Pillarisation

{{short description|Division of civil society along religio-political lines}} {{Use dmy dates|date=April 2026}} {{Use British English|date=April 2026}} {{Multiple issues| {{More citations needed|date=September 2016}} {{Original research|date=September 2016}} }}

'''Pillarisation''' (a calque from the {{langx|nl|verzuiling}} {{IPA|nl|vɛrˈzœylɪŋ||Nl-verzuiling.ogg}}) is the vertical division of a society into separate groups, or "pillars" ({{langx|nl|zuilen|links=no}}), organised along religious, socio-economic, and ideological lines. The phenomenon is most closely associated with historical examples in the Netherlands and Belgium.

In a pillarised society, each pillar maintains its own institutions and social organisations. These may include newspapers, broadcasting organisations, political parties, trade unions, farmers' associations, banks, shops, schools, hospitals, universities, scouting groups, and sports clubs. This segregation results in limited social interaction between members of different pillars. In the Netherlands, society was historically divided into four main pillars: Catholic, Protestant, socialist, and liberal.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2021-06-04 |title=Dutch Pillarisation, Malaysian Rojak – Pieter E. Stek |url=https://pstek.nl/2021/dutch-pillarisation-malaysian-rojak/ |access-date=2025-08-26 |language=en-US}}</ref> The system allowed each community to maintain its own institutions and lifestyle, minimising conflict among groups.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2025-04-18 |title=Pillarisation in the Netherlands: a history of social divides |url=https://dutchreview.com/culture/pillarization-dutch-big-windows/ |access-date=2025-08-26 |website=dutchreview.com/ |language=en-GB}}</ref> Inter-pillar social relationships, including marriage and friendship, were generally discouraged.

Pillarisation also reflected the social awareness of groups that had been marginalised or disadvantaged during the 19th century by the liberal bourgeoisie, which promoted Enlightenment ideals as universal norms. The system began to decline in the 1960s and 1970s, as social and political barriers weakened. However, traces of pillarisation remain visible in contemporary Dutch political parties, media institutions, and in certain conservative religious communities, such as those in the Dutch Bible Belt.<ref name=":0" />

Comparable systems of social segmentation have been identified in other countries, including Northern Ireland, Switzerland, Austria, Cyprus, Lebanon, and Malaysia.

== Pillarisation in the Netherlands == The Netherlands historically developed at least three main social pillars: Protestant, Catholic, and social democratic. Pillarisation in the country was initiated in the late 19th century by Abraham Kuyper, a theologian and politician associated with the Anti-Revolutionary Party (ARP), a Christian democratic and neo-Calvinist (''gereformeerd'') organisation connected to the Reformed Churches in the Netherlands. The movement was grounded in Kuyper's philosophy of sphere sovereignty,<ref>John Halsey Wood Jr., ''Going Dutch in the Modern Age: Abraham Kuyper's Struggle for a Free Church in the Netherlands'' (2013).</ref>{{Failed verification|date=November 2014|reason=Dubious statement, not in source given.}} which held that distinct areas of life—such as religion, politics, and education—should operate autonomously within their own spheres.

Although pillarisation declined in the 1960s and 1970s, its influence remains evident in Dutch society, particularly in communities outside the Randstad region, where aspects of pillarised life persist alongside broader participation in civil society.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Spiecker |first=Ben |last2=Steutel |first2=Jan |date=2001-01-01 |title=Multiculturalism, pillarization and liberal civic education in the Netherlands |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0883035501000258 |journal=International Journal of Educational Research |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=293–304 |doi=10.1016/S0883-0355(01)00025-8 |issn=0883-0355|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

The Catholic pillar was historically the most tightly organised, reflecting the Catholic clergy's encouragement of collective organisation within confessional institutions. The conservative Protestant pillar and the socialist pillar, which primarily represented the proletariat, were also highly cohesive.<ref name="Vanzanden">{{citation |last=Van Zanden |first=Jan L. |title=The Economic History of the Netherlands 1914–1995: A small open economy in the 'long' twentieth century |publisher=Routledge |year=1998 |page=10}}</ref> The Christian Historical Union (CHU), founded in 1908 and associated with the Dutch Reformed Church (''hervormd''), aligned itself with the Protestant pillar shaped by the ARP rather than creating a separate structure.

Those outside the three main pillars—primarily middle and upper-class latitudinarian Protestants and atheists—were sometimes grouped into a liberal or "general" pillar. However, ties among liberal organisations were considerably weaker than within the other pillars. Liberals generally opposed the voluntary segregation of society and often denied that a liberal pillar existed.<ref name="Vanzanden" /> The political parties commonly linked with this group included the Free-thinking Democratic League (VDB) and the Liberal State Party (LSP). Smaller groups such as communists, humanists, and Protestant fundamentalists also established their own organisations, though on a much smaller scale.

