Pua Kumbu

{{Short description|Traditional ceremonial cloth of the Iban people}} {{Italics title}} {{EngvarB|date=June 2025}} {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2025}} {{Infobox clothing type | name = ''Pua Kumbu'' | image_file = Pua Kumbu, Sheepstor church.jpg | image_size = 180px | caption = A ''Pua Kumbu'' at the St Leonard's Anglican Church in Sheepstor of Dartmoor, England, donated to the church by the people of Sarawak in memory of the White Rajahs of Raj of Sarawak<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theborneopost.com/2016/04/10/part-of-sarawaks-heritage-buried-deep-in-devon/|title=Part of Sarawak's heritage buried deep in Devon|last=Rogers|first=Alan|work=The Borneo Post|date=10 April 2016|access-date=18 June 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250618155640/https://www.theborneopost.com/2016/04/10/part-of-sarawaks-heritage-buried-deep-in-devon/|archive-date=18 June 2025|url-status=live}}</ref> | type = Traditional patterned multi-coloured ceremonial clothing | material = Cotton | location = Sarawak<ref name="Iban pua kumbu of Sarawak">{{cite web|url=https://www.thetextileatlas.com/craft-stories/iban-pua-kumbu-weaving-malaysia|title=Iban Pua Kumbu Weaving, Malaysia|last=Lush|first=Emily|work=The Textile Atlas|access-date=18 June 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250618063023/https://www.thetextileatlas.com/craft-stories/iban-pua-kumbu-weaving-malaysia|archive-date=18 June 2025|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="British Museum">{{cite web|url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/A_2013-3019-55|title=cloth (pua' kumbu'); religious/ritual equipment (|work=British Museum|year=2013|access-date=18 June 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250618065045/https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/A_2013-3019-55|archive-date=18 June 2025|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Swk Iban PK">{{cite web|url=https://lammuseum.wfu.edu/2014/11/iban-textile/|title=Iban Textile|work=Timothy S. Y. Lam Museum of Anthropology|date=10 November 2014 |via=Wake Forest University|location=Winston-Salem, North Carolina, United States|access-date=18 June 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250618070105/https://lammuseum.wfu.edu/2014/11/iban-textile/|archive-date=18 June 2025|url-status=live}}</ref> | manufacturer = Iban people<ref name="Iban pua kumbu of Sarawak"/><ref name="British Museum"/><ref name="Swk Iban PK"/> | url = }}

