro ''se besan'' (Infinitive: besarse). |María ''besa'' a Pedro. |- !Portuguese |A Maria e o Pedro ''beijam-se'' (Verb: beijar). |A Maria ''beija'' o Pedro. |- !Italian |Maria e Pietro ''si baciano''. |Maria ''bacia'' Pietro. |- !Catalan |La Maria i en Pere ''es fan un petó''. |La Maria ''fa un petó'' {{not a typo|a}} en Pere. |- !Galician |María e Pedro ''bícanse''. |María ''bica'' a Pedro. |- !Romanian |Maria și Petre ''se sărută''. |Maria ''îl sărută'' pe Petre. |- !Serbo-Croatian |Marija i Petar ''se ljube''. |Marija ''ljubi'' Petra. |- !Slovene |Marija in Petar ''se poljubita''. |Marija ''poljubi'' Petra. |- !Bulgarian |Мария и Петър ''се целуват.'' {{translit|bg|Mariya i Petăr ''se celuvat.''}} |Мария ''целува'' Петър. {{translit|bg|Mariya ''celuva'' Petăr.}} |- !Polish |Maria i Piotr ''się całują''. |Maria ''całuje'' Piotra. |- !Russian |Мария и Пётр ''целуются''. {{translit|ru|Marija i Pjotr ''celujutsja''.}} |Мария ''целует'' Петра. {{translit|ru|Marija ''celujet'' Petra.}} |- !Danish |Maria og Peter ''kysser hinanden''. |Maria ''kysser'' Peter. |- !German |Maria und Peter ''küssen sich'' (/'' küssen einander)''. |Maria ''küsst'' Peter. |- !Lithuanian |Marija ir Petras ''bučiuojasi''. |Marija ''bučiuoja'' Petrą. |- !Hebrew |מאיה ופאר ''מתנשקים.'' {{translit|he|Maya ve-Pe'er ''mitnashkim.''}} |מאיה ''מנשקת'' את פאר. {{translit|he|Maya ''menasheket'' et Pe'er.}} |}

In modern Scandinavian languages, the passive (or more properly mediopassive) voice is used for medial, especially reciprocal, constructions. Some examples from Danish are:

:''Maria og Peter skændes''; "Mary and Peter are bickering", lit. "Mary and Peter are scolded by each other."

:''Maria og Peter blev forlovet''; "Mary and Peter got engaged [to each other]."

(The hypothetical form **kysses (kiss each other) is not often—if ever—seen in Danish; however, it will likely be understood by most native speakers, indicating that the mediopassive voice is still at the very least potentially productive in Danish. An expression like "de kysses uafladeligt" (they kiss each other all the time) could very well be used for humorous purposes.)

=== Autocausative === {{see also|Autocausative verb}}

"Autocausative" reflexive denotes that the (usually animate) "referent represented by the subject combines the activity of actor and undergoes a change of state as a patient":<ref name=Parry/> {|class="wikitable" |- !Language !Examples !Compare |- !English |Peter ''became/was offended''. |Paul ''offended'' Peter. |- !French |{{lang|fr|Pierre ''s'est vexé''.|italic=unset}} |{{lang|fr|Paul ''a vexé'' Pierre.|italic=unset}} |- !Spanish |Pedro ''se ofendió''. |- !Italian |Pietro ''si offese''. |- !Catalan |En Pere ''es va ofendre''. |- !Galician |Pedro ''ofendeuse''. |- !Romanian |Petre ''s-a supărat''. |- !Serbo-Croatian |Petar ''se uvrijedio''. |- !Slovene |Peter ''se je užalil''. |- !Bulgarian |Петър ''се обиди.'' Petăr ''se obidi.'' |- !Polish |Piotr ''się obraził''. |- !Russian |Пётр ''обиделся''. Pjotr ''obidelsja''. |- !German |Peter ''ärgerte sich''. |- !Lithuanian |Petras ''įsižeidė''. |}

=== Anticausative === {{see also|Anticausative verb}}

"Anticausative" reflexive denotes that the (usually inanimate) subject of the verb undergoes an action or change of state whose agent is unclear or nonexistent.<ref name="Parry">{{cite journal |last1=Parry |first1=M. |year=1998 |title=The reinterpretation of the reflexive in Piedmontese: <nowiki>'impersonal'</nowiki>''SE'' constructions |journal=Transactions of the Philological Society |volume=96 |issue=1 |pages=63–116 |url=http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/119115425/abstract |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130105092749/http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/119115425/abstract |url-status=dead |archive-date=2013-01-05 |doi=10.1111/1467-968X.00024 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