The growth of pillarisation in the Netherlands was supported by two parallel developments: the emancipation of the working and lower middle classes and the efforts of elites to maintain influence. The working-class emancipation led to the creation of socialist parties, trade unions, newspapers, cooperatives, and leisure organisations that provided comprehensive social support to their members, similar to patterns observed elsewhere in Europe. The rise of the Protestant pillar reflected the mobilisation of the conservative, often strongly religious lower middle class. While the Dutch bourgeoisie tended to espouse liberal or moderate Protestant beliefs, large segments of the lower middle class followed Kuyper's neo-Calvinism, which was both more traditional and more accessible to ordinary people than the established Protestant churches.<ref name="Vanzanden" />

Kuyper's doctrine of sphere sovereignty rejected both ecclesiasticism (the idea of church dominance over all social spheres) and statist secularism (the idea of state dominance over all spheres), arguing instead for distinct, autonomous domains within society. In 1879, Kuyper founded the Anti-Revolutionary Party (ARP) as the political expression of his religious movement and as the institutional foundation of the Protestant pillar.

Meanwhile, elites sought to retain control over emerging social movements: for example, Catholic clergy established confessional trade unions to prevent Catholic workers from joining socialist organisations. The creation of Christian political parties also reflected an effort to counterbalance the expanding influence of left-wing mass movements.<ref name="Vanzanden" />

=== Institutions by pillar === The following table shows the most important institutions by pillar: {| class="wikitable" !   !style="text-align:left"|Protestant !style="text-align:left"|Catholic !style="text-align:left"|Socialist !style="text-align:left"|Liberal |- | | colspan="1" style="background-color:orange;" | | colspan="1" style="background-color:white;" | | colspan="1" style="background-color:red;" | | colspan="1" style="background-color:lightblue;" | |- style="vertical-align:top" !style="text-align:left"| Political party before 1945 | {{plainlist| * ARP (from 1879; ''gereformeerd'') * CHU (from 1908; ''hervormd'') * SGP (from 1918; ''bevindelijk gereformeerd'')}} | {{plainlist| * AB (1904–1926) * RKSP (1926–1945)}} | SDAP (from 1894) | {{plainlist| * LU (1885–1921; mainstream Freethinking) * VDB (from 1901 left-wing Freethinking) * BVL (1906–1921; old Freethinking) * LSP (from 1921; right-wing Freethinking)}} |- style="vertical-align:top" !style="text-align:left"| Political parties after 1945 | | {{plainlist| * ARP (until 1977) * CHU (until 1977) * CDA (from 1977; oecumenisch) * GPV (1948–2001; ''gereformeerd-vrijgemaakt'') * RPF (1975–2001; orthodox Protestant) * CU (from 2001; orthodox Protestant) * SGP}} | {{plainlist| * KVP (until 1977) * CDA (from 1977; ecumenical)}} | PvdA (from 1945) | {{plainlist| * PvdV (1946–1948; Liberal-conservative Freethinking) * VVD (from 1948; Liberal-conservative Freethinking) * D66 (from 1966; Liberal Freethinking)}} |- style="vertical-align:top" !style="text-align:left"| Broadcasting organisation | {{plainlist| * NCRV (Dutch Christian Radio Association) * EO (Evangelical Broadcasting)}} | {{plainlist| * KRO (Catholic Radio Broadcasting Organisation) * RKK Omroep (Roman Catholic Communion Broadcasting)}} | {{plainlist| * VARA (Association of Workers' Radio Amateurs)}} | {{plainlist| * AVRO (General United Radio Broadcasting Organisation) * VPRO (Liberal Protestant Radio Broadcasting) * VRON (Free Radio Broadcasting Netherlands) * TROS (Television & Radio Broadcasting Organisation)}} |- style="vertical-align:top" !style="text-align:left"| Unions | {{plainlist| * CNV (Christian National Union) (from 1909) * {{ill|Nederlandsch Werkliedenverbond Patrimonium|lt=NWV Patrimonium|nl|Nederlandsch Werkliedenverbond Patrimonium}} (gereformeerd) (from 1876)}} | {{plainlist| * NKV (Dutch Catholic Union) (1925–1976) * FNV (from 1976)}} | {{plainlist| * NVV (Dutch Alliance of Unions) (1906–1976) * FNV (from 1976) | ANWV (General Dutch Workers' Unions) (from 1871)}} |- !style="text-align:left"| Employers | PCW | NKW | none | VNO |- !style="text-align:left"| Newspapers | {{plainlist| * ''De Standaard'' (''gereformeerd'') * ''Friesch Dagblad'' (Fryslân ''gereformeerd'') * ''Trouw'' (''gereformeerd'') * ''Nederlands Dagblad'' (''vrijgemaakt'') * ''Reformatorisch Dagblad'' (''gereformeerd'')}} | ''De Tijd'' (1845–1974) ''De Volkskrant'' (since 1919) | {{plainlist| * ''Het Vrije Volk'' * ''Het Parool''}} | | {{plainlist| * ''Staatscourant'' (Public journal) * ''Algemeen Handelsblad'' (until 1970) * ''Nieuwe Rotterdamsche Courant'' (until 1970) * ''NRC Handelsblad'' (from 1970) * ''De Telegraaf''}} |- style="vertical-align:top" !style="text-align:left"| Schools | "School with bible" (Protestant oriented school), Protestant Education | Roman Catholic School | Free Schools, Public Schools | Public Schools |- style="vertical-align:top" !style="text-align:left"| Universities | {{plainlist| * Protestantse Theologische Universiteit (''hervormd'') * Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam (''gereformeerd'') * Theological University of the Christian Reformed Churches (''bevindelijk gereformeerd'') * Theologische Universiteit (''vrijgemaakt'')}} | {{plainlist| * Radboud Universiteit * Katholieke Universiteit Brabant}} |colspan="2"|{{plainlist| * State-sponsored universities * Universiteit voor Humanistiek * Nyenrode Business Universiteit}} |- style="vertical-align:top" !style="text-align:left"| Hospitals | Green/Orange Cross | White/Yellow Cross |colspan="2"|Green Cross |- style="vertical-align:top" !style="text-align:left"| Sport clubs | {{plainlist| * NCSU * NSA * TvA}} | {{plainlist| * NKS * NSA}} | {{plainlist| * NASB * NRS * NCS * NSA}} | NOC*NSF |- style="vertical-align:top" !style="text-align:left"| Recreation (examples) | Saturday football, weekend rugby union | Sunday football | Dancing schools, Sunday football, korfball | Folk dancing, weekend rugby union, field hockey, weekend football |- style="vertical-align:top" |}