'''''Pua Kumbu''''' is a traditional patterned multi-coloured ceremonial cotton clothing created and occasionally worn by the Iban people of Sarawak in Malaysia,{{sfn|Khairani|2013|p=67}}{{sfn|Anak Sultan|Jusilin|2018|p=22}} West Kalimantan of Indonesia,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cseashawaii.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/WovenPower_StunnedbyBeauty_PromotionalFlyer.pdf|title=Woven Power: Ritual Textiles of Sarawak and West Kalimantan|work=UHCSEAS at the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa|location=Honolulu, Hawaii, United States|series=Iris & B. Gerald Cantor Art Gallery, College of the Holy Cross in conjunction with the exhibition Woven Power: Ritual Textiles of Sarawak and West Kalimantan|year=2016|access-date=18 June 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250618083443/https://www.cseashawaii.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/WovenPower_StunnedbyBeauty_PromotionalFlyer.pdf|archive-date=18 June 2025|url-status=live}}</ref> and Brunei during varieties of the ethnic festive such as ''Gawai'' and other Dayak celebrations.{{sfn|Anak Sultan|Jusilin|2018|p=22}}<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.pelitabrunei.gov.bn/Arkib%20Dokumen/2024/PELITA%20BRUNEI%2011052024.pdf|title=Aktiviti pelancongan, kraf tangan tarikan pengunjung|trans-title=Tourism activities, handicrafts attract visitors|last1=Haji Abdul Karim|first1=Hezlinawati|last2=Pg. Haji Nikman|first2=Ak. Mohd. Aminol Adi Azraie|lang=ms|work=Pelita Brunei|date=11 May 2024|access-date=18 June 2025|page=28/32|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250618140125/https://www.pelitabrunei.gov.bn/Arkib%20Dokumen/2024/PELITA%20BRUNEI%2011052024.pdf|archive-date=18 June 2025|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://threadsoflife.com/blogs/field-notes/life-transition-ceremonies-a-dayak-desa-ceremony-using-traditional-textiles-2|title=Life Transition Ceremonies – A Dayak Desa Ceremony Using Traditional Textiles|work=Threads of Life|date=15 December 2016|access-date=19 June 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250619045705/https://threadsoflife.com/blogs/field-notes/life-transition-ceremonies-a-dayak-desa-ceremony-using-traditional-textiles-2|archive-date=19 June 2025|url-status=live}}</ref> It is a sacred cloth among the Dayaks especially the female community, with any ''Pua Kumbu'' that was made may tell a weaver's personal story or a mythological tale which represents the purpose for which it has been woven.<ref name="pua kumbu swk">{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://encyclocraftsapr.com/pua-kumbu-sarawak/|title=Pua Kumbu (Sarawak)|last=Ong|first=Edric|encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Crafts in Asia Pacific Region (APR) Traditional Handmade Products|access-date=19 June 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sarawakfocus.com/blog/world-of-arts-2/pua-kumbu-weaving-iban-spirit-21|title=Pua Kumbu: Weaving Iban Spirit|work=SarawakFocus|date=30 December 2021|access-date=19 June 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250618232943/https://www.sarawakfocus.com/blog/world-of-arts-2/pua-kumbu-weaving-iban-spirit-21|archive-date=18 June 2025|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Etymology == The woven cloth of ''Pua Kumbu'' carries the meaning of a blanket used to "cover" or "wrap" one's body.{{sfn|Bolhassan|Cranefield|Dorner|2014|p=3382}} The word ''Pua'' means blanket while ''Kumbu'' is referred to be the cover, which is also defined as a blanket made by ''ikat'' (tie) or ''kebat'' (dye) processes that was used as a ritual textile.<ref>{{harv|Magiman|Chelum|Durin|Keh Nie|Mohd Yusoff|2018|p=1490}}</ref>

== History == [[File:Betenun textile from Iban.jpg|thumb|left|Textile from the Ibans of Sarawak, Malaysia]] The oldest textiles of Sarawak were recovered at the Niah National Park, which is home to the 40,000 year old ''Niah Man''.<ref name="Sarawak textile history">{{cite web|url=https://museum.sarawak.gov.my/web/subpage/webpage_view/109|title=Textile|work=Sarawak Museum|via=Government of Sarawak|access-date=18 June 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250618091807/https://museum.sarawak.gov.my/web/subpage/webpage_view/109|archive-date=18 June 2025|url-status=live}}</ref> Mat fragment that were uncovered are mostly associated with burials with some graves are found with woven "winding sheets", the earliest dated from {{circa|500}} B.C.<ref name="Sarawak textile history"/> The burying of the dead with their best clothes and graves gifts such as jewellery continues to be practised among some of the indigenous groups.<ref name="Sarawak textile history"/> In 2012, ''Pua Kumbu'' was declared as a Fine Art National Heritage by the National Heritage Department of Malaysia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.heritage.gov.my/en/warisan-kebangsaan-seni-halus.html|title=Warisan Kebangsaan Seni Halus|trans-title=National Heritage of Fine Arts|lang=ms|work=National Heritage Department, Malaysia|year=2012|access-date=18 June 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240225231253/https://www.heritage.gov.my/en/warisan-kebangsaan-seni-halus.html|archive-date=25 February 2024|url-status=dead}}</ref> Since the recognition, the elements of ''Pua Kumbu'' are getting more recognisable and influencing a variety of shirt patterns.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.pressreader.com/malaysia/utusan-borneo-sarawak/20150422/282638916123705|title=FESYEN GABUNGAN PUA KUMBU SEMAKIN DIMINATI RAMAI|trans-title=PUA KUMBU COMBINATION FASHION IS BEING MORE AND MORE POPULAR|last=Zacchaeus|first=Watt|lang=ms|work=Utusan Borneo|via=PressReader|date=22 April 2015|access-date=18 June 2025}}</ref>

