Peshmerga

{{Short description|Internal security forces of Iraq's Kurdistan Region}} {{pp-extended|small=yes}} {{Use American English|date = February 2019}} {{Use mdy dates|date = February 2019}} {{Infobox national military | name = Peshmerga | native_name = {{lang|ku|پێشمەرگه|rtl=yes}}<br>''Pêşmerge'' | image = Flag of Kurdistan.svg{{!}}border | caption = Flag of Kurdistan, used by the Peshmerga | motto = ''Ey Reqîb''<ref>{{cite news |title=Hundreds of Christians join Peshmerga|url=https://www.kurdistan24.net/en/news/33ec84f9-5889-4d6e-8f97-affa72db3694/Hundreds-of-Christians-join-Peshmerga- |access-date=3 July 2019 |work=Kurdistan24 |date=19 February 2016}}</ref> | founded = {{plainlist| * {{Start date and age|1946}} {{small|(Mahabad Republic)}} }} | current_form = {{Start date and age|2003}} {{small|(Kurdistan Region)}} | headquarters = Erbil, Kurdistan Region, Iraq | commander-in-chief = Nechirvan Barzani | commander-in-chief_title = President of Kurdistan Region | chief minister = Shoresh Ismail Abdulla | chief minister_title = Minister of Peshmerga Affairs | conscription = None | active = 138,000 (planned end strength by 2026; current estimates 150,000–200,000)<ref name="OIR2025">{{cite web |title=Lead Inspector General Report on Operation Inherent Resolve Q2 FY2025 |url=https://www.stateoig.gov/uploads/report/report_pdf_file/oir_q2_fy25_final_report.pdf |publisher=U.S. Department of State Office of Inspector General |date=May 2025 |access-date=August 20, 2025 |pages=49–50 |quote=The planned end strength for Peshmerga under the MoPA’s command is 138,000.}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Peshmerga Ministry Nears Completion of Force Unification |url=https://www.kurdistan24.net/en/story/858806/peshmerga-ministry-nears-completion-of-force-unification-says-top-official |work=Kurdistan24 |date=August 2025 |access-date=August 20, 2025}}</ref> | age = 21–41 | foreign_suppliers = {{Collapsible list | title = Current: |{{flag|Albania}}<ref name="jcpa">{{cite news |title=The Status of Western Military Aid to Kurdish Peshmerga Forces |url=http://jcpa.org/article/the-status-of-western-military-aid-to-kurdish-peshmerga-forces/ |access-date=3 July 2019 |work=Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs}}</ref><br />{{flag|Australia}}<ref name="australia">{{cite news |last1=Pollard |first1=Ruth |title=Australian-supplied weapons have reached the Kurdish frontline |url=https://www.smh.com.au/world/australiansupplied-weapons-have-reached-the-kurdish-frontline-20140911-10ffla.html |access-date=3 July 2019 |work=The Sydney Morning Herald |date=11 September 2014 |language=en}}</ref><br />{{flag|Austria}}<ref>{{cite news |title=Austria to provide Peshmerga with medical support |url=http://poland.gov.krd/austria-to-provide-peshmerga-with-medical-support/ |access-date=26 July 2019 |archive-date=July 26, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190726173137/http://poland.gov.krd/austria-to-provide-peshmerga-with-medical-support/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><br />{{flag|Belgium}}<ref name="belgium">{{cite news |title=L'aide belge aux Peshmergas est prête à partir vers l'Irak |url=https://www.rtbf.be/info/belgique/detail_l-aide-belge-aux-peshmergas-est-prete-a-partir-vers-l-irak?id=9222692 |access-date=3 July 2019 |work=RTBF Info |date=24 February 2016 |language=fr}}</ref><br />{{flag|Bulgaria}}<ref>{{cite news |title=България е изпратила на кюрдите в Ирак автомати и патрони за 6 млн. лева |url=https://www.mediapool.bg/bulgaria-e-izpratila-na-kyurdite-v-irak-avtomati-i-patroni-za-6-mln-leva-news225406.html |access-date=3 July 2019 |work=Mediapool.bg |date=30 September 2014 |language=bg-BG}}</ref><br />{{flag|Canada}}<ref name="jcpa" /><br />{{flag|Croatia}}<ref name="jcpa" /><br />{{flag|Cyprus}}<ref name="cyprus">{{cite news |title=Cyprus could send more light arms, ammunition to Kurdistan: FM |url=https://www.kurdistan24.net/en/news/4c3de48d-b53f-4ae1-8602-8b0b28249879 |access-date=3 July 2019 |work=Kurdistan24 |date=11 November 2017 |language=en}}</ref><br />{{flag|Czech Republic}}<ref name="czechia">{{cite news |title=Czech Rifles and Ammunition for the Peshmerga. Prague Supporting the Fight Against Daesh Again – Defence24.com |url=https://www.defence24.com/czech-rifles-and-ammunition-for-the-peshmerga-prague-supporting-the-fight-against-daesh-again |access-date=3 July 2019 |work=www.defence24.com |date=27 January 2016 |language=cs}}</ref><br />{{flag|Denmark}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Forsvarsavisen 