=== Depillarisation === [[File:Nederlanders een in de Nederlandsche Unie.jpg|thumb|225x225px|Poster of the ''Nederlandsche Unie'', an anti-pillarisation group that was at first embraced by the German occupying administration but later banned in 1941]] After World War II, during which the Dutch resistance itself was divided along pillarised lines, political and social groups from across the spectrum—including liberals, socialists, Protestants, and Catholics—began questioning the existing pillarised system. In response, they founded the People’s Movement (Nederlandse Volksbeweging), a unity initiative intended to renew the political landscape through what became known as the doorbraak ("breakthrough") movement. Participants from various ideological backgrounds, including members of the Catholic resistance group Christofoor, sought to overcome divisions between the pillars and create a more integrated society.

Despite these efforts, the entrenched nature of pillarisation limited the movement's success. To promote unity, the Social Democratic Workers’ Party, the left-liberal Free-thinking Democratic League, and the Christian-socialist Christian Democratic Union merged to form the Labour Party (''Partij van de Arbeid'', PvdA), a progressive party intended to be open to all citizens. However, the PvdA failed to attract significant support from Catholic and Reformed voters and became primarily associated with the socialist pillar.

In the early years of radio and television broadcasting, pillarisation also influenced the organisation of media. While Dutch broadcasters were divided along pillar lines, the separation in television was relatively limited, as all broadcasters shared the Netherlands' single national television channel (expanded to two channels after 1964), which was viewed by the entire audience.

The 1960s marked a period of major social and political transformation. The pillars began to dissolve under criticism from emerging political movements, notably Democrats 66 (D66) and the New Left (''{{Interlanguage link multi|Nieuw Links|nl|3=Nieuw Links (PvdA)}}'') faction within the PvdA. Rising mobility, affluence, and educational opportunities enabled greater contact among citizens from different backgrounds, reducing perceived differences between groups. Younger generations increasingly rejected affiliation with pillarised institutions, leading to the gradual decline of the system.

Between 1973 and 1980, the Anti-Revolutionary Party and the Christian Historical Union—both Protestant—merged with the Catholic People's Party to form the Christian Democratic Appeal (CDA). The new party first contested the 1977 Dutch general election. Similarly, cooperation between the Dutch Catholic Trade Union Federation (NKV) and the socialist Dutch Confederation of Trade Unions (NVV) began in 1976, culminating in their merger as the Federation of Dutch Trade Unions in 1982.

Although formal pillarisation diminished, its influence persisted into the 21st century. The Dutch public broadcasting system remains organised along multiple association-based lines rather than as a single entity. The country also continues to maintain both public and religious schools, a division rooted in pillarisation-era education policies.

Certain communities continue to exhibit pillar-like characteristics. As of 2014, members of the Reformed Churches in the Netherlands (Liberated) maintain their own schools, a national newspaper, and other organisations such as a labour union. Several pietist Reformed groups have similarly established their own schools, press outlets, and political movements. Muslim communities have increasingly utilised legal frameworks originally designed for pillarised institutions to create their own educational establishments.

Residual effects of pillarisation are still reflected in voting patterns. For example, regions that were historically Catholic strongholds often show distinctive political tendencies, including higher support for populist parties in contemporary elections.<ref>{{Cite web |last=de Voogd |first=Josse |date=2017 |title=Deze eeuwenoude grenzen kleuren de verkiezingen nog altijd |url=https://decorrespondent.nl/6298/deze-eeuwenoude-grenzen-kleuren-de-verkiezingen-nog-altijd/7576ecd5-cf0d-0da5-3b68-abe516463ada |website=De Correspondent}}</ref>

== Pillarisation in Belgium == {{More citations needed|section|date=December 2013}} Pillarisation in Belgium closely resembled that of the Netherlands, though it developed without a Protestant pillar, as the Protestant population was relatively small. There was also no "general" pillar, but a politically organised liberal pillar existed alongside the Catholic and later the Socialist pillars. In 1911, the British sociologist Seebohm Rowntree noted that in Belgium:

{{blockquote|There is extraordinarily little social intercourse between Catholics and Liberals, and practically none between Catholics and Socialists. Politics enter into almost every phase of social activity and philanthropic effort, and it is the exception rather than the rule for persons holding different political opinions to co-operate in any other matter. Thus in one town there will be a Catholic, a Liberal and a Socialist trade union, a Catholic, a Liberal and a Socialist thrift society, each catering for similar people, but each confining its attentions to members of its own political party. The separation extends to cafes, gymnasia, choral, temperance, and literary societies; indeed it cuts through life!<ref>Seebohm Rowntree's ''Land and Labour, Lessons from Belgium'' (1911), quoted in {{cite journal |last=Cliff |first=Tony |author-link=Tony Cliff |title=Belgium: Strike to Revolution? |url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/cliff/works/1961/xx/belgium.htm |journal=International Socialism |volume=1 |issue=4 |pages=10–17 |date=Spring 1961 |access-date=19 May 2016}}</ref>}}

In both Flanders and Wallonia, societies were pillarised between Catholic and Liberal political denominations which were subsequently joined by a Socialist pillar. While liberal influence in Belgium—particularly in Brussels—was stronger than in the Netherlands, it remained limited by the liberals' relatively small, middle-class base of support. Liberal trade unions were correspondingly small. The financial daily ''De Tijd'' is associated with liberal readers, while ''Het Laatste Nieuws'', a Flemish newspaper, also has historical liberal roots.{{citation needed|date=July 2020}}

Denominational schools, mainly Catholic and a few Jewish, receive partial public funding, though not full parity with state schools as in the Netherlands, so that tuition is almost entirely free. Belgian universities charge comparable, relatively low tuition fees across the board.

During the latter half of the twentieth century, Belgium's long-standing language struggle led to the division of existing pillars along language lines, creating separate Flemish/Dutch, Walloon/French, and German-speaking segments within the Catholic, Liberal, and Socialist pillars. This linguistic split became the dominant source of societal division. The pillar system remained a central organising force in Belgian society for a longer period than in the Netherlands. It only began to decline near the end of the Cold War, particularly at the individual level, though its institutional influence persisted.

Political movements that emerged in the late 20th century, such as Vlaams Blok, Vlaams Belang, Groen, and the New Flemish Alliance, did not attempt to build new pillars.

Traces of pillarisation have also been visible in everyday social life. Musical groups, sports clubs, and recreational associations were often organised along pillar lines. Although weakened in contemporary Belgium, many large social organisations—including trade unions and cooperatives—continue to operate within the traditional boundaries of the pillar system. Elements of pillarisation have continued to shape Belgian politics. For instance, the 1999–2003 Rainbow Coalition led by Guy Verhofstadt was often described using the framework of pillarisation.