In West Kalimantan, attempts at preservation of Iban textiles received resentment and protest from the indigenous female community in the early 1970s, where the ''Pua Kumbu'' was burnt and accusations such as "trying to keep the indigenous primitive" and "frozen in time" were spread.{{sfn|Hulsbosch|Bedford|Chaiklin|2009|p=201}}{{sfn|Kreps|2009|p=181}} By the 2020s, there began a growing interest in the textile with further encouragement towards the local provincial government to preserve the indigenous culture legacy.{{sfn|Ulfa Ayu|2023|p=3}}

== ''Pua Kumbu'' folktales == The origin of ''Pua Kumbu'' can be traced through the many myths and folklores of the Ibans,<ref name="tale of pua kumbu">{{cite news|url=https://www.theborneopost.com/2017/08/20/the-untold-tale-of-pua-kumbu/|title=The untold tale of Pua Kumbu|last1=Rahman|first1=Manizey Ibrahim|last2=Chan|first2=Dunstan|work=The Borneo Post|date=20 August 2017|access-date=18 June 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250618084042/https://www.theborneopost.com/2017/08/20/the-untold-tale-of-pua-kumbu/|archive-date=18 June 2025|url-status=live}}</ref> with the most prominent ones being the ''Dara Tinchin Temaga and Menggin'' stories.<ref name="Pua Kumbu folktales">{{cite web|url=https://baskl.com.my/tracing-the-origins-of-pua-kumbu/|title=Tracing the origins of Pua Kumbu|last=Hanafi|first=Atikah|work=Lensa Seni|via=Bandar Aktiviti Seni|location=Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia|date=22 December 2021|access-date=18 June 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250618075335/https://baskl.com.my/tracing-the-origins-of-pua-kumbu/|archive-date=18 June 2025|url-status=live}}</ref> The story goes on when ''Menggin'', a skilful Iban hunter, goes to the deep forest of Borneo in search of game. During the hunting, he encountered a hornbill, which he shot with his blowpipe and fell to the ground.<ref name="Pua Kumbu folktales"/> He rushed towards the target, only to be greeted by a beautiful woman screaming in pain, and the hornbill was nowhere to be seen. The woman later became his wife, and they are blessed with a son.<ref name="Pua Kumbu folktales"/>

As days passed, his wife used to weave special clothes and constantly gaze at the sky while feeding their infant. ''Menggin'' was always curious about ''Tinchin'', but he was forbidden from asking the background of his wife as a term for their marriage.<ref name="Pua Kumbu folktales"/> With the increase of her husband's curiosity, ''Tinchin'' finally revealed that she is the daughter of the Iban God of ''Singalang Burong'', and with the broken term, she needs to leave both her husband and son to return to her original place.<ref name="Pua Kumbu folktales"/> Prior to her departure, two handwoven clothes, the ''Pua Kumbu'', were left for both the husband and son to wear whenever they visit her in her realm.<ref name="Pua Kumbu folktales"/> Since then, the clothes were passed down through the Ibans for generations, and their ethnic women continue to weave similar clothes to attain proximity with their God and the spiritual realm.<ref name="Pua Kumbu folktales"/>

== Dyeing and weaving process == [[File:Pua Kumbu, the Dayak Iban's craftwork of Sarawak.jpg|thumb|right|The weaving of ''Pua Kumbu'']] The process starts with preparing the yarn for the weaving, which consists of the following:<ref name="tale of pua kumbu"/> * '''''Nabu'''''' – winding the thread into balls * '''''Muai''''' – to sort out * '''''Ngirit''''' – the process of stretching and pulling a skin of thread horizontally, one thead at a time, to form the base or warp * '''''Ngarap''''' – the selection of alternate warp * '''''Ngebat''''' – tying * '''''Mampul''''' – to cover * '''''Muka' tanchang''''' – untying * '''''Ngerembai''''' – unfolding * '''''Anak''''' and '''''Ara''''' – adding side designs

