Postdoctoral researcher

{{Short description|Person professionally conducting research after the completion of doctoral studies}} {{Redirect-distinguish|Post-doctoral|Doctorate#Higher doctorate and post-doctoral degrees{{!}}Post-doctoral degree}} {{Use dmy dates|date=April 2015}} {{Infobox Occupation | name = Postdoctoral researcher  | type = Profession | activity_sector = Academia, Industry | competencies = {{Plainlist| * Research * Teaching}} | formation = PhD or equivalent | employment_field = Academics, Industry }} {{Pie chart | caption = '''Post-doctoral researchers by discipline (United States, 2012)'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Powell |first=Kendall |date=2015-04-01 |title=The future of the postdoc |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/520144a |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=520 |issue=7546 |pages=144–147 |doi=10.1038/520144a |pmid=25855437 |bibcode=2015Natur.520..144P |issn=1476-4687}}</ref> | thumb = right | label1 = Life sciences | value1 = 65 | color1 = Green | label2 = Physical sciences | value2 = 13 | color2 = Purple | label3 = Engineering | value3 = 11 | color3 = Blue | label4 = Math and computer sciences | value4 = 3 | color4 = Gray | label5 = Geosciences | value5 = 3 | color5 = Orange | label6 = Psychology, social sciences and others | value6 = 5 | color6 = Red }}

A '''postdoctoral fellow''', '''postdoctoral researcher''', or simply '''postdoc''', is a person professionally conducting research after the completion of their doctoral studies (typically a PhD). Postdocs most commonly, but not always, have a temporary academic appointment during which time they are expected to professionalize by publishing papers and completing research, typically in preparation for a more permanent academic faculty position. According to data from the US National Science Foundation, the number of holders of PhD in biological sciences who end up in tenure track has consistently dropped from over 50% in 1973 to less than 20% in 2006.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Weissmann |first=Jordan |date=2013-02-20 |title=The Ph.D Bust: America's Awful Market for Young Scientists—in 7 Charts |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2013/02/the-phd-bust-americas-awful-market-for-young-scientists-in-7-charts/273339/ |access-date=2023-07-29 |website=The Atlantic |language=en}}</ref> They continue their studies or carry out research and further increase expertise in a specialist subject, including integrating a team and acquiring novel skills and research methods. Postdoctoral research is often considered essential while advancing the scholarly mission of the host institution; it is expected to produce relevant publications in peer-reviewed academic journals or conferences. In some countries, postdoctoral research may lead to further formal qualifications or certification, while in other countries, it does not.<ref name=whatisapostdoc/><ref name=kendall/>

Postdoctoral research may be funded through an appointment with a salary or an appointment with a stipend or sponsorship award. Appointments for such a research position may be called '''postdoctoral research fellow''', '''postdoctoral research associate''', or '''postdoctoral research assistant'''. Postdoctoral researchers typically work under the supervision of a principal investigator. In many English-speaking countries, postdoctoral researchers are colloquially referred to as "postdocs".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nationalpostdoc.org/postdocs|publisher=NationalPostDoc.org|title=National Postdoctoral Association: Career Development Resources|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150316003026/http://nationalpostdoc.org/postdocs|archive-date=2015-03-16}}</ref>