01 |url=https://www2.forsvaret.dk/omos/publikationer/forsvarsavisen/Documents/Forsvarsavisen_01_2015.pdf |publisher=Ministry of Defense |access-date=3 July 2019 |page=3 |language=da}}</ref><br />{{flag|Estonia}}<ref name="iss">{{cite journal |author1=Jan Joel Andersson and Florence Gaub |title=Adding fuel to the fire? Arming the Kurds |journal=Issue Alert |date=2015 |volume=37 |url=https://www.iss.europa.eu/sites/default/files/EUISSFiles/Alert_37_Kurds.pdf |access-date=3 July 2019}}</ref><br />{{flag|Finland}}<ref name="finland">{{cite news |title=Finland increases military support to Kurdistan |url=https://www.kurdistan24.net/en/news/35196208-14f6-41a2-888d-645dd997e9fd/Finland-increases-military-support-to-Kurdistan- |access-date=3 July 2019 |work=Kurdistan24 |date=16 September 2016 |language=en}}</ref><br />{{flag|France}}<ref name="jcpa" /><br />{{flag|Germany}}<ref name="jcpa" /><br />{{flag|Greece}}<ref name="greece" >{{cite web|url=http://www.worldbulletin.net/iraqi-kurdistan/145285/greece-to-send-ammunition-to-iraqi-kurds|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150922174314/http://www.worldbulletin.net/iraqi-kurdistan/145285/greece-to-send-ammunition-to-iraqi-kurds|url-status=usurped|archive-date=September 22, 2015|title=Greece to send ammunition to Iraqi Kurds|access-date=27 September 2014}}</ref><br />{{flag|Hungary}}<ref name="iss" /><br />{{flag|India}}<ref>{{cite news |title=Assistant Head of DFR and Indian Ambassador discuss areas of cooperation |url=https://dfr.gov.krd/a/d.aspx?l=12&a=46772 |access-date=8 July 2019 |work=dfr.gov.krd |date=20 April 2017 |archive-date=June 17, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200617100546/https://dfr.gov.krd/a/d.aspx?l=12&a=46772 |url-status=dead }}</ref><br />{{flag|Iran}}<ref name="israel" /><br />{{flag|Israel}}<ref name="israel" >{{cite book |author1=Arash Reisinezhad |title=The Shah of Iran, the Iraqi Kurds, and the Lebanese Shia |date=2018 |isbn=978-3319899473 |page=115|publisher=Springer }}</ref><br />{{flag|Italy}}<ref name="jcpa" /><br />{{flag|Netherlands}}<ref name="nlno" >{{cite web |title=Dutch and Norwegians train Peshmerga on basic soldier skills |url=https://www.centcom.mil/MEDIA/igphoto/2001689688/ |website=www.centcom.mil |access-date=3 July 2019}}</ref><br />{{flag|New Zealand}}<ref name="weiss" /><ref>{{cite news |last1=Mosul |first1=Martin Chulov near |title=Kurdish forces vow no retreat until Nineveh plains are retaken from Isis |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/oct/20/kurdish-forces-vow-no-retreat-until-nineveh-plains-are-retaken-from-isis |access-date=3 July 2019 |work=The Guardian |date=20 October 2016}}</ref><br />{{flag|Norway}}<ref name="nlno" /><br />{{flag|Romania}}<ref>{{cite news |last1=Hasan |first1=H. A. |title=Romania Pledges Continuous Support for Peshmerga |url=http://www.basnews.com/index.php/en/news/kurdistan/277154 |access-date=3 July 2019 |work=www.basnews.com |date=21 May 2016 |language=en-gb}}</ref><br />{{flag|Russia}}<ref name="russia">{{cite news |last1=Litovkin |first1=Nikolai |title=Russia delivers first weapons supplies to Iraqi Kurds |url=https://www.rbth.com/defence/2016/03/18/russia-delivers-first-weapons-supplies-to-iraqi-kurds_576809 |access-date=3 July 2019 |work=Russia Beyond |date=18 March 2016}}</ref><br />{{flag|Slovakia}}<ref name="weiss">{{cite news |author1=Guido Weiss |title=Global Support for Peshmerga Forces |url=http://kurdstrat.com/2015/07/08/global-support-for-peshmerga-forces/ |access-date=3 July 2019 |agency=Kurdstrat |date=8 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180103141502/http://kurdstrat.com/2015/07/08/global-support-for-peshmerga-forces/|archive-date=3 January 2018}}</ref><br />{{flag|Slovenia}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Inherent Resolve in northern Iraq |url=http://www.slovenskavojska.si/en/international-cooperation/international-operations-and-missions/iraq-oir/#c3128 |access-date=3 July 2019 |archive-date=June 17, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200617100619/http://www.slovenskavojska.si/en/international-cooperation/international-operations-and-missions/iraq-oir/#c3128 |url-status=dead }}</ref><br />{{flag|Sweden}}<ref>{{cite news |title=Sweden will continue support for Peshmerga forces in Kurdistan: Defense Minister |url=https://www.kurdistan24.net/en/news/6b8eab4f-fed9-4bb2-bfde-af7f47839295 |access-date=3 July 2019 |work=Kurdistan24 |date=10 May 2018 |language=en}}</ref><br />{{flag|United Kingdom}}<ref name="jcpa" /><br />{{flag|United States}} (continued via CTEF)<ref name="OIR2025" /><ref>{{cite news |title=New Pentagon Budget Request Shows Increased Support for Peshmerga |url=https://kurdistanchronicle.com/b/2953 |work=Kurdistan Chronicle |date=March 13, 2024 |access-date=August 20, 2025 |quote=The 2025 Defense Budget Request includes a huge increase in support for the Ministry of Peshmerga Affairs.