The time to produce ''pua kumbu'' takes quite a long time with the carving process takes one week, while producing the colours using ''engkudu'' takes around 15 days.{{sfn|Tugang|Senang|Asri|2022|p=62}} The ''mampul'' process takes three days while the ''ngupak'' process takes another two days. Another week is needed to weave the ''pua kumbu'' until it is finished.{{sfn|Tugang|Senang|Asri|2022|p=62}}

=== Weaving === In order to prepare for the weaving process, the yarns are unfolded and carefully arranged on a wooden frame. Before the actual weaving begins, the side sections of the unfolded yarn known as ''anak'' or ''ara'' are carefully arranged.<ref name="tale of pua kumbu"/> ''Nenun'' or weaving is done using a backstrap loom placed in a convenient spot within the longhouse. The final stage involves finishing of the top and bottom edges with a crowfeet pattern.{{sfn|Truna|Tugang|Mohd Shaipullah|D. Mahyan|2021|p=10957}}

=== Dyeing === All of the raw materials for the natural dyes are harvested from the rainforest with the Ibans in both Sarawak and West Kalimantan have traditionally made use of a large number of plants to produce a range of rich beautiful dyes.{{sfn|Trismaya|Nugroho|Purwanto|2018|p=356}}<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thestar.com.my/lifestyle/living/2024/09/13/this-malaysian-carries-on-her-family-tradition-as-the-master-weaver-of-pua-kumbu|title=For 34 years, this Malaysian master weaver has carried on the pua kumbu tradition|last=Pereira|first=Jacqueline|work=The Star|date=14 September 2024|access-date=18 June 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250618132616/https://www.thestar.com.my/lifestyle/living/2024/09/13/this-malaysian-carries-on-her-family-tradition-as-the-master-weaver-of-pua-kumbu|archive-date=18 June 2025|url-status=live}}</ref> The ''rengat'' (''marsdenia tinctoria'') plant produces an indigo colour in many different tones.<ref name="pua kumbu swk"/><ref>{{cite news|url=https://erisgoesto.com/2015/07/09/ancient-art-of-the-iban-textile-tales-of-pua-kumbu/|title=Ancient Art of the Iban : Textile Tales of Pua Kumbu|author=Eris|work=Eris Goes To|date=9 July 2015|access-date=18 June 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250618150206/https://erisgoesto.com/2015/07/09/ancient-art-of-the-iban-textile-tales-of-pua-kumbu/|archive-date=18 June 2025|url-status=live}}</ref> The ''akar penawar landak'' (''fibraurea tinctoria'') is used to obtain yellow colour dye.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theborneopost.com/2022/10/02/pua-kumbu-artisans-of-rumah-gare/|title=Pua Kumbu artisans of Rumah Gare|last=Banji|first=Conny|work=The Borneo Post|date=2 October 2022|access-date=18 June 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250618141855/https://www.theborneopost.com/2022/10/02/pua-kumbu-artisans-of-rumah-gare/|archive-date=18 June 2025|url-status=live}}</ref> For the ''mengkudu'' (''morinda citrifolia'') dye, if ''kapok'' (''ceiba pentandra'') or quicklime is added the colour will turn brown. The yarn is dipped into the combination, turned until it is well saturated and left to soak before it is dried under the sun. After the dye process yarns are further prepared by tying sections to build up the design.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://borneonative.com/blogs/blog/pua-kumbu-how-is-it-made?|title=Pua Kumbu : How is it made|work=Borneo Native|date=14 November 2020|access-date=18 June 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250618142329/https://borneonative.com/blogs/blog/pua-kumbu-how-is-it-made?|archive-date=18 June 2025|url-status=live}}</ref>