=== Institutions by pillar with their ethnic divisions === The following table is limited to the most important institutions and it shows the current division of everyone by the three ethnic groups. {| class="wikitable" !style="text-align:left"|   !Flemish Catholic !Walloon Catholic !German Catholic !Flemish Socialist !Walloon Socialist !German Socialist !Flemish Liberal !Walloon Liberal !German Liberal |- ! | colspan="3" style="background-color:orange;" | | colspan="3" style="background-color:red;" | | colspan="3" style="background-color:blue;" | |- style="vertical-align:top;text-align:center;" ! rowspan="2" style="text-align:left"| Political parties before 1945 | colspan="3" | Catholic Party (until 1936) Catholic Bloc (since 1936) | rowspan="2" colspan="3" | Belgian Labour Party (BWP/POB) | rowspan="2" colspan="3" | Liberal Party |- | Catholic Flemish People's Party (since 1936) | Social Catholic Party (since 1936) |{{none}} |- style="vertical-align:top;text-align:center;" !style="text-align:left"| Political parties between 1945 and 1970 | colspan="3" | Christian Social Party (CVP/PSC) | colspan="3" | Belgian Socialist Party (BSP/PSB) | colspan="3" | {{plainlist| * Liberal Party (until 1961) * Party for Freedom and Progress (PVV/PLP/PFF) (since 1961)}} |- style="vertical-align:top" !style="text-align:left"| Political parties after 1970 | {{plainlist| * CVP (until 2001) * CD&V (since 2001)}} ---- ;minor * ''VCP'' (2007–2014) * ''NCD'' (2012) | {{plainlist| * PSC (until 2002) * CDH (2002–2022) * ''Les Engagés'' (since 2022) }} ---- ;minor * ''MCC'' (since 1998) * ''CDF'' (2002–2012) | CSP ---- ;minor * ''PDB'' (until 2008) * ''ProDG'' (since 2008) | {{plainlist| * SP (until 2001) * SP.A (2001–2021) * Forward (since 2021)}} | PS | SP | {{plainlist| * PVV (until 1992) * VLD (1992–2007) * Open VLD (since 2007)}} | {{plainlist| * PRL (since 2002 part of MR) * MR (since 2002)}} | PFF |- style="vertical-align:top;text-align:center;" !style="text-align:left" rowspan="2" | Trade unions | colspan="3" | Confederation of Christian Trade Unions (ACV/CSC) | colspan="3" | General Federation of Belgian Labour (ABVV/FGTB) | colspan="3" | General Confederation of Liberal Trade Unions of Belgium (ACLVB/CGSLB) |- style="vertical-align:top" | Boerenbond | style="background-color:#F3F3F3;" colspan="2" | | style="background-color:#F3F3F3;" colspan="3" | | style="background-color:#F3F3F3;" colspan="3" | |- style="vertical-align:top" !style="text-align:left"| Health insurance | Christelijke Mutualiteit | Mutualité chrétienne | Christliche Krankenkasse | Socialistische Mutualiteit | Mutualité socialiste | Sozialistische Krankenkasse | Liberale Mutualiteit | Mutualité Libérale | Freie Krankenkasse |- style="vertical-align:top" !style="text-align:left"| Hospitals | White/Yellow Cross | Christian Fund | Christian Fund | (Center for) Homecare | Socialist Fund | Socialist Fund | Solidarity for the Family | Liberal Fund | Liberal Fund |- style="vertical-align:top" !style="text-align:left"| Aid agencies | Caritas Vlaanderen | Caritas en Belgique francophone et germanophone | Caritas en Belgique Francophone-Deutschsprachiges Belgien | FOS-Socialistische Solidariteit | Solidarité Socialiste-FCD | Solidariteit-FCD | style="background-color:#F3F3F3;" | ''none'' | style="background-color:#F3F3F3;" | ''none'' | style="background-color:#F3F3F3;" | ''none'' |- style="vertical-align:top" !style="text-align:left"| Newspapers | {{plainlist| * ''De Standaard'' * ''Gazet van Antwerpen'' * ''Het Volk'' * ''Het Belang van Limburg'' * ''Het Nieuwsblad''}} | ''La Libre Belgique'' | ''Grenz-Echo'' | {{plainlist| * {{ill|Vooruit (newspaper)|lt=''Vooruit''|nl|Vooruit (Belgische krant)}} (until 1978) * {{ill|Volksgazet|lt=''Volksgazet''|nl}} (until 1978) * ''De Morgen'' (since 1978)}} | {{plainlist| * ''Le Peuple'' (until 1998) * {{ill|Le Matin (Belgique)|lt=''Le Matin''|fr}} (1998-2001)}} | style="background-color:#F3F3F3;" | ''none'' | {{plainlist| * ''Het Laatste Nieuws'' * ''De Tijd''}} | ''Le Soir'' | style="background-color:#F3F3F3;" | ''none'' |- style="vertical-align:top" !style="text-align:left"| Cultural associations | Davidsfonds | style="background-color:#F3F3F3;" | ''none'' | style="background-color:#F3F3F3;" | ''none'' | Vermeylenfonds | style="background-color:#F3F3F3;" | ''none'' | style="background-color:#F3F3F3;" | ''none'' | Willemsfonds | style="background-color:#F3F3F3;" | ''none'' | style="background-color:#F3F3F3;" | ''none'' |- style="vertical-align:top" !style="text-align:left"| Schools | Flemish Secretariat for Catholic Education (Catholic Schools), Flemish Association of Catholic Colleges | Catholic schools | Public schools | Public schools | Public schools | Public schools, non-denominational private schools | Public schools, non-denominational private schools | Public schools, non-denominational private schools |- style="vertical-align:top" !style="text-align:left"| Major universities | Katholieke Universiteit Leuven | Université catholique de Louvain | style="background-color:#F3F3F3;" | ''none'' | Ghent University | University of Liège | style="background-color:#F3F3F3;" | ''none'' | Vrije Universiteit Brussel | Université libre de Bruxelles | style="background-color:#F3F3F3;" | ''none'' |- style="vertical-align:top" !style="text-align:left"| Other universities | {{plainlist| * University of Antwerp * Industriële Hogeschool Brabant * Hogeschool-Universiteit * Vlaams Verbond van Katholieke Hogescholen * Vesalius College * Institute of Tropical Medicine Antwerp}} | {{plainlist| * Université de Namur * Facultés Universitaires Catholiques de Mons * Facultés universitaires Saint-Louis}} | style="background-color:#F3F3F3;" | ''none'' | Trans-Universiteit Limburg | Faculté Universitaire des Sciences Agronomiques de Gembloux | style="background-color:#F3F3F3;" | ''none'' | Erasmus Hogeschool | Université de Mons | style="background-color:#F3F3F3;" | ''none'' |- style="vertical-align:top" !style="text-align:left"| Youth organisations | {{plainlist| * KVHV * JONGCD&V * Katholische Academische Verbindung Leuven * SGV * Chiro * {{Interlanguage link multi|KSJ-KSA-VKSJ|nl}} * {{Interlanguage link multi|Katholieke Landelijke Jeugd|lt=KLJ|nl|3=Katholieke Landelijke Jeugd}} * KAJ}} | {{plainlist| * FSC * GCB * Jeunes cdH}} | {{plainlist| * Die Junge Mitte * FSC * GCB}} | {{plainlist| * Rode Valken * Animo Jong Links}} | MJS | MJS | {{plainlist| * FOS * VLDJONG}} | {{plainlist| * SGP * Les Jeunes Réformateurs}} | {{plainlist| * JFF * SGP * MJS}} |- style="vertical-align:top" !style="text-align:left"| Banks | Volksdepositokas Spaarbank | Dexia | style="background-color:#F3F3F3;" | ''none'' | Bank van De Post | Banque de La Poste | Bank von der Post | Generale Bankmaatschappij | Générale de Banque | Generale Bank |- style="vertical-align:top" !style="text-align:left"| Sport clubs | {{plainlist| * {{Interlanguage link multi|Sporta|nl}} * Gym & Dans Vlaanderen}} | style="background-color:#F3F3F3;" | ''none'' | style="background-color:#F3F3F3;" | ''none'' | {{plainlist| * AVB (1919–2000) * FROS (1976–2000) * VASCO (1993–2000) * FROS Amateursportconfederatie vzw (since 2000)}} | style="background-color:#F3F3F3;" | ''none'' | style="background-color:#F3F3F3;" | ''none'' | style="background-color:#F3F3F3;" | ''none'' | style="background-color:#F3F3F3;" | ''none'' | style="background-color:#F3F3F3;" | ''none'' |- style="vertical-align:top" !style="text-align:left"| Women's organisations | {{ill|Femma|nl}} | {{ill|Ligue ouvrière féminine chrétienne|lt=Vie féminine|fr}} | style="background-color:#F3F3F3;" | Frauenliga | {{plainlist| * {{ill|ZIJKant|nl}} * {{ill|Rebelle|nl}}}} | {{ill|Femmes prévoyantes socialistes|lt=Soralia|fr}} | style="background-color:#F3F3F3;" | ''none'' | {{ill|Vvvuur|nl}} | {{ill|Fédération nationale des femmes libérales|lt=FNFL|fr}} | style="background-color:#F3F3F3;" | ''none'' |- style="vertical-align:top" |}