}}</ref> }}{{Collapsible list | title = Former: | {{flag|Czechoslovakia}}<ref name="Mitrokhin" >{{cite book |title=The Mitrokhin archive. II : the KGB and the world |date=2014 |publisher=Penguin |location=London |isbn=978-0141977980}}</ref><br />{{flag|Soviet Union}}<ref name="Mitrokhin" />}} | imports = | exports = <!-- Related articles --> | history = 19th century - 21st century <div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"> * '''Before 2003:''' ** Mehmûd Berzencî revolts ** Ehmed Barzanî revolt ** 1943 Barzanî revolt ** First Iraqi–Kurdish War ** Second Iraqi–Kurdish War ** PUK insurgency ** Iran–Iraq War ** 1983–1986 Kurdish rebellions ** Kurdistan Region–PKK conflict ** Anfal campaign ** Gulf War ** 1991 Iraqi uprisings ** Battle of Sulaymaniyah ** Kurdish Civil War ** Islamist insurgency in Kurdistan * '''After 2003:''' ** 2003 invasion of Iraq ** Operation Viking Hammer ** First Iraq War ** Iraqi insurgency (2003–2011) ** Iraqi civil war (2006–2008) ** Iraqi insurgency (2011–2013) ** War in Iraq (2013–2017) ** US intervention in the Syrian civil war ** 2017 Iraqi–Kurdish conflict ** Iraqi insurgency (2017–present) ** Operation Inherent Resolve<ref name="OIR2025" /> ** Attacks on US bases during the Gaza war * 2026 Iran war ** 2026 Iranian strikes on the Kurdistan Region </div> | website = {{URL|https://gov.krd/mopa}} | domestic_suppliers = {{flagicon|Iraq}} Iraqi Ministry of Defense<ref>Multiple sources: *{{cite news |title=Iraq supplies Kurds with ammunition in unprecedented move, U.S. says |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-iraq-security-usa-ammunition/iraq-supplies-kurds-with-ammunition-in-unprecedented-move-u-s-says-idUSKBN0G82BP20140809 |access-date=26 July 2019 |work=Reuters |date=9 August 2014 |language=en}} *{{cite news |title=MOD issues clarification on the howitzers allocated to Peshmerga |url=https://ina.iq/en/security/34845-mod-issues-clarification-on-the-howitzers-allocated-to-peshmerga.html |agency=Iraqi News Agency |date=9 September 2024}}</ref> | ranks = Military ranks of the Peshmerga }} The '''Peshmerga''' ({{langx|ku|پێشمەرگه|Pêşmerge|lit='Those Who Face Death'}})<ref>{{cite web |title=Peshmerga and the Ongoing Fight against ISIS |url=https://kurdistantribune.com/peshmerga-and-the-ongoing-fight-against-isis/ |access-date=31 July 2018 |date=27 March 2016 |archive-date=July 3, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190703183200/https://kurdistantribune.com/Peshmerga-and-the-ongoing-fight-against-isis/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> are the internal security forces of the Kurdistan Region. According to the Constitution of Iraq, federal regions (such as the Kurdistan Region) are responsible for "the establishment and organization of the internal security forces for the respective regions, such as police, security forces, and regional guards."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Iraq_2005.pdf?lang=en|title=Constitution of Iraq}}</ref> Other security institutions of the Kurdistan Region include the Zêrevanî (gendarmerie), Asayish (security and counterterrorism service), ''Parastin u Zanyarî'' (intelligence agency) and the Kurdish police force. The modern Peshmerga were established in 1946 as the national army of the Mahabad republic. However, the history of Kurdish armed fighters dates back to antiquity and was partly organized in the 16th to 19th century, when they served as soldiers for various Kurdish tribal leaders and principalities, as well as tribal paramilitary border guards under Ottoman and Safavid rule. By the 20th century, these forces had evolved into a more disciplined and organized guerrilla movement fighting for the independence of Kurdistan, and in the 21st century they were institutionalized under the Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG).<ref name="Lortz2015">{{cite thesis |last1=Lortz |first1=Michael G. |date=2005 |title=Willing to Face Death: A History of Kurdish Military Forces – the ''Peshmerga'' – from the Ottoman Empire to Present-Day Iraq |type=MA thesis |publisher=Florida State University |url=http://purl.flvc.org/fsu/fd/FSU_migr_etd-1038 |language=en}}</ref>