== In the media == The National Film Department of Malaysia ({{langx|ms|Filem Negara Malaysia}}) produced a 16-minute documentary about ''Pua Kumbu'' in 1993 and has been aired on Radio Televisyen Malaysia (RTM) and TV Pendidikan.<ref>{{YouTube|VLpOX9Ho9Og|RETROSPEKTIF: "Pua Kumbu" (1993)}}</ref>

== References == {{reflist|30em}}

=== Bibliography === * {{cite book|last1=Hulsbosch|first1=Marianne|last2=Bedford|first2=Elizabeth|last3=Chaiklin|first3=Martha|title=Asian Material Culture|publisher=Amsterdam University Press|date=2009|isbn=978-90-8964-090-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PcvA373XEJwC}} * {{cite journal|url=https://tracingpatterns.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/Kreps_Intangible20Threads.pdf|title=Intangible Threads: Curating the Living Heritage of Dayak Ikat Weaving|last=Kreps|first=Christina|journal=Tracing Patterns Foundation|year=2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240712075120/https://tracingpatterns.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/Kreps_Intangible20Threads.pdf|archive-date=12 July 2024|url-status=live}} * {{cite journal|url=https://ejournal.upsi.edu.my/index.php/JSPS/article/download/2219/1542/3612|title=Repositioning Pua Kumbu Through Artistic Practice: Globalising The Local By Drawing Upon Diverse Malaysian Cultural Forms|last=Khairani|first=Mohd Zahuri|journal=Journal of Art and Art Education|via=E-Journal Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris (UPSI)|year=2013|volume=1|pages=67–75|issn=2289-4640}} * {{cite book|title=2014 47th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences|last1=Bolhassan|first1=Rashidah|last2=Cranefield|first2=Jocelyn|last3=Dorner|first3=Dan|chapter=Indigenous Knowledge Sharing in Sarawak: A System-Level View and Its Implications for the Cultural Heritage Sector |via=Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers|year=2014|doi=10.1109/HICSS.2014.419|pages=3378–3388|isbn=978-1-4799-2504-9 }} * {{cite journal|url=https://www.saspublishers.com/article/17873/download/|title=The Iban's Belief towards the Meaning of Pua Kumbu's Motif|last1=Magiman|first1=Mohamad Maulana|last2=Chelum|first2=Alexander|last3=Durin|first3=Anna|last4=Keh Nie|first4=Connie Lim|last5=Mohd Yusoff|first5=Ahmad Nasir|journal=Scholars Journal of Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences|year=2018|volume=6|issue=8|pages=1490–1496|issn=2347-5374|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250619053126/https://www.saspublishers.com/article/17873/download/|archive-date=19 June 2025|url-status=live}} * {{cite journal|url=https://eprints.ums.edu.my/25267/7/Estetika%20Motif%20dan%20Corak%20Tenunan%20Pua%20Kumbu%20Orang%20Iban%20di%20Sarawak1.pdf|title=ESTETIKA MOTIF DAN CORAK TENUNAN PUA KUMBU ORANG IBAN DI SARAWAK|trans-title=AESTHETICS OF MOTIVES AND WEAVING PATTERNS OF PUA KUMBU OF THE IBAN PEOPLE IN