== Similar concepts in other countries ==

=== ''Proporz'' in Austria === {{main article|Proporz}} {{more citations needed|section|date=December 2013}} The Austrian version of pillarisation is the ''Proporz'' system (a hypocorism for ''Proportionalität'', German for 'proportionality'). A political structure of the second Austrian republic, it later evolved into a neo-corporatist system characterised by widespread patronage and nepotism that extended into many areas of Austrian society.

The Proporz system was developed and maintained by the two dominant political parties: the Austrian People’s Party (ÖVP), representing Catholic and conservative interests, and the Socialist Party of Austria (SPÖ), renamed the Social Democratic Party of Austria in 1991. This ''de facto'' two-party system collapsed after the 1999 Austrian legislative election, when the far-right Freedom Party of Austria (FPÖ) joined the government. The FPÖ's earlier marginalisation—along with that of its predecessor, the Federation of Independents—had been one of the reasons for establishing the Proporz system, due to their pro-German, far-right and individualist views.

The Proporz system emerged from a desire for stable, consensus-based governance during Austria's post–World War II reconstruction period. It was closely associated with the grand coalitionss in which the SPÖ and the ÖVP have shared governmental responsibilities.

As in the Netherlands and Belgium, Austria's main political blocs created extensive parallel structures within civil society. Many organisations reflected this dual alignment: for example, automobile clubs such as the ÖAMTC (aligned with the ÖVP) and ARBÖ (aligned with the SPÖ), rival factions within the Austrian Trade Union Federation (ÖGB) such as the FCG, FSG, and Freiheitlichen Arbeitnehmer (FPÖ), and sports associations like Sportunion and ASKÖ. These "black" (ÖVP-aligned) and "red" (SPÖ-aligned) institutions illustrate the persistence of Proporz as a defining feature of Austria's social and political organisation.

=== Italy === A comparable form of pillarisation existed in Italy during the period of the First Italian Republic.

Multiple trade unions were aligned with different political parties and ideologies. The Italian Confederation of Trades Unions maintained close ties with Christian Democracy, while the Italian General Confederation of Labour was associated with the Italian Communist Party. The General Labour Union was linked to the Italian Social Movement, and the Italian Labour Union had connections with the Italian Republican Party and the Italian Democratic Socialist Party.

The state-owned public broadcaster RAI was also divided along party lines. Rai 1 was generally regarded as being close to Christian Democracy, Rai 2 to the Italian Socialist Party, and Rai 3 to the Italian Communist Party.

=== Northern Ireland === {{see also|Segregation in Northern Ireland}} The term "pillarisation" has also been applied to describe the segregation between the two principal ethno-religious communities in Northern Ireland,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2016/03/23/belgium-history-brussels-attacks-molenbeek/|title=A Brief History of a Broken Country|first=Glen|last=Newey|date=28 February 2024}}</ref> particularly between the establishment of Northern Ireland in 1922 and the end of The Troubles (1969–1998).<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/britain/1999/12/02/a-brief-history-of-strife|title=A brief history of strife|newspaper=The Economist}}</ref> Although both segregation and elements of pillarisation continue to exist, they have been gradually declining.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MpJKEAAAQBAJ&q=%22northern+ireland%22&pg=PA30|title=Governance and Politics of the Netherlands|first1=Rudy B.|last1=Andeweg|first2=Galen A.|last2=Irwin|first3=Tom|last3=Louwerse|date=2020|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|isbn=9781352010398 |via=Google Books}}</ref>