==Job security in academia== Due to the nature of their work in some fields,<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Bourne | first1 = P. E. | last2 = Friedberg | first2 = I. | doi = 10.1371/journal.pcbi.0020121 | title = Ten Simple Rules for Selecting a Postdoctoral Position | journal = PLOS Computational Biology | volume = 2 | issue = 11 | pages = e121 | year = 2006 | pmid = 17121457 | pmc =1664706 | bibcode = 2006PLSCB...2..121B | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1126/science.caredit.a1300256| title = The Postdoc: A Special Kind of Hell| journal = Science| year = 2013| last1 = Ruben | first1 = A. }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | pmid = 18756230 | year = 2008 | last1 = Brooks | first1 = I. M. | title = Postdoc glut means academic pathway needs an overhaul | journal = Nature | volume = 454 | issue = 7208 | pages = 1049 | doi = 10.1038/4541049a | bibcode = 2008Natur.454.1049B | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | pmid = 22491294 | year = 2012 | last1 = Theodosiou | first1 = M | title = The rise of the professional master's degree: The answer to the postdoc/PhD bubble | journal = Nature Biotechnology | volume = 30 | issue = 4 | pages = 367–8 | last2 = Rennard | first2 = J. P. | last3 = Amir-Aslani | first3 = A | s2cid = 205276890 | doi = 10.1038/nbt.2180 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | pmid = 25001498 | pmc = 4053951 | year = 2014 | last1 = Odom | first1 = D. T.|author-link1=Duncan Odom | title = Survival strategies for choosing the right postdoc position | journal = Genome Biology | volume = 15 | issue = 3 | pages = 107 | doi = 10.1186/gb4163 | doi-access = free }} {{open access}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Lauto | first1 = G. | last2 = Sengoku | first2 = S. | doi = 10.1016/j.futures.2014.10.010 | title = Perceived incentives to transdisciplinarity in a Japanese university research center | journal = Futures | volume = 65 | pages = 136–149 | year = 2015 | hdl = 2433/196093 | hdl-access = free }}</ref> and an oversupply of graduating PhD students in many fields,<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Cyranoski | first1 = D. | last2 = Gilbert | first2 = N. | last3 = Ledford | first3 = H. | last4 = Nayar | first4 = A. | last5 = Yahia | first5 = M. | title = Education: The PhD factory | doi = 10.1038/472276a | journal = Nature | volume = 472 | issue = 7343 | pages = 276–279 | year = 2011 | pmid = 21512548| bibcode = 2011Natur.472..276C | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1038/472280a| pmid = 21512549| title = Education: Rethinking PhDs. Fix it, overhaul it or skip it completely — institutions and individuals are taking innovative approaches to postgraduate science training| journal = Nature| volume = 472| issue = 7343| pages = 280–282| year = 2011| last1 = McCook | first1 = A. | doi-access = free}}</ref> some postdoctoral researchers in certain countries face an uncertain future in academia,<ref name=kendall>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1038/520144a| title = The future of the postdoc: There is a growing number of postdocs and few places in academia for them to go| journal = Nature| volume = 520| issue = 7546| pages = 144–7| year = 2015| last1 = Powell | first1 = Kendall| pmid=25855437| doi-access = free| bibcode = 2015Natur.520..144P}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal| author = Anon | doi = 10.1038/516007b| pmid = 25471843| title = Harsh reality: Two reports highlight the plight of postdocs on both sides of the pond aiming for academia| journal = Nature| volume = 516| issue = 7529| pages = 7–8| year = 2014| doi-access = free}}</ref> and a large proportion will not gain tenure<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1038/nj7320-123a| pmid = 21157983| title = Academia: The changing face of tenure| journal = Nature| volume = 468| issue = 7320| pages = 123–125| year = 2010| last1 = Kaplan | first1 = K. | doi-access = free}}</ref> or a coveted faculty position in their chosen field of research.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1145/2408776.2408801| title = The explosive growth of postdocs in computer science| journal = Communications of the ACM| volume = 56| issue = 2| pages = 37–39| year = 2013| last1 = Jones | first1 = A. | s2cid = 28370486}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | author = Anon| s2cid = 205063761 | doi = 10.1038/472259b | title = Fix the PhD: No longer a guaranteed ticket to an academic career, the PhD system needs a serious rethink| journal = Nature | volume = 472 | issue = 7343 | pages = 259–260 | year = 2011 | pmid = 21512527 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Rohn | first1 = J. | author-link = Jennifer Rohn| title = Give postdocs a career, not empty promises | doi = 10.1038/471007a | journal = Nature | volume = 471 | issue = 7336 | pages = 7 | year = 2011 | pmid = 21368781| bibcode = 2011Natur.471....7R | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | pmid = 25691698 | pmc = 4343141 | year = 2015 | last1 = Alberts | first1 = B | title = Opinion: Addressing systemic problems in the biomedical research enterprise | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | volume = 112 | issue = 7 | pages = 1912–3 | last2 = Kirschner | first2 = M. W. | last3 = Tilghman | first3 = S | last4 = Varmus | first4 = H | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1500969112 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