SARAWAK|last1=Anak Sultan|first1=Ngumbang|last2=Jusilin|first2=Humen|lang=ms|journal=Jurnal Komunikasi Borneo|via=Universiti Malaysia Sabah Institutional Repository|year=2018|volume=6|pages=1–6|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250618061058/https://eprints.ums.edu.my/25267/7/Estetika%20Motif%20dan%20Corak%20Tenunan%20Pua%20Kumbu%20Orang%20Iban%20di%20Sarawak1.pdf|archive-date=18 June 2025|url-status=live}} * {{cite book|chapter-url=https://www.scitepress.org/Papers/2018/99310/99310.pdf|last1=Trismaya|first1=Nita|last2=Nugroho|first2=A. Cahyo|last3=Purwanto|first3=Semiarto|chapter=Weaving for Development: An Ethnographic Study on How the Ibans of West Kalimantan Determines the Color of Pua Kumbu|title=Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Recent Innovations|year=2018|pages=356–363|via=SciTe Press|doi=10.5220/0009931003560363|isbn=978-989-758-458-9|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250522011517/https://www.scitepress.org/Papers/2018/99310/99310.pdf|archive-date=22 May 2025|url-status=live}} * {{cite journal|url=https://www.nveo.org/index.php/journal/article/download/2295/2027/2326|title=Analysis of Frieze Patterns Concepts in Pua Kumbu|last1=Truna|first1=Liyana A.|last2=Tugang|first2=Noria B.|last3=Mohd Shaipullah|first3=Norhunaini C.|last4=D. Mahyan|first4=Nur Rasfina|journal=Natural Volatiles and Essential Oils|year=2021|volume=8|issue=4|pages=10949–10962|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250618145034/https://www.nveo.org/index.php/journal/article/download/2295/2027/2326|archive-date=18 June 2025|url-status=live}} * {{cite book|url=https://core.ac.uk/download/542313173.pdf|title=Warisan Budaya Miring dalam Masyarakat Iban di Sarawak|trans-title=The Miring Cultural Heritage of the Iban Community in Sarawak|last1=Tugang|first1=Noria|last2=Senang|first2=Bibiana Motey|last3=Asri|first3=Adilawati|collaboration=Chong Lee, Yow; Mersat, Neilson Ilan; Durin, Anna; Awang Ar, Hashim|lang=ms|publisher=Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, National Library of Malaysia|year=2022|id={{CORE output|542313173}}|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250618121516/https://core.ac.uk/download/542313173.pdf|archive-date=18 June 2025|url-status=live}} * {{cite thesis|url=http://scholar.unand.ac.id/207819/|title=Nilai-Nilai Kepercayaan Dalam Pembuatan Tenun Kebat Iban (Studi Kasus Pada Masyarakat Dayak Iban di Dusun Sungai Utik, Desa Batu Lintang, Kecamatan Embaloh Hulu, Kabupaten Kapuas Hulu, Provinsi Kalimantan Barat)|trans-title=Belief Values in Making Iban Kebat Weaving (Case Study of the Iban Dayak Community in Dusun Sungai Utik, Batu Lintang Village, Embaloh Hulu District, Kapuas Hulu Regency, West Kalimantan Province)|last=Ulfa Ayu|first=Fitri Yeni|lang=id|work=Department of Anthropology, Faculty of Social and Political Sciences|via=e-Skripsi, Andalas University|year=2023}}