A distinctive feature of pillarisation in Northern Ireland was the imbalance of power between the two groups. The Protestant–Unionist–Loyalist population held clear political, economic, and social dominance over the Catholic–Nationalist–Republican community.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jxTuNNbg9AEC&q=Pillarisation+%22northern+ireland%22|title=Conflict in Northern Ireland: The Development of a Polarised Community|first1=John|last1=Darby|first2=John P.|last2=Darby|date=1976|publisher=Gill and Macmillan|isbn=9780064915809 |via=Google Books}}</ref> This dynamic has been characterised as a form of pillarisation "without consociationalism", meaning that, unlike in the Netherlands or Belgium, social separation existed without an accompanying system of power-sharing or institutional balance between the communities.<ref name="auto">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GiiPAwAAQBAJ&dq=Pillarisation+%22northern+ireland%22&pg=PA272|title=Reforming the Constitution: Debates in Twentieth-Century Britain|first1=Peter|last1=Catterall|first2=Wolfram|last2=Kaiser|first3=Ulrike|last3=Walton-Jordan|date=2014|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781135305628 |via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TgrxAAAAMAAJ&q=Pillarisation+%22northern+ireland%22|title=Consociationalism, Pillarization and Conflict-management in the Low Countries|date= 1984|publisher=Boom|isbn=9789060095607 |via=Google Books}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" ! People !! Protestants !! Catholics |- | | colspan="1" style="background-color:orange;" | | colspan="1" style="background-color:green;" | |- |National identity<ref name="auto"/> || "British", "Northern Irish" or "Ulster" ||"Irish" or "Northern Irish" |- |Religions || Church of Ireland Presbyterianism Methodism || Roman Catholicism |- | Political persuasions || Unionism Loyalism Ulster nationalism Protestant Irish nationalism|| Irish nationalism Irish republicanism Dissident republican Éire Nua |- | Political parties || Democratic Unionist Party Ulster Unionist Party Traditional Unionist Voice Progressive Unionist Party || Sinn Féin Social Democratic and Labour Party Workers' Party Aontú Republican Sinn Féin Irish Republican Socialist Party Nationalist Party (before 1977) |- | Fraternal organisations || Apprentice Boys of Derry Orange Order Independent Orange Order Royal Arch Purple Royal Black Institution|| Ancient Order of Hibernians Knights of Saint Columbanus |- | Unions || Ulster Workers' Council || Irish Congress of Trade Unions |- |Languages || English, Ulster Scots British Sign Language, Northern Ireland Sign Language || English and Irish Irish Sign Language, Northern Ireland Sign Language |- | Schools<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newsletter.co.uk/news/opinion/columnists/ben-lowry-protestant-population-has-fallen-in-northern-ireland-in-part-because-they-were-early-to-secularism-3855237|title=Ben Lowry: Protestant numbers have fallen because they were early to secularism|date=September 24, 2022|website=www.newsletter.co.uk}}</ref> ||Protestant schools, state schools|| Catholic schools<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.irishnews.com/lifestyle/faithmatters/2021/06/10/news/are-catholic-schools-worth-keeping-in-northern-ireland--2347720/|title=Are Catholic Schools worth keeping in Northern Ireland?|date=June 10, 2021|website=The Irish News}}</ref> |- | Universities<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cain.ulster.ac.uk/ccru/research/csc/eight.htm|title=CCRU: Majority Minority Review No. 1: Education and Religion in Northern Ireland, Section 8|website=cain.ulster.ac.uk}}</ref> || Queen's University of Belfast Magee College Ulster University Stranmillis University College ''Universities in Great Britain'' || Ulster University St Mary's University College, Belfast ''Universities in the Republic of Ireland'' |- | Sports<ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/3120731|title=Northern Ireland: Bonds and Breaks in Education|author=Darby, John|year=1978|journal=British Journal of Educational Studies|volume=26|issue=3|pages=215–223|doi=10.2307/3120731|jstor=3120731 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.irishexaminer.com/sport/soccer/arid-20226925.html|title=Billy's boys still cast long shadow|first=Ewan|last=MacKenna|date=March 30, 2013|website=Irish Examiner}}</ref> || Rugby union Cricket Field hockey Association football (most clubs) || Gaelic football Hurling and camogie Association football (Cliftonville, Derry City; Belfast Celtic until 1949) |- | Banks<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.belfasttelegraphv/mary-kenny/change-is-great-as-long-as-it-means-i-dont-have-to-switch-my-bank-account-35385061.html?|first=Mary|last=Kenny|date=January 23, 2017|website=Belfast Telegraph|title=Change is great – as long as it means I don't have to switch my bank account}}</ref> || Ulster Bank Belfast Banking Company (to 1970) Northern Bank (to 2012)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thevacuum.org.uk/issues/issues0120/issue10/is10artlifban.html|title=The Vacuum: A Life In Banking – Interview with David Keith by Richard West|website=www.thevacuum.org.uk}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UW4EAQAAQBAJ&dq=%22Northern+Bank%22+%22protestant+bank%22&pg=PT140|title=Evil for Evil|first=James R.|last=Benn|date=2009|publisher=Soho Press|isbn=9781569477021 |via=Google Books}}</ref>|| Bank of Ireland Hibernian Bank (to 1958) |- |Newspapers || ''Belfast Telegraph'' ''News Letter''<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cain.ulster.ac.uk/issues/sectarian/brewer.htm|title=CAIN: Issues: Sectarianism: Brewer, John D. 'Northern Ireland: 1921-1998'|website=cain.ulster.ac.uk}}</ref> ''Sunday Life'' ''Northern Whig'' (until 1963) ''Protestant Telegraph'' (1966–82) ||''The Irish News''<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Northern Ireland: Shoot the Journalist|first=Jim|last=Campbell|date=October 9, 1985|journal=Index on Censorship|volume=14|issue=5|pages=2–3|doi=10.1080/03064228508533941|s2cid=143822975 |doi-access=free}}</ref> ''An Phoblacht'' ''Lá'' (1984–2008) |- |TV and radio<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://reviews.history.ac.uk/review/1079|title=The BBC and national identity in Britain, 1922–53 | Reviews in History|website=reviews.history.ac.uk}}</ref> ||BBC Northern Ireland<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/imported/northern-protestants-part-two-dunseiths-talkback-listeners-28297971.html|title=Northern Protestants. Part two. Dunseith's Talkback listeners|newspaper=Belfasttelegraph.co.uk |via=www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk}}</ref> UTV BBC Radio Ulster Pirate radio: Voice of Ulster, Radio Orange, Radio Shankill, Radio Sundown, Radio Free Ulster || RTÉ ''(Republic of Ireland state broadcaster)'' Pirate radio: Radio Free Belfast, Radio Free Derry |}