Formally, the Peshmerga are under the command of the Ministry of Peshmerga Affairs (MoPA) of the KRG. In practice, however, the Peshmerga's structure is largely divided and controlled separately by the two Iraqi Kurdish political parties: the Democratic Party of Kurdistan (KDP) and the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan (PUK). Unifying and integrating the Peshmerga under the MoPA has been on the Kurdistan Region's public agenda since 1992, with significant progress under a 2022 U.S.-KRG Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) aiming for full unification by 2026, though challenges like partisanship and external threats persist.<ref name="CMEC">{{cite journal|last1=van Wilgenburg|first1=Wladimir|last2=Fumerton|first2=Mario|title=Kurdistan's Political Armies: The Challenge of Unifying the Peshmerga Forces.|journal=Carnegie Middle East Center|date=16 December 2015|url=http://carnegieendowment.org/files/ACMR_WilgenburgFumerton_Kurdistan_English_final.pdf|access-date=12 February 2018}}</ref><ref name="OIR2025" /><ref>{{cite news |title=U.S. Voices Frustration Over Stalled Peshmerga Reform in Kurdistan |url=https://peregraf.com/en/news/9424 |work=Peregraf |date=August 1, 2025 |access-date=August 20, 2025 |quote=Despite formal commitments, Peshmerga units remain fragmented along party lines, with little meaningful progress toward true unification.}}</ref>