== Further reading == * {{cite thesis|url=https://researchonline.jcu.edu.au/44325/1/44325-chalmers-1993-thesis.pdf|title=Ikat sequences and social-cultural patterns: the impact of industrialisation on the lives of Iban artisans in Sarawak|last=Chalmers|first=Linda Louise|year=1993|work=Doctor of Philosophy in the Material Culture Unit and Department of Tourism|via=James Cook University|location=Queensland, Australia|pages=1–391|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250522071905/https://researchonline.jcu.edu.au/44325/1/44325-chalmers-1993-thesis.pdf|archive-date=22 May 2025|url-status=live}} * {{cite book|last=Gavin|first=Traude|title=The Women's Warpath: Iban Ritual Fabrics from Borneo|publisher=UCLA Fowler Museum of Cultural History|date=1996|isbn=978-0-930741-50-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9X_WAAAAMAAJ&q=about+pua+kumbu}} * {{cite book|last=Gavin|first=Traude|title=Iban Ritual Textiles|publisher=KITLV Press|date=2003|isbn=978-90-6718-202-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jbJwAAAAMAAJ}} * {{cite book|title=The Asian Civilisations Museum A-Z Guide to Its Collections|publisher=National Heritage Board, Asian Civilisations Museum (Singapore)|date=2003|isbn=978-981-4068-67-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s0Ns5DlKnWIC}} * {{cite thesis|url=https://scispace.com/pdf/social-fabric-circulating-pua-kumbu-textiles-of-the-77s8ur25t5.pdf|title=Social Fabric [Circulating Pua Kumbu Textiles of the Indigenous Dayak Iban People in Sarawak]|last=Low|first=Audrey|via=SciSpace|year=2008|pages=1–237|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250618152606/https://scispace.com/pdf/social-fabric-circulating-pua-kumbu-textiles-of-the-77s8ur25t5.pdf|archive-date=18 June 2025|url-status=live}} * {{cite journal|url=https://tsukuba.repo.nii.ac.jp/record/36057/file_preview/juluk%20FINALver.%201550623.pdf|title=LABEL, TITLE, AND JULUK: THE NAMING SYSTEM FOR WEAVING DESIGNS OF IBAN RITUAL FABRIC|last=Hasegawa|first=Goro|journal=Borneo Research Bulletin|via=Tulips-R, Tsukuba University Library|location=Tsukuba, Japan|year=2018|volume=45|pages=1–6|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250618085530/https://tsukuba.repo.nii.ac.jp/record/36057/file_preview/juluk%20FINALver.%201550623.pdf|archive-date=18 June 2025|url-status=live}} * {{cite magazine|url=https://handwovenmagazine.com/iban-weavers/|title=Iban Weavers|last=Garton|first=Christina|magazine=Handwoven|date=4 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250618151611/https://handwovenmagazine.com/iban-weavers/|archive-date=18 June 2025|url-status=live}} * {{cite news|url=https://dayakdaily.com/the-making-of-300yo-pua-kumbu-akik-ungkuk-promises-victory-for-iban-womans-husband-at-war/|title=The making of 300yo Pua Kumbu: 'Akik Ungkuk' promises victory for Iban woman's husband at war|last=Louis|first=Shikin|work=Dayak Daily|date=2 January 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250618123309/https://dayakdaily.com/the-making-of-300yo-pua-kumbu-akik-ungkuk-promises-victory-for-iban-womans-husband-at-war/|archive-date=18 June 2025|url-status=live}} * {{cite journal|url=https://arkeologimalaysia.org.my/jurnalarkeologi/index.php/jurnalarkeologi/article/download/273/325|title=DARIPADA MUZIUM BRITISH KE RUMAH PANJANG: MENUNTUT SEMULA PUA KUMBU DAN MENJAGA SEMULA IDENTITI BUDAYA IBAN|trans-title=FROM THE BRITISH MUSEUM TO THE LONGHOUSE: RECLAIMING THE PUA KUMBU AND REVITALIZING IBAN CULTURAL IDENTITY|last=Kiyai @ Keai|first=Gregory|journal=Jurnal Arkeologi Malaysia|year=2025|volume=38|issue=1|pages=1–13|issn= 0128-0732|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250618234507/https://arkeologimalaysia.org.my/jurnalarkeologi/index.php/jurnalarkeologi/article/download/273/325|archive-date=18 June 2025|url-status=live}}

== External links == {{commons category-inline|Pua}} * {{cite web|url=http://malaysiana.pnm.my/04/0407puakumbu.htm|title=Warisan Seni Budaya Malaysia [Seni Halus – Pua Kumbu]|trans-title=Cultural Heritage of Malaysia [Fine Art – Pua Kumbu]|lang=ms|work=National Library of Malaysia|year=2000|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090317043216/http://malaysiana.pnm.my/04/0407puakumbu.htm|archive-date=17 March 2009|url-status=dead}} * {{cite web|url=https://www.artoftheancestors.com/blog/borneo-textiles|title=Borneo Textiles in Global Museum Collections|last=Alpert|first=Steven G.|work=Art of the Ancestors|date=29 September 2024|quote=Largely Pua Kumbu; includes other Iban textiles. Includes rare 19th century photos of the weavers.}} * {{cite web|url=https://tanoticrafts.com/collections/pua-kumbu-tapestries|title=Pua Kumbu Tapestries|work=Tanoti Crafts}}

Category:Culture of Malaysia Category:Culture of Indonesia Category:Textile arts of Asia Category:Woven fabrics Category:Indigenous art