A study on the topic was conducted in collaboration between Virginia Tech and MIT in 2018.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Andalib |first1=Maryam A. |last2=Ghaffarzadegan |first2=Navid |last3=Larson |first3=Richard C. |date=November 2018 |title=The Postdoc Queue: A Labour Force in Waiting: The Postdoc Queue: A Labour Force in Waiting |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/sres.2510 |journal=Systems Research and Behavioral Science |language=en |volume=35 |issue=6 |pages=675–686 |doi=10.1002/sres.2510|hdl=1721.1/122786 |hdl-access=free |url-access=subscription }}</ref> The authors found that only about 17% of postdocs ultimately land tenure-track positions. In the 1970s the number of bioscience postdocs who proceed to acquire tenure-track positions was 50%, illustrating a significant shift in the job market.<ref name=":1" />

As of 2022, however, and the broad shifts in the labor market in response to the COVID-19 pandemic, postdoc positions in at least some fields are going unfilled due to a lack of applicants.<ref>{{Cite web |title=As professors struggle to recruit postdocs, calls for structural change in academia intensify |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/professors-struggle-recruit-postdocs-calls-structural-change-academia-intensify |access-date=2022-07-14 |website=www.science.org |language=en}}</ref>

==United Kingdom== In the United Kingdom in 2003, 25% of PhD graduates in the natural sciences continued to undertake post-doctoral research.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.grad.ac.uk/cms/ShowPage/Home_page/Resources/What_Do_PhDs_Do_/Physical_Sciences_and_Engineering/p!eklggFa|title=UK GRAD Programme: Physical sciences and engineering PhD graduates from 2003 at a glance|access-date=2007-12-04|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929102616/http://www.grad.ac.uk/cms/ShowPage/Home_page/Resources/What_Do_PhDs_Do_/Physical_Sciences_and_Engineering/p%21eklggFa|archive-date=29 September 2007|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Since the landmark ruling in the employment tribunal (Scotland) Ball vs Aberdeen University 2008 case (S/101486/08), researchers who have held successive fixed-term contracts for four years' service are no longer temporary employees but are entitled to open-ended contracts.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.ucu.org.uk/index.cfm?articleid=3571 | title=UCU – University and College Union – Research staff}}</ref>

== United States == In the US, a postdoctoral scholar is an individual holding a doctoral degree who is engaged in mentored research or scholarly training for the purpose of acquiring the professional skills needed to pursue a career path of his or her choosing.<ref name="whatisapostdoc">{{cite web | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402085942/http://www.nationalpostdoc.org/policy/what-is-a-postdoc|archive-date=2015-04-02|url=http://www.nationalpostdoc.org/policy/what-is-a-postdoc | title=What is a Postdoc?}}</ref> Postdoctoral researchers play an important role in spearheading postgraduate research activity in the US. The median salary of postdoctoral researchers one to five years after receiving their doctoral degrees is $42,000, 44% less than the $75,000 average for tenured positions.<ref name="nsf.gov">{{cite web | url=https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/seind12/pdf/c03.pdf | title=Science and Engineering Labor Force. In Science and Engineering Indicators 2012}}</ref> The National Postdoctoral Association (NPA)<ref>{{Cite journal | pmid = 20930810 | year = 2010 | last1 = Gewin | first1 = V | title = The spread of postdoc unions | journal = Nature | volume = 467 | issue = 7316 | pages = 739–41 | doi = 10.1038/467638a | doi-access = free }}</ref> and Boston Postdoctoral Association (BPDA)<ref>{{Cite journal | pmid = 27990268 | year = 2016 | last1 = Bankston | first1 = A | title = Monitoring the compliance of the academic enterprise with the Fair Labor Standards Act | journal = F1000Research | volume = 5 | issue = | pages = 2690 | doi = 10.12688/f1000research.10086.2 | pmc = 5130071 | doi-access = free }}</ref> are nonprofit organizations that advocate for postdoctoral scholars in the United States.