Since the Good Friday Agreement of 1998, various efforts have been made to reduce segregation in Northern Ireland. "Cross-community" political parties such as the Alliance Party, the Green Party, and People Before Profit exist and an increasing number of voters now identify as "other" rather than aligning with traditional Catholic or Protestant identities.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.centreonconstitutionalchange.ac.uk/news-and-opinion/rise-others-20-years-after-devolution-new-middle-ground-northern-irish-politics|title=The rise of the 'others': 20 years after devolution, a new middle ground in Northern Irish politics?|website=Centre on Constitutional Change}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/opinion/rise-of-the-others-and-not-sinn-fein-the-real-story-of-northern-politics-1.4811526|title=Rise of the 'others' and not Sinn Féin the real story of Northern politics|newspaper=The Irish Times}}</ref> There has also been a rise in the number of people identifying as atheists.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/ireland/social-affairs/2022/09/24/northern-irelands-atheists-were-a-sizeable-section-of-the-population/|title=Northern Ireland's atheists: 'We're a sizeable section of the population'|newspaper=The Irish Times}}</ref>

Despite these developments, elections in Northern Ireland are often characterised as a "sectarian head-count", with concerns growing among some members of the Protestant community about the potential emergence of a Catholic majority.<ref>{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/mono/10.4324/9781315244709-8/sectarian-headcount-claire-mitchell|title=The 'sectarian headcount' | 8 | Religion, Identity and Politics in Nor|chapter=The 'sectarian headcount' |website=Taylor & Francis|date=2006 |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9781315244709-8|doi-broken-date=12 July 2025 |isbn=978-1-315-24470-9}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newsletter.co.uk/news/opinion/counting-catholics-not-sectarian-head-counting-countering-original-sectarian-headcount-310051|title=Counting Catholics is not sectarian head-counting but countering the original sectarian headcount|date=March 30, 2018|website=www.newsletter.co.uk}}</ref>

Historically, other non-sectarian political organisations also operated in Northern Ireland, including the Northern Ireland Labour Party and the Northern Ireland Women's Coalition.

==See also== {{Portal|Belgium|Netherlands|Politics|Religion|Society}} * Balkanization * Confessionalism (politics) * Consociationalism * Identity politics * Millet (Ottoman Empire) * National Pact, Lebanon * Political particularism * Sectarianism * Social environment * Social stratification * ''Sui iuris'' * Test Act

==References== {{reflist}}

==Further reading== * {{citation |last=Deschouwer |first=Kris |title=Freezing pillars and frozen cleavages: Party systems and voting alignments in consociational democracies |work=Party Systems and Voter Alignments Revisited |publisher=Routledge |year=2001 |pages=205–221}} * {{cite journal |last=Huyse |first=L. |title=Pillarization reconsidered |url=https://scholarlypublications.universiteitleiden.nl/handle/1887/3452439?solr_nav%5Bid%5D=213c48b4492bae6c5b73&solr_nav%5Bpage%5D=4394&solr_nav%5Boffset%5D=14 |journal=Acta Politica |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=145–158 |date=1984}} * {{citation |last=Lijphart |first=Arend |title=Verzuiling, pacificatie en kentering in de Nederlandse politiek (Pillarisation, pacification and change in Dutch politics) |url=https://www.dbnl.org/tekst/lijp001verz01_01/ |publisher=De Bussy |location=Amsterdam |year=1968 |access-date=19 May 2023 |language=nl}}. Classical study on pillarisation in the Netherlands. * {{citation |last=Post |first=Harry |title=Pillarization: An Analysis of Dutch and Belgian Society |publisher=Avebury |year=1989}} * {{citation |last=van Schendelen |first=M.P.C.M. |title=Consociationalism, pillarization and conflict-management in the Low Countries |publisher=Boom |year=1984}} * Christophe de Voogd: "Histoire des Pays-Bas des origines à nos jours", Fayard, Paris, 2004 * Wintle, M. "Pillarisation, Consociation, and Vertical Pluralism in the Netherlands Revisited: A European View", ''West European Politics'', XXIII, 2000, 3, pp. 139–152.

Category:Social history of Belgium Category:Political history of Belgium Category:Social history of the Netherlands Category:Political history of the Netherlands Category:Christian democracy Category:Political theories Category:Identity politics Category:Segregation