Besides being the official name for the KRG's internal security forces, historically the word Peshmerga has also been used for a variety of Kurdish militias and armed groups, especially in Iranian Kurdistan. A few examples are the Peshmerga of the KDPI, PAK and Komala.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Smith |first=Crispin |url=https://journals.law.harvard.edu/ilj/wp-content/uploads/sites/84/HLI102_crop-1.pdf |title=Independent Without Independence: The IraqiKurdish Peshmerga in International Law* |publisher=Harvard University |year=2018 |edition=Volume 59, Number 1 |pages=248}}</ref>

==Etymology== The word "Peshmerga" can be translated to "to stand in front of death",<ref>{{cite web |first=Allegra |last=Stratton |title=Hero of the people |url=http://www.newstatesman.com/node/153517 |work=New Statesman |date=26 June 2006 |access-date=14 February 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Koerner |first=Brendan |url=http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/explainer/2003/03/are_kurdish_soldiers_facing_death_or_seeking_death.html |title=What does the Kurdish word Peshmerga mean? |website=Slate.com |date=2003-03-21 |access-date=2016-10-18}}</ref><ref>From the Kurdish ''{{lang|ku|pêş}}'' ({{lang|ckb|{{big|پێش}}}}) "before" and ''{{lang|ku|merg}}'' {{lang|ckb|{{big|مەرگ}}}} "death".</ref> and Valentine states it was first used by Qazi Muhammad in the short-lived Mahabad Republic (1946–47).<ref>Valentine, Those Who Face Death, KDP, 2018.</ref> The word is understandable to Persian speakers.<ref>{{cite book |first=Donald |last=Stilo |title=Aspects of Iranian Linguistics |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nlkZBwAAQBAJ&q=pishmarg+word&pg=PA15|publisher =Cambridge Scholars Publishing |date=March 2008 |isbn=9781443810135 |access-date=19 October 2017}}</ref> Because, the name was also used to refer to an elite unit within the Sassanid Empire's military, specifically a sub-unit of the Pushtigban, called the Gyan-avspar.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gyan-Avspar – The Sassanids (Empire Divided) – Total War: Rome II |url=https://www.honga.net/totalwar/rome2/unit.php?l=ja&v=rome2&f=3c_sassanid&u=3c_Sas_Gyan_Avspar_commander |access-date=2025-05-16 |website=Royal Military Academy}}</ref> These warriors were renowned for their unwavering loyalty and bravery, often serving as the last line of defense for the Sassanid kings.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hughes |first=Ian |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1bfNDwAAQBAJ&dq=Gyan-avspar+peshmerga&pg=PT45 |title=Belisarius: The Last Roman General |date=2009-01-15 |publisher=Pen and Sword |isbn=978-1-84468-941-5 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Farrokh |first=Kaveh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9SguvgAACAAJ |title=Sassanian Elite Cavalry AD 224–642 |date=2005-07-13 |publisher=Bloomsbury USA |isbn=978-1-84176-713-0 |pages=6 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Russian Lead Miniatures.Heavy Armed Sassanid Knight. The Army of Gyan – Avspar P {{!}} #1758881952 |url=https://www.worthpoint.com/worthopedia/russian-lead-miniatures-heavy-armed-1758881952 |access-date=2025-05-16 |website=Worthpoint |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Aladić |first=Dubravko |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/374531936 |title=Roman-Sassanian Conflict in the Third Century Campaigns of Shapur I and the Battle of Edessa}}</ref>

== History == {{Main|History of the Peshmerga}}

Long before the establishment of the Peshmerga, Kurdish fighters were known in the Middle East for their military traditions and use of guerrilla tactics.<ref name="Lortz2015" /><ref name=":30">S. R. Valentine, ''Peshmerga: Those Who Face Death'', KDP, 2018, see the introduction and chapter one.</ref>