Postdoctoral research may be required for obtaining a tenure-track faculty position, especially at research-oriented institutions. Post-doctoral appointments that were traditionally optional have become mandatory in some fields as the degree of competition for tenure-track positions in academia has significantly increased over previous decades. In fact, the small supply of the professional positions in academia compared to the growing number of postdoctoral researchers makes it difficult to find tenure-track positions. In 2008, the proportion of postdoctoral researchers who got a tenure or tenure-track position within 5 years after they received a doctoral degree was about 39%;<ref name="nsf.gov" /> nearly 10% of postdoctoral researchers were over 40 years old in 2003.<ref name="sigmaxi.org">{{cite web |date=May–June 2005 |title=Doctors Without Orders: Highlights of The Sigma Xi Postdoc Survey |via=Sigma Xi.org |url=http://www.sigmaxi.org/postdoc/highlights.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120323153949/http://www.sigmaxi.org/postdoc/highlights.pdf |archive-date=23 March 2012 |url-status=dead |quote=Special Supplement to American Scientist }}</ref>

On the other hand, 85 percent of engineering doctoral degree holders are likely to initially go into business or the industry sector.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://pathwaysreport.org/rsc/pdf/19089_PathwaysRept_Links.pdf | title=Pathway Through Graduate School and Into Careers|archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20121008183155/http://pathwaysreport.org/rsc/pdf/19089_PathwaysRept_Links.pdf|archive-date=2012-10-08}}</ref> Under the circumstances, providing doctoral students as well as postdoctoral researchers with necessary skills for nonacademic positions has become one of the important roles for graduate schools and institutions. The America COMPETES Act recognized the importance of graduate student support for obtaining skills needed when they pursue nonacademic careers, and required National Science Foundation (NSF) to increase or decrease funding for the Integrative Graduate Education and Research Traineeship (IGERT) programs<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.nsf.gov/funding/pgm_summ.jsp?pims_id=12759&org=DGE&from=home | title=Integrative Graduate Education and Research Traineeship Program| date=10 March 2011}}</ref> at least at the same rate as it increases or decreases funding for the Graduate Research Fellowship. There are no comprehensive data of international postdoctoral researchers in the US because of the less-organized survey and the difficulty in counting international postdoctoral researchers. The proportion of postdoctoral researchers on temporary visas reached 53.6% in 2010.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/infbrief/nsf12317/ | title=Graduate Enrollment in Science and Engineering Grew Substantially in the Past Decade but Slowed in 2010}}</ref> The life sciences hold the largest percentage of postdoctoral researchers on temporary visas; in 2008, approximately 56% of postdoctoral researchers in the life sciences were temporary residents. Of these postdoctoral researchers on temporary visas, four out of five earned their PhD outside of the United States.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=How Economics Shapes Science|last=Stephan|first=Paula|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-674-04971-0|location=Cambridge, MA|pages=166–167, 195}}</ref> There exists fear that foreign PhD's are taking postdoctoral research positions from American researchers. The influx of foreign PhD's has influenced the supply of ready-researchers, and thereby, the wages. One estimate claims that a 10% increase in the supply of foreign postdoctoral researchers lower the position salary by 3 to 4%.<ref name=":0" />