{|class="wikitable" |- !Language !Examples !Compare |- !English |The door ''opened.'' |Paul ''opened'' the door. |- !French |{{lang|fr|La porte ''s'est ouverte''.|italic=unset}} |{{lang|fr|Paul ''a ouvert'' la porte.|italic=unset}} |- !Spanish |La puerta ''se abrió''. |- !Portuguese |A porta ''abriu-se''. |- !Italian |La porta ''si aprì''. |- !Catalan |La porta ''es va obrir''. |- !Galician |A porta ''abriuse''. |- !Romanian |Ușa ''s-a deschis''. |- !Serbo-Croatian |Vrata su ''se otvorila''. |- !Slovene |Vrata so ''se odprla''. |- !Bulgarian |Вратата ''се отвори.'' Vratata ''se otvori.'' |- !Polish |Drzwi ''się otworzyły''. |- !Russian |Дверь ''открылась''. Dver' ''otkrylas'''. |- !German |Die Tür ''öffnete sich.'' |- !Lithuanian |Durys ''atsidarė''. |}

=== Intransitive or impersonal === {{see also|Impersonal passive voice|Mediopassive voice}}

"Intransitive" forms (also known as "impersonal reflexive" or "mediopassive") are obtained by attaching the reflexive pronoun to intransitive verbs. The grammatical subject is either omitted (in pro-drop languages) or is a dummy pronoun (otherwise). Thus, those verbs are defective, as they have only the 3rd person singular (masculine or neuter, depending on language) form.

In Slavic languages, practically "the only condition is that they can be construed as having a human agent. The applied human agent can be generic, or loosely specified collective or individual."<ref name="Djurkovic">{{cite web|url=http://www.rceal.cam.ac.uk/Publications/Working/Vol10/Djurkovic.pdf|title=Passive and Impersonal in English and Serbian|author=Milja Djurkovic|publisher=Research Centre for English and Applied Linguistics University of Cambridge|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061008154658/http://www.rceal.cam.ac.uk/Publications/Working/Vol10/Djurkovic.pdf|archive-date=2006-10-08}}</ref>

{|class="wikitable" |- !Language !colspan=2|Examples |- !Spanish |Aquí ''se trabaja'' bien. |''Se dice'' que... |- !Portuguese |Aqui ''trabalha-se'' bem. |''Diz-se'' que... |- !Italian |Qui ''si lavora'' bene. |''Si dice'' che... |- !French |{{lang|fr|Ça ''se vend'' bien.|italic=unset}} |{{lang|fr|Il ''se murmure'' que...|italic=unset}} |- !Catalan |Aquí ''es treballa'' bé. |''Hom/Es diu'' que... |- !Galician |Aquí ''trabállase'' ben. |''Dise'' que... |- !Romanian |Aici ''se muncește'' bine. |''Se zice'' că... |- !Serbo-Croatian |Tu ''se radi'' dobro. |''Smatra se'' da... |- !Slovene |Tu ''se'' dobro ''dela''. |''Razume se'', da... |- !Bulgarian |Тук ''се работи'' добре. Tuk ''se raboti'' dobre. |''Смята се'', че... ''Smyata se'', če... |- !Polish |Tu ''pracuje się'' dobrze. |''Uważa się'', że... |- !Russian |Здесь хорошо ''работается''. Zdes' khorosho ''rabotajetsja''. |''Думается'', что... ''Dumajetsja'', chto... |- ! rowspan="2"|Lithuanian |Žmonės čia gerai ''darbuojasi''. | rowspan="2"|''Manoma'', kad... |- |Čia gerai ''darbuojamasi''. |- !German |''Es arbeitet sich'' hier gut. |''Man sagt sich'', dass... |- !English |''[People] work'' well here. |It ''is considered'' that... |}

In many cases, there is a semantic overlap between impersonal/anticausative/autocausative constructs and the passive voice (also present in all Romance and Slavic languages).<ref name="Djurkovic"/> On one hand, impersonal reflexive constructs have a wider scope of application, as they are not limited to transitive verbs like the canonical passive voice. On the other hand, those constructs can have slight semantic difference or markedness.

=== Inherent === "Inherent" or "pronominal" (''inherently'' or ''essentially'') reflexive verbs lack the corresponding non-reflexive from which they can be synchronically derived.<ref name=Parry/> In other words, the reflexive pronoun "is an inherent part of an unergative reflexive or reciprocal verb with no meaning of its own, and an obligatory part of the verb's lexical entry":<ref>{{cite journal|title=Alternating unaccusative verbs in Slovene|first=Sabina|last=Grahek| journal=Leeds Working Papers in Linguistics|url=http://www.leeds.ac.uk/linguistics/WPL/WP2002/Grahek.pdf|pages=57–72|volume=9|year=2002 |access-date=July 3, 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110608223939/www.leeds.ac.uk/linguistics/WPL/WP2002/Grahek.pdf |archive-date=2011-06-08}}</ref> {|class="wikitable" |- !Language !colspan=4|Examples |- !Spanish |Pedro ''se arrepintió''. |Pedro ''se ríe''<ref group="N" name=b/> |María y Pedro ''se separaron''.<ref group="N" name=b>The verb is reflexive, but not inherently. Both have non-reflexive forms: the transitive ''separar'' and the intransitive ''reír''. In Lithuanian ''išsiskirti'' and ''skųstis'' have non-reflexive forms: transitive ''išskirti'' and transitive ''skųsti''.</ref> |Pedro ''se queja''. |- !French |{{lang|fr|Pierre ''s'est repenti''.|italic=unset}} |{{lang|fr|Pierre ''se marre''.|italic=unset}} (informal) |{{lang|fr|Marie et Pierre ''se sont séparés''.|italic=unset}} |{{lang|fr|Pierre ''se lamente''.|italic=unset}} |- !Italian |Pietro ''si pentì''. |<ref group ="N" name=d>The corresponding verb is not reflexive.</ref> |Maria e Pietro ''si separarono''.<ref group="N" name=b/> |Pietro ''si lamenta''.<ref group="N" name=c/> |- !Catalan |En Pere ''es va penedir''. |<ref group ="N" name=d>The corresponding verb is not reflexive.</ref> |La Maria i en Pere ''es van separar''.<ref group="N" name=b/> |En Pere ''es lamenta''. |- !Galician |Pedro ''arrepentiuse''. | | |Pedro ''laméntase''. |- !Serbo-Croatian |Petar ''se pokajao''. |Petar ''se smije''. |Marija i Petar su ''se rastali''. |Petar ''se žali''.<ref group="N" name=c/> |- !Slovene |Peter ''se kesa''. |Peter ''se smeji''. |Marija in Petar sta ''se razšla''. |Peter ''se pritožuje''.<ref group="N" name=c/> |- !Bulgarian |Петър ''се разкая.'' Petăr ''se razkaya.'' |Петър ''се смее.'' Petăr ''se smee.'' |Мария и Петър ''се разделиха''. Mariya i Petăr ''se razdeliha''. |Петър ''се жалва''. Petăr ''se žalva''. |- !Polish |Piotr ''się pokajał''. |Piotr ''się śmieje''. |Maria i Piotr ''się rozstali''. |Piotr ''żali się''.<ref group="N" name=c>Only the Spanish ''quejarse'' exists only in reflexive form (cf. the Latin deponent verb ''queror'', I complain); however, in other languages, the corresponding non-reflexive verb has a different meaning, like "lament" or "mourn".</ref> |- !Russian |Пётр ''раскаялся''. Pjotr ''raskajalsja''. |Пётр ''смеётся''. Pjotr ''smejotsja''. |Мария и Пётр ''расстались''. Marija i Pjotr ''rasstalis'''. |Пётр ''жалуется''.<ref group="N" name=c/> Pjotr ''zhalujetsja''. |- !Lithuanian |Petras ''atsiprašė''. |Petras ''juokiasi''. |Marija ir Petras ''išsiskyrė''.<ref group="N" name=b/> |Petras ''skundžiasi''.<ref group="N" name=b/> |- !English |Peter ''repented''. |Peter ''laughs''. |Mary and Peter ''parted''. |Peter ''complains''. |}

== Hebrew == {{Unreferenced section|date=December 2025}} In Hebrew, reflexive verbs are in binyan הִתְפַּעֵל. A clause whose predicate is a reflexive verb may never have an object but may have other modifiers. e.g. * האיש '''התפטר''' מעבודתו - the man '''resigned''' from his job. * האיש '''התמכר''' לסמים - the man '''got addicted''' to drugs. * האיש '''התקלח''' בבוקר - the man 'showered himself', i.e., '''took/had a shower''' in the morning. * האישה '''הסתפרה''' אצל אבי - the woman got a haircut/had her hair done at Avi's.

== Inuktitut == {{Unreferenced section|date=December 2025}} {{main|Inuit grammar}} {{#section-h:Inuit_grammar|Reflexive verbs}}

== Australian languages ==

=== Guugu Yimithirr === In Guugu Yimithirr (a member of the Pama-Nyungan language family) reflexivity can combine with past (PST), nonpast (NPST), and imperative (IMP) tense marking to form the verbal suffixes: '''''/-dhi/''''' (REFL+PST), '''''/-yi/''''' (REFL+NPST) and '''''/-ya/''''' (REFL+IMP) respectively. See the following example where the verb ''waarmbal,'' a transitive verb meaning 'send back' is detransitivized to mean 'return' taking only one nominal argument with an agentive role:

{{Interlinear|indent=3 |Nyundu wanhdha{{=}}wanhdhaalga waarmba-aya? |2sg+NOM when return.REFL+NPST |When will you return?<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Handbook of Australian languages. Vol. 1|date=1979|publisher=Benjamins|others=Dixon, Robert Malcolm Ward., Blake, Barry J.|isbn=978-90-272-7355-0|location=Amsterdam|pages=123|oclc=793207750}}</ref>}}

The same valence-reduction process occurs for the transitive ''wagil'' 'cut'

{{Interlinear|indent=3 |Gaari wagi-iyi |NEG cut-REFL+IMP |Don't cut yourself!<ref name=":0" />}}

In each of these cases, the reflexively inflected verb now forms a new stem to which additional morphology may be affixed, for example ''waarmba-adhi'' 'returned' may become ''waarmba-adhi-lmugu'' (return-REFL+PST-NEG) 'didn't return.' As with many Pama–Nyungan languages, however, verbs in the lexicon belong to conjugation classes, and a verbs class may restrict the ease with which it can be reflexivized.

These reflexive morphemes are largely employed for expressing reciprocality as well; however, in cases where there is potential ambiguity between a reflexive and a reciprocal interpretation, Guugu Yimithirr has an additional means for emphasizing the reflexive (i.e., '''by''' the agent '''upon''' the agent) interpretation: namely, the ''/-gu/'' suffix upon the grammatical subject. See for example the following contrast between the reciprocal and reflexive:

==== Reciprocal ==== {{Interlinear|indent=3 |Bula gunda-adhi |3DU hit-REFL+PST |The two of them hit each other.}}

==== Reflexive ==== {{Interlinear|indent=3 |Bula-agu gunda-adhi |3DU-REFL hit-REFL+PST |The two of them hit themselves.<ref name=":0" />}}

=== Gumbaynggir === Another Pama–Nyungan language, Gumbaynggir has a verbal suffix ''/-iri/'' to mark reciprocality and de-transitivize transitive verbs e.g.

{{Interlinear|indent=3 |yaraŋ bulari bum-iri |DEM two-S hit-RECP+PST |Those two were fighting<ref>{{Cite book|title=Handbook of Australian languages. Vol. 1|date=1979|publisher=Benjamins|others=Dixon, Robert Malcolm Ward., Blake, Barry J.|isbn=978-90-272-7355-0|location=Amsterdam|pages=315|oclc=793207750}}</ref>}}

=== Kuuk Thaayorre === As with Guugu Yimithirr, Kuuk Thaayorre, a Paman language, has some ambiguity between reflexive and reciprocal morphemes and constructions. Ostensibly, there are two suffixes ''/-e/'' and ''/-rr/'' for reflexivity and reciprocality respectively; however, in practice it is less clear cut. Take for example the presence of the reciprocal suffix in what should seem like a simple reflexive example.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gaby|first=Alice|date=2008|title=Distinguishing Reciprocals from Reflexives in Kuuk Thaayorre|journal=Trends in Linguistics|pages=259}}</ref>

{{Interlinear|indent=3 |pam thono tup ko’o-rr-r nhanganul watp |man one.NOM [ideophone] spear-RECP-PST.PFV 3SG.REFL dead |One man speared himself dead, whack!}}

Or the reverse wherein an apparent reciprocal assertion has reflexive morphology:

{{Interlinear|indent=3 |pul runc-e-r |2DU-NOM/ERG collide-REFL-NOM.PFV |They two collided with one other.}}

In actuality, the broader function of the reciprocal verb is to emphasize the agentivity of the grammatical subject(s), sometimes to directly counteract expectations of an external agent--as in the first example above. The combination of the reciprocal verb with the reflexive pronoun highlights the notion that the subject acted highly '''agentively''' (as in a mutual/symmetric reciprocal event) but was also the '''undergoer''' of their own action (as in a reflexive event where agentivity is backgrounded e.g. "I soiled myself").

Conversely, the reflexive verb can have precisely this function of backgrounding the agentivity of the subject and bringing the focus to the effect that was wrought upon the undergoer(s) as in the second example above.

== Uralic languages == {{Unreferenced section|date=December 2025}} === Hungarian language === "The door opened" is expressed in Hungarian as "Az ajtó ''kinyílt''", from the verb ''kinyílik'', while the passive voice is rare and archaic. There are numerous verb pairs where one element is active and the other expresses middle voice, something happening apparently on its own, rendered in English like "to become, get, grow, turn" (something). See also the grammatical voice of Hungarian verbs and the Wiktionary entries of ''-ul/-ül'', ''-ódik/-ődik'' and ''-odik/-edik/-ödik'', three suffix groups that form such verbs.

== References == {{Reflist|1}}

== Further reading == {{wikt}} *{{cite book |editor-last1=Dixon |editor-first1=R. M. W. |editor-last2=Aikhenvald |editor-first2=Alexandra Y. |year=2000 |title=Changing valency: Case studies in transitivity |url=https://books.google.com.au/books?vid=ISBN9780521660396 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-66039-6}}

Category:Transitivity and valency