In antiquity, Babylonian sources from around the 7th century BC referred to the inhabitants of the mountains of what is now southern Kurdistan as ''Qutil''. The term has been suggested to derive from the Akkadian word ''qardu'' and the Persian word ''gurd'', both of which are associated with meanings such as "hero" or "warrior." Conflicts between these presumed proto-Kurdish mountain communities and the peoples of Lower Mesopotamia are documented in pre-Biblical sources and are regarded as some of the earliest examples of guerrilla-style warfare in the region.<ref name="Lortz2015" /><ref name=":30" />

Between AD 224 and 226, Ardashir I, founder of the Sasanian Empire, fought Kurdish forces but only gained partial control. His successor, Ardashir II, ended their remaining autonomy in the mountains. Ardashir called the Kurdish fighters ''jânspâr/gyan-avspar'', meaning "self-sacrificers," similar to the later Peshmerga.<ref name="Lortz2015" />

In the Islamic period, Kurdish soldiers most notably fought under Saladin.<ref name="Lortz2015" /> Elite units were predominantly composed of Kurds, and Saladin's personal guard was generally drawn from Kurdish members.<ref>Andrew S. Ehrenkreutz, Saladin (State University of New York Press, 1972), pp. 44–45</ref><ref>Stephen Humphreys, From Saladin to the Mongols: The Ayyubids of Damascus 1193–1260 (SUNY Press, 1977), p. 23</ref><ref>Carole Hillenbrand, The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives (Edinburgh University Press, 1999), pp. 116–117</ref>

From the 16th to the 19th century, Kurdish fighters served under various tribal leaders and principalities, and sometimes as paramilitary border guards under Ottoman and Safavid rule, while also participating in the regular armies of these empires. Under the Kurdish Zand dynasty, women were allowed to serve alongside their husbands, reflecting a level of gender equality more common in Kurdish societies than in neighboring Muslim communities.<ref name="Lortz2015" /> [[File:Bedirkhan Beg in herd of horses.jpg|thumb|Bedir Khan Beg leading a cavalry charge.]] In the 19th century, Badr Khan mobilized 70,000 Kurdish fighters in campaigns against the Ottoman Empire to establish his own dynasty. Similarly, Sheikh Ubeydullah gathered around 20,000 fighters in opposition to Ottoman rule.<ref name="Lortz2015" />

In response to increasing Kurdish mobilization and tribal attacks, the Ottoman Empire established the Hamidiye Cavalry to secure Kurdish loyalty under the banner of Pan-Islamism. The Hamidiye Cavalry is often considered a precursor to the modern Peshmerga, particularly in terms of military organization and training. The Hamidiye Cavalry provided many Kurds with their first experience in organized, non-tribal warfare, teaching them military tactics and the use of modern equipment. Officers from these units (e.g.: Halis Öztürk and Halid Beg Cibran), but also former members of the regular Ottoman army (e.g.: Ihsan Nuri, Ibrahim Heski, and various members of the Society for the Rise of Kurdistan, Azadî, and Xoybûn), later became influential in Kurdish uprisings and helped shape the structure of future Kurdish forces.<ref name="Lortz2015" />

=== Early Kurdish revolts === {{See also|Timeline of Kurdish uprisings}} [[File:دیمەنێکی چەکدارانی جووڵانەوەکەی شێخ مەحموودی حەفید 1.jpg|thumb|Kurdish cavalry under Mahmud Barzanji.]] The Kurdish revolts of the early 20th century, such as the uprisings led by Sheikh Mahmoud Barzanji, the Ali Batı Revolt, the Koçgiri rebellion, the Beytüşşebab rebellion, the Sheikh Said rebellion, the Ararat Rebellion, and the Ahmed Barzani revolt, played an important role in the development of the modern Peshmerga. These events provided early experience in guerrilla and non-conventional warfare against state authorities and contributed to the spread of Kurdish nationalism among Kurdish fighters. They also strengthened the Barzani tribe, from which key leaders like Ahmed Barzani and Mustafa Barzani emerged.<ref name="Lortz2015" /><ref name=":22">{{Cite book |last=Khorsheed |first=Hussein M. |url=https://calhoun.nps.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/6e34f42f-b88e-4a3d-9824-38abd48dbd2a/content |title=THE ROLE OF SUBNATIONAL FORCES IN COMBATING TERRORISM DURING CIVIL WAR: THE CASE OF PESHMERGA OF KURDISTAN REGION-IRAQ AGAINST ISIS (2014–2017) |publisher=Naval Postgraduate School |year=2020 |location=Monterey, Canada}}</ref>