In the US, life sciences have a greater share than other fields due to higher federal funding of life and medical science areas since the mid 1990s.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nsf.gov/about/congress/115/highlights/cu17_0508.jsp|title=Budget of NSF for the fiscal year 2015.}}</ref> One survey shows that 54% of postdoctoral researchers major in life sciences, whereas those who majored in physical science, mathematics, and engineering account for 28%.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.aau.edu/policy/postdoctoral.aspx | title=Postdoctoral Education Survey Summary of Results}}</ref>

In 2010, postdoctoral researchers in California formed a union, UAW Local 5810 in order to secure better working conditions such as the right to file a complaint for alleged discrimination or sexual harassment through a formal grievance procedure.<ref name="KM">{{cite web|url=http://news.sciencemag.org/scienceinsider/2010/08/california-postdocs-embrace-union.html|title=California Postdocs Embrace Union Contract|author=Kristen Minogue|publisher=Science Insider|date=Aug 13, 2010|access-date=June 22, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121009010827/http://news.sciencemag.org/scienceinsider/2010/08/california-postdocs-embrace-union.html|archive-date=9 October 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> In California, new postdoctoral appointments receive at least the NIH postdoctoral minimum salary ($50,004 in 2019) and many receive annual pay raises of 5% to 7% or more in accordance with the NIH's Ruth L. Kirschstein National Research Service Awards (NRSA).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nationalpostdoc.org/page/Stipends|title=Salary & NIH-NRSA Stipends|website=www.nationalpostdoc.org|access-date=2019-10-31}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Ruth L. Kirschstein National Research Service Award (NRSA) Stipends, Tuition/Fees and Other Budgetary Levels Effective for Fiscal Year 2012|url=https://grants.nih.gov/grants/guide/notice-files/NOT-OD-12-033.html|publisher=National Institutes of Health}}</ref>

In 2014, postdoctoral researchers in Boston organized the "Future of Research" Symposium to respond to a conversation about the state of biomedical research<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Rescuing US biomedical research from its systemic flaws|journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|date = 2014-04-22|issn = 0027-8424|pmc = 4000813|pmid = 24733905|pages = 5773–5777|volume = 111|issue = 16|doi = 10.1073/pnas.1404402111|first1 = Bruce|last1 = Alberts|first2 = Marc W.|last2 = Kirschner|first3 = Shirley|last3 = Tilghman|first4 = Harold|last4 = Varmus|bibcode = 2014PNAS..111.5773A|doi-access = free}}</ref> from the perspective of junior scientists. The meeting included panel discussions with academics concerned about the scientific enterprise, a video message from Massachusetts senator Elizabeth Warren, and workshops discussing training, funding, the structure of the biomedical workforce, and metrics and incentives in science which were used to generate recommendations in a white paper.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Shaping the Future of Research: a perspective from junior scientists|journal = F1000Research|pmc = 4304227|pmid = 25653845|doi = 10.12688/f1000research.5878.2|first1 = Gary S.|last1 = McDowell|first2 = Kearney T. W.|last2 = Gunsalus|first3 = Drew C.|last3 = MacKellar|first4 = Sarah A.|last4 = Mazzilli|first5 = Vaibhav P.|last5 = Pai|first6 = Patricia R.|last6 = Goodwin|first7 = Erica M.|last7 = Walsh|first8 = Avi|last8 = Robinson-Mosher|first9 = Thomas A.|last9 = Bowman|volume=3|year=2014|pages=291 | doi-access=free }}</ref> Meetings organized by postdoctoral researchers in 2015 spread to New York University (NYU), Chicago and San Francisco and a second meeting in Boston discussed data collection, labor economics and evidence-based policy to advocate for changes to science, including the future of the PhD.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = How to build a better PhD|journal = Nature|pages = 22–25|volume = 528|issue = 7580|doi = 10.1038/528022a|pmid = 26632571|first = Julie|last = Gould|year = 2015|bibcode = 2015Natur.528...22G|doi-access = free}}</ref>

== India == Most of India's premier engineering, science and management institutes, like Indian Institute of Science (IISc), Indian Institutes of Technology (IIT), Indian Institutes of Science Education and Research (IISER), Indian Institutes of Management (IIM) and All India Institutes of Medical Sciences (AIIMS), have postdoctoral positions. The salary typically varies from ₹65,000 to ₹80,000 per month plus HRA. For example, IIT Kharagpur, IIT Guwahati, IIT Delhi, IIT Kanpur, IIT Bombay, IIT Madras, IISER Bhopal, IISER Mohali, IISER Pune, IISER Kolkata, IIM Kolkata offer postdoctoral fellowships.<ref>{{cite web|last1=IIT Delhi|first1=PostDoc|title=Postdoc in IIT Delhi|url=http://www.iitd.ac.in/content/post-doctoral-fellows-pdf|publisher=IIT Delhi|access-date=2015-08-08}}</ref> The Indian Council of Social Science Research also offers fellowship(s) for pursuing a post doctoral degree.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Post Doctoral Fellowship {{!}} Indian Council of Social Science Research (ICSSR)|url=http://icssr.org/post-doctoral-fellowships|access-date=2020-06-28|website=icssr.org|archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20180718164830/http://icssr.org/post-doctoral-fellowships|archive-date=2018-07-18}}</ref>

== Australia == Salaried appointments at the minimum Level A, Step 6 for academic salaries, for doctoral qualified employees (beginning in 2008) are set at A$75,612 p.a. at the University of Sydney,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.usyd.edu.au/hr/eb/2006/AC_annual_rates.pdf |title=Academic staff agreement 2006 – 2008 annual rates |access-date=2015-07-29 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090823140512/http://www.usyd.edu.au/hr/eb/2006/AC_annual_rates.pdf |archive-date=23 August 2009 |df=dmy-all }}, Retrieved on 4 June 2012</ref> A$75,404 p.a. at the University of Melbourne,<ref>{{cite web |title=Policy library - Salary Scales for Full Time Academic Staff - Effective 14 April 2012 |website=University of Melbourne |url=http://policy.unimelb.edu.au/UOM0115#section-1.1.1 |access-date=4 June 2012 |archive-date=27 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120427122838/http://policy.unimelb.edu.au/UOM0115#section-1.1.1 |url-status=dead }}</ref> and A$75,612 p.a. at the University of New South Wales.<ref>{{cite web |title=Human Resources - Salary Rates - Academic Staff |website=University of New South Wales |url=http://www.hr.unsw.edu.au/services/salaries/acadsal.html |access-date=4 June 2012 |archive-date=14 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120514211232/http://www.hr.unsw.edu.au/services/salaries/acadsal.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Alternatively the Australian Research Council (ARC) provides Postdoctoral Fellowships. For example, their Discovery Projects,<ref>[http://www.arc.gov.au/ncgp/dp/dp_default.htm Discovery Projects – Australian Research Council (ARC)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080719182343/http://www.arc.gov.au/ncgp/dp/dp_default.htm |date=19 July 2008 }}</ref> funds 3 year Fellowships, beginning in 2009, with A$61,399 p.a.<ref>Appendix 3, p. 58, {{cite web |url=http://www.arc.gov.au/pdf/DP09_FundingRules.pdf |title=Discovery Projects Funding Rules for funding commencing in 2009 |access-date=2015-07-29 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140214095048/http://arc.gov.au/pdf/DP09_FundingRules.pdf |archive-date=14 February 2014 |df=dmy-all }}, Retrieved on 22 July 2008</ref> Furthermore, a mandatory superannuation payment of 11–17% is paid by Universities.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hr.unimelb.edu.au/benefits/superannuation |title=Superannuation - Department of Human Resources |access-date=2015-07-29 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110715080501/http://www.hr.unimelb.edu.au/benefits/superannuation |archive-date=15 July 2011 |df=dmy-all }}, Retrieved on 22 July 2008</ref>

== China == The postdoctoral system in China was founded in 1985 upon suggestion by Chinese American physicist and Nobel laureate Tsung-Dao Lee.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.people.cn/90001/90776/90881/7214766.html|title=China establishes 4,300 postdoc research centers |publisher=People's Daily|date=November 29, 2010|access-date=November 18, 2018}}</ref> The Office of the National Administrative Committee of Postdoctoral Researchers ({{zh|s=全国博士后管理委员会办公室}}) regulates all postdoctoral mobile stations ({{zh|s=博士后科研流动站}}) at universities and postdoctoral work stations ({{zh|s=博士后科研工作站}}) at institutes and enterprises in mainland China. Applicants to postdoctoral positions have to pass a detailed medical check-up in order to enter the stations ({{zh|s=进站}}). Postdoctoral researchers are required to undergo regular evaluations, and submit a research report for evaluation at the end of the postdoctoral period to obtain approval to leave the stations ({{zh|c=出站}}). Those who are approved to leave the stations will receive a postdoctoral certificate from the national administration office.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chinapostdoctor.org.cn/website/program/Info_Show.aspx?InfoID=7a9dbfe3-1b57-4bf5-bf12-ce3a89d0addb|title=关于印发《博士后管理工作规定》的通知|website=中国博士后网|author= Ministry of Personnel of the PRC|access-date=26 October 2018|language=zh}}</ref> In some universities, postdoctoral researchers who fail to leave their stations normally, either due to failing their evaluations or early withdrawal from the stations ({{zh|c=退站}}), may be asked to pay back the grants or even the salaries that they have received.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hr.fudan.edu.cn/97/ac/c10839a104364/page.htm|title=复旦大学博士后退站流程|website=Fudan University|access-date=26 October 2018|language=zh}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://xxgk.sjtu.edu.cn/2013/0113/1239.html|title=上海交通大学关于调整博士后相关管理工作规定的通知|website=Shanghai Jiao Tong University|access-date=26 October 2018|language=zh}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pharm.sdu.edu.cn/info/1092/8216.htm|title=药学院博士后流动站管理工作实施细则|website=School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shandong University|access-date=26 October 2018|language=zh}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://renshichu.xaut.edu.cn/info/1120/1113.htm|title=西安理工大学博士后研究人员管理办法|website=Xi'an University of Technology|access-date=26 October 2018|language=zh}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sus.edu.cn/info/1008/9665.htm|title=上海体育学院博士后管理办法|website=Shanghai University of Sport|access-date=26 October 2018|language=zh}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://postdoc.ecupl.edu.cn/s/305/t/91/59/ea/info23018.htm|title=华东政法大学师资博士后研究人员工作协议|website=East China University of Political Science and Law|access-date=26 October 2018|language=zh}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://muchong.com/html/201209/4944886.html|title=求助：博后中途退站——退还之前发放生活补贴？|website=小木虫|access-date=26 October 2018|language=zh}}</ref> Because of the way that the postdoctoral system is managed, postdoctoral research is widely mistaken to be an academic degree in China. The government's administration of the postdoctoral system has been criticized for hindering innovative research, as too much effort is spent on evaluations, and overemphasis on performance prevents the creation of a relaxing research environment.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.guancha.cn/Education/2015_03_10_311685.shtml|title=两会热点校长说：校长后加副部级丢人把博士后当成学位很荒唐|work=Guancha|date=March 10, 2015|access-date=November 18, 2018|language=zh}}</ref>

== Latin America == In some Latin America countries, there's a degree called "Posdoctorado" (Postdoctoral degree) that's a kind a postdoctoral structured studies, plus research. Depends the country, can be a "Diploma de Posdoctorado" (Postdoctoral diploma), "Título de Posdoctorado" (Postdoctoral Title) or just "Posdoctorado" (Postdoctorate), plus specialty.

== References== {{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Postdoctoral Research}} Category:Academic administration Category:Postdoctoral research