Reading disability

{{short description|Type of learning disability in which reading is impaired}} {{Reading}}

A '''reading disability''' is a condition in which a person displays difficulty reading. Examples of reading disabilities include developmental dyslexia and alexia (acquired dyslexia).

==Definition==

The National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke defines reading disability or dyslexia as follows: "Dyslexia is a brain-based type of learning disability that specifically impairs a person's ability to read. These individuals typically read at levels significantly lower than expected despite having normal intelligence. Although the disorder varies from person to person, common characteristics among people with dyslexia are difficulty with spelling, phonological processing (the manipulation of sounds), and rapid visual-verbal responding. In adults, dyslexia usually occurs after a brain injury or in the context of dementia. It can also be inherited in some families, and recent studies have identified a number of genes that may predispose an individual to developing dyslexia."<ref>{{NINDS|dyslexia}}</ref> The NINDS definition is not in keeping with the bulk of scientific studies that conclude that there is no evidence to suggest that dyslexia and intelligence are related.<ref name="Identifying and Teaching Children and Young People with Dyslexia and Literacy Difficulties">{{cite web|last1=Rose|first1=James|title=Sir|url=http://dera.ioe.ac.uk/14790/7/00659-2009DOM-EN_Redacted.pdf|website=Institute of Education|publisher=United Kingdom Government|access-date=March 4, 2016}}</ref> Definition is more in keeping with modern research and debunked discrepancy model of dyslexia diagnosis:<ref name="Discrepancy Definitions of Reading Disability: Has Intelligence Led Us Astray?">{{cite journal|last1=Stanovich|first1=K|title= Discrepancy Definitions of Reading Disability: Has Intelligence Led Us Astray? |journal=Reading Research Quarterly|date=Winter 1991|volume=26|issue=1|pages=7–29|jstor=747729|doi=10.2307/747729}}</ref> *Dyslexia is a learning difficulty that primarily affects the skills involved in accurate and fluent word reading and spelling. *Characteristic features of dyslexia are difficulties in phonological awareness, verbal memory and verbal processing speed. *Dyslexia occurs across the range of intellectual abilities. *It is best thought of as a continuum, not a distinct category, and there are no clear cut-off points. *Co-occurring difficulties may be seen in aspects of language, motor coordination, mental calculation, concentration and personal organisation, but these are not, by themselves, markers of dyslexia. *A good indication of the severity and persistence of dyslexic difficulties can be gained by examining how the individual responds or has responded to well-founded intervention.

==Reading disabilities==

===Dyslexia=== {{Main article|Dyslexia}} Dyslexia is a learning disability that manifests itself as a difficulty with word decoding and reading fluency. Comprehension may be affected as a result of difficulties with decoding, but is not a primary feature of dyslexia. It is separate and distinct from reading difficulties resulting from other causes, such as a non-neurological deficiency with vision or hearing, or from poor or inadequate reading instruction.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Stanovich |first1=Keith E. |title=Explaining the Differences Between the Dyslexic and the Garden-Variety Poor Reader: The Phonological-Core Variable-Difference Model |journal=Journal of Learning Disabilities |date=December 1988 |volume=21 |issue=10 |pages=590–604 |doi=10.1177/002221948802101003 |pmid=2465364 |s2cid=19788503 }}</ref> It is estimated that dyslexia affects between 5–17% of the population.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCandliss |first1=Bruce D. |last2=Noble |first2=Kimberly G. |title=The development of reading impairment: A cognitive neuroscience model |journal=Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews |date=2003 |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=196–205 |doi=10.1002/mrdd.10080 |pmid=12953299 |citeseerx=10.1.1.587.4158 }}</ref><ref name=Czepita2006>{{cite journal |last1=Czepita |first1=Damian |last2=Łodygowska |first2=Ewa |title=Rola narządu wzroku w przebiegu dysleksji rozwojowej |trans-title=Role of the organ of vision in the course of developmental dyslexia |language=pl |journal=Klinika Oczna |date=2006 |volume=108 |issue=1 |pages=110–113 |url=http://www.klinikaoczna.pl/Rola-narzadu-wzroku-w-przebiegu-r-ndysleksji-rozwojowej,124,48805,0,0.html |pmid=16883955 }}</ref><ref name="Birsh2005">{{cite book |last=Birsh |first=Judith R. |year=2005 |chapter=Research and reading disability |editor=Judith R. Birsh |title=Multisensory Teaching of Basic Language Skills |page=8 |publisher=Paul H. Brookes Publishing |location=Baltimore, Maryland |isbn=978-1-55766-676-5 |oclc=57652241}}</ref> Dyslexia has been proposed to have three cognitive subtypes (auditory, visual and attentional), although individual cases of dyslexia are better explained by the underlying neuropsychological deficits and co-occurring learning disabilities (e.g. attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, math disability, etc.).<ref name=Czepita2006/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pennington |first1=Bruce F. |last2=Santerre-Lemmon |first2=Laura |last3=Rosenberg |first3=Jennifer |last4=MacDonald |first4=Beatriz |last5=Boada |first5=Richard |last6=Friend |first6=Angela |last7=Leopold |first7=Daniel R. |last8=Samuelsson |first8=Stefan |last9=Byrne |first9=Brian |last10=Willcutt |first10=Erik G. |last11=Olson |first11=Richard K. |title=Individual prediction of dyslexia by single versus multiple deficit models |journal=Journal of Abnormal Psychology |date=February 2012 |volume=121 |issue=1 |pages=212–224 |doi=10.1037/a0025823 |pmid=22022952 |pmc=3270218 }}</ref><ref name=cognitivedeficits>{{cite journal |last1=Valdois |first1=Sylviane |last2=Bosse |first2=Marie-Line |last3=Tainturier |first3=Marie-Josèphe |title=The cognitive deficits responsible for developmental dyslexia: Review of evidence for a selective visual attentional disorder |journal=Dyslexia |date=November 2004 |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=339–363 |doi=10.1002/dys.284 |pmid=15573964 }}</ref><ref name='Heim'>{{cite journal |last1=Heim |first1=Stefan |last2=Tschierse |first2=Julia |last3=Amunts |first3=Katrin |last4=Wilms |first4=Marcus |last5=Vossel |first5=Simone |last6=Willmes |first6=Klaus |last7=Grabowska |first7=Anna |last8=Huber |first8=Walter |title=Cognitive subtypes of dyslexia |journal=Acta Neurobiologiae Experimentalis |volume=68 |issue=1 |pages=73–82 |year=2008 |doi=10.55782/ane-2008-1674 |pmid=18389017 |url=http://www.ane.pl/linkout.php?pii=6809 |doi-access=free |archive-date=2018-11-04 |access-date=2010-05-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181104050133/https://www.ane.pl/linkout.php?pii=6809 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Facoetti |first1=Andrea |last2=Lorusso |first2=Maria Luisa |last3=Paganoni |first3=Pierluigi |last4=Cattaneo |first4=Carmen |last5=Galli |first5=Raffaella |last6=Umiltà |first6=Carlo |last7=Mascetti |first7=Gian Gastone |title=Auditory and visual automatic attention deficits in developmental dyslexia |journal=Cognitive Brain Research |date=April 2003 |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=185–191 |doi=10.1016/S0926-6410(02)00270-7 |pmid=12668226 }}</ref><ref name=anchoring>{{cite journal |last1=Ahissar |first1=Merav |title=Dyslexia and the anchoring-deficit hypothesis |journal=Trends in Cognitive Sciences |date=November 2007 |volume=11 |issue=11 |pages=458–465 |doi=10.1016/j.tics.2007.08.015 |pmid=17983834 |s2cid=11682478 }}</ref> Although not an intellectual disability, it is considered both a learning disability<ref name="MeSH">{{Cite web|title=Learning Disorders: MeSH Result|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/mesh/68004410?ordinalpos=1&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Mesh.Mesh_ResultsPanel.Mesh_RVFull|publisher=NLM MeSH Browser|website=nlm.nih.gov/mesh/meshhome.html|access-date=2009-11-06}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Dyslexia|url=http://www.ncld.org/ld-basics/ld-aamp-language/reading/dyslexia|publisher=The National Center for Learning Disabilities, Inc.|website=ncld.org|access-date=2009-11-07|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091217024342/http://www.ncld.org/ld-basics/ld-aamp-language/reading/dyslexia|archive-date=2009-12-17}}</ref> and a reading disability.<ref name="MeSH"/><ref>{{Cite web|title=Dyslexia|url=http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/dyslexia/DS00224|publisher=Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research|access-date=2009-11-07}}</ref> Dyslexia and IQ are not interrelated, since reading and cognition develop independently in individuals who have dyslexia.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ferrer |first1=Emilio |last2=Shaywitz |first2=Bennett A. |last3=Holahan |first3=John M. |last4=Marchione |first4=Karen |last5=Shaywitz |first5=Sally E. |title=Uncoupling of Reading and IQ Over Time: Empirical Evidence for a Definition of Dyslexia |journal=Psychological Science |date=January 2010 |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=93–101 |doi=10.1177/0956797609354084 |pmid=20424029 |citeseerx=10.1.1.459.3866 |s2cid=15568570 }}</ref> "Nerve problems can cause damage to the control of eye muscles which can also cause diplopia."<ref>{{cite web |title=Diplopia (Double Vision) |url=https://www.webmd.com/eye-health/double-vision-diplopia-causes-symptoms-diagnosis-treatment |work=WebMD }}</ref>

Students with dyslexia require a tailored approach in writing courses due to the impact of their neurological condition on their reading, writing, and spelling abilities.<ref name=":3">{{cite journal |last1=Taylor |first1=Mark J. |last2=Duffy |first2=Sandi |last3=England |first3=David |title=Teaching students with dyslexia in higher education |journal=Education + Training |date=27 March 2009 |volume=51 |issue=2 |pages=139–149 |doi=10.1108/00400910910941291 }}</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite journal |id={{ProQuest|220956908}} |last1=Corrigan |first1=John R. |title=Teaching Writing to Dyslexic Students: A Guide for the Composition Instructor |journal=Teaching English in the Two-Year College |date=1997 |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=205–211 |doi=10.58680/tetyc19973825 }}</ref> This approach is intended to aid their learning and maximize their potential. The incorporation of inclusive writing practices within the curriculum allows students with dyslexia to achieve a parallel education as their peers who do not have dyslexia or other reading disabilities.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":0" /> These practices provide effective strategies for writing courses to cater to the unique needs of students with dyslexia.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":0" /> For instance, John Corrigan, a graduate student with dyslexia, indicates that "the best method is one-on-one [assistance]"<ref name=":0" /> from professors or teachers in order to elevate the students' comprehension and strengthen their abilities in the classroom. Additionally, Corrigan states that the incorporation of audible text options are beneficial to students who are developing their writing skills.<ref name=":0" /> Corrigan's claim also implies that recorded lectures or self-recording class materials would serve a student with dyslexia.<ref name=":0" /> Sioned Exley's study concluded that an alternative approach to implementing inclusive writing practices is through kinesthetic teaching.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Exley |first=Sioned |date=2004-01-06 |title=The effectiveness of teaching strategies for students with dyslexia based on their preferred learning styles |journal=British Journal of Special Education |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=213–220 |doi=10.1111/j.0952-3383.2003.00313.x }}</ref><ref name=":2">{{cite book |doi=10.1002/9781119970897 |title=Dyslexia |year=2011 |last1=Reid |first1=Gavin |isbn=978-1-119-97089-7 }}{{page needed|date=June 2023}}</ref> Exley argues that a student with dyslexia may understand material through visual learning opposed to auditory engagement, as auditory processing tends to be a compromised ability in many people with dyslexia.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref>{{cite book |doi=10.4324/9780203059159-40 |chapter=Chichester/Fishbourne (West Sussex, England) |title=Northern Europe |year=2013 |pages=169–172 |isbn=978-0-203-05915-9 }}</ref> Implementing inclusive writing practices in the education system, specifically targeting youth education, will pave a route for increased higher-level educational opportunities for individuals with dyslexia in their adult years.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Moojen |first1=Sônia Maria Pallaoro |last2=Gonçalves |first2=Hosana Alves |last3=Bassôa |first3=Ana |last4=Navas |first4=Ana Luiza |last5=de Jou |first5=Graciela |last6=Miguel |first6=Emílio Sánchez |title=Adults with dyslexia: how can they achieve academic success despite impairments in basic reading and writing abilities? The role of text structure sensitivity as a compensatory skill |journal=Annals of Dyslexia |date=April 2020 |volume=70 |issue=1 |pages=115–140 |doi=10.1007/s11881-020-00195-w |pmid=32221905 |s2cid=255435267 }}</ref>

===Hyperlexia=== {{Main article|Hyperlexia}} Hyperlexic children are characterized by word-reading ability well above what would be expected given their ages and IQs.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Newman |first1=Tina M. |last2=Macomber |first2=Donna |last3=Naples |first3=Adam J. |last4=Babitz |first4=Tammy |last5=Volkmar |first5=Fred |last6=Grigorenko |first6=Elena L. |title=Hyperlexia in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders |journal=Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders |date=5 April 2007 |volume=37 |issue=4 |pages=760–774 |doi=10.1007/s10803-006-0206-y |pmid=17048093 |s2cid=23401685 }}</ref> Hyperlexia can be viewed as a superability in which word recognition ability goes far above expected levels of skill.<ref name=Grigorenko/> However, in spite of few problems with decoding, comprehension is poor. Some hyperlexics also have trouble understanding speech.<ref name=Grigorenko>{{cite journal |last1=Grigorenko |first1=Elena L. |last2=Klin |first2=Ami |last3=Volkmar |first3=Fred |title=Annotation: Hyperlexia: disability or superability?: Hyperlexia: disability or superability? |journal=Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry |date=November 2003 |volume=44 |issue=8 |pages=1079–1091 |doi=10.1111/1469-7610.00193 |pmid=14626452 |citeseerx=10.1.1.456.6283 }}</ref> Most children with hyperlexia lie on the autism spectrum.<ref name=Grigorenko/> Between 5–10% of autistic children have been estimated to be hyperlexic.<ref name="Burd, Kerbeshian, 1985">{{cite journal |last1=Burd |first1=Larry |last2=Kerbeshian |first2=Jacob |title=Hyperlexia and a Variant of Hypergraphia |journal=Perceptual and Motor Skills |date=June 1985 |volume=60 |issue=3 |pages=940–942 |doi=10.2466/pms.1985.60.3.940 |pmid=3927257 |s2cid=6158584 }}</ref>

==Remediation== {{See also|Dyslexia interventions|Management of dyslexia|List of phonics programs}} Remediation includes both appropriate remedial instruction and classroom accommodations.

==References== {{Reflist|2}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Reading Disability}} Category:Learning disabilities Category:Learning to read Category:Reading (process) Category:Special education Category:Educational psychology