Building on the military experience gained during these uprisings, Mustafa Barzani later organized Kurdish forces in order to liberate Kurdistan. In 1943, he led approximately 2,000 Kurdish fighters in an uprising against the Iraqi Army and British forces, an event often regarded as a precursor to the modern Peshmerga forces that would later emerge, particularly during the period of the Republic of Mahabad.<ref name=":22" />

=== Mahabad Republic === During the brief existence of the self-declared Republic of Mahabad (1946–1947), a contingent of Kurdish fighters led by Mustafa Barzani served as its official national army after Barzani crossed the Iraq–Iran border to support the establishment of the Kurdish state in Iranian Kurdistan.<ref name="first mahabad source">{{cite web |first=Mufid |last=Abdulla |title=Mahabad – the first independent Kurdish republic |url=http://kurdistantribune.com/2011/mahabad-first-independent-kurdish-republic/ |work=The Kurdistan Tribune |date=12 June 2011 |access-date=14 February 2015 |archive-date=May 28, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160528231328/http://kurdistantribune.com/2011/mahabad-first-independent-kurdish-republic/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="ma barzani" />

According to Kurdish lore, the leaders of Mahabad gathered to choose a name for their army. As the story goes, they struggled to find a suitable word for 'soldier.' A server, overhearing their discussion, suggested ''peshmerga,'' a slang term from his nearby village. The name was adopted, and the force was formally named the Peshmerga.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Koerner |first=Brendan |date=2003-03-21 |title=Are Kurdish Soldiers “Facing Death” or “Seeking Death”? |url=https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2003/03/what-does-the-kurdish-word-peshmerga-mean.html |access-date=2025-07-23 |work=Slate |language=en-US |issn=1091-2339}}</ref> Furthermore, under president Qazi Muhammad’s orders, a committee of “hand-picked litterateurs and writers” also developed distinct Kurdish military terminology to define ranks and positions.<ref name=":21" /> [[File:Mustafa Barzani in Mahabad establishing Kurdish government.jpg|thumb|Mustafa Barzani (center front) with other Kurdish military officials of the Republic of Mahabad.]] The relative of Simko Shikak, Amr Khan Shikak, along with the tribal leader of Baneh, Hama Rashid, Khan Banei, and Zero Beg Herki, were appointed as Marshals of the Peshmerga army by the Minister of War, Mohammed Hossein Saif Qazi. Due to his extensive warfare experience Mustafa Barzani was appointed as Marshal and chief of staff<ref name=":22" /> of the army. Officers maintained a professional appearance through their Soviet-style uniforms, further advised and organized by the Soviet military officer Captain Salahaddin Kazimov. The Soviets continued their influence by sending at least 60 Kurdish officers to Soviet Azerbaijan for additional military training. The Mahabad army consisted of about 70 officers, 40 non-commissioned officers, and 1,200 privates. As one of the senior leaders, Mustafa Barzani was responsible for appointing officers within the ranks.<ref name=":21" />

In order to protect the republic's sovereignty, the Peshmerga engaged in their first fight during the Battle of Qahrawa, near the town of Saqqez. They ambushed an Iranian garrison, killing 21 soldiers, wounding 17, and capturing 40. By mid-May 1946 Kurdish forces numbered approximately 12,750 Peshmerga, but most Kurdish offensives were limited to minor skirmishes.<ref name=":21">{{Cite journal |last=Waisy |first=Karwan Salih |date=2015-07-15 |title=The Kurdish Peshmarga Force 1943–1975 |url=https://socialscienceresearch.org/index.php/GJHSS/article/view/1402 |journal=Global Journal of Human-Social Science |language=en |volume=15 |issue=D2 |pages= |issn=2249-460X}}</ref>

==== Fall of the republic ==== {{See also|Republic of Mahabad#Aftermath}}

The withdrawal of Soviet support and the subsequent collapse of the republic, including the execution of its head of state, Qazi Muhammad, dismantled the Peshmerga's organization, who had agreed with the Iranians to peacefully withdraw from the capital of Mahabad, to avoid civilians casualties.<ref name=":22" /><ref>{{cite book |first=Susan |last=Meiselas |title=Kurdistan: In the Shadow of History |edition=2nd |publisher=University of Chicago Press |date=2008 |isbn=978-0-226-51928-9}}</ref> Peshmerga forces led by Barzani remained active in rural areas of Iranian Kurdistan for a period following the collapse of the republic and engaged Iranian Army units in March 1947. During these clashes, the Peshmerga reportedly inflicted significant casualties and captured several Iranian officers, particularly during the Battle of Nalos, including Lieutenant Jahanbani, the son of General Nader Jahanbani.<ref name="Lortz2015" />

Iranian attacks continued against the remaining Peshmerga forces, prompting Barzani to order a retreat toward his home region of Barzan in Iraqi Kurdistan. Upon reaching the Iraqi–Iranian border, several returning Peshmerga officers were arrested by the Iraqi Army and executed, despite earlier assurances of amnesty. In an effort to capture Barzani, Iraqi authorities subsequently deployed large numbers of troops to the region. Anticipating further action, Barzani and his followers fled once again, moving along the Turkish–Iranian border and eventually into the Soviet Union, where they remained in exile until 1958.<ref name="Lortz2015" />

=== Iraqi Kurdistan === [[File:By Kurdo7aladen mamarisha.jpg|thumb|Mid-20th-century Peshmerga fighters with the famous Kurdish guerrilla fighter Mama Risha (center back).]] Following the 1958 Iraqi military coup, exiled Peshmerga fighters led by Barzani and his newly established Kurdistan Democratic Party (KDP) were permitted to return to Iraq by Abdul-Karim Qasim. In return, Barzani’s Peshmerga initially supported Qasim's efforts to establish a multiethnic Iraqi state against Arab nationalist revolts. However, as Barzani's influence grew, Qasim declined to meet Kurdish demands, leading to increasing tensions between the two sides. By the end of 1961, Barzani had succeeded in uniting many Kurdish tribes under the Peshmerga and controlled large parts of Iraqi Kurdistan. These developments, combined with Qasim’s concerns over Barzani’s expanding power, culminated in the outbreak of the First Iraqi–Kurdish War in 1961. The conflict, which lasted until 1970, marked the first major war fought by the Peshmerga in Iraqi Kurdistan, with Barzani and his forces seeking Kurdish independence.<ref name="Lortz2015" /><ref name="ma barzani">{{cite web |title=President |url=http://www.krgspain.org/government/profiles/english-president/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140730010255/http://www.krgspain.org/government/profiles/english-president/ |url-status=usurped |archive-date=July 30, 2014 |work=Kurdistan Regional Government Representation in Spain |date=2015 |access-date=14 February 2015}}</ref> The war resulted in the signing of the Iraqi–Kurdish Autonomy Agreement between the Kurds and the Ba'athist regime, which had replaced Qasim in 1963. Kurdish autonomy had failed to be implemented by 1974, which led to the Second Iraqi–Kurdish War in 1975. Jalal Talabani, a leading member of the KDP, left the same year to revitalize the resistance and founded the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan (PUK). This event created the baseline for the political discontent between the KDP and PUK that divides Peshmerga forces and much of Kurdish society to this day.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/3011925|title=The Kurds between Iran and Iraq|author=van Bruinessen, Martin|year=1986|journal=MERIP Middle East Report|issue=141|pages=14–27|doi=10.2307/3011925|jstor=3011925 | issn=0888-0328|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fpri.org/article/2017/05/getting-peshmerga-reform-right-helping-iraqi-kurds-help-post-isis-iraq/|title=Getting Peshmerga Reform Right: Helping the Iraqi Kurds to Help Themselves in Post-ISIS Iraq – Foreign Policy Research Institute|website=www.fpri.org}}</ref> After Mustafa Barzani's death in 1979, his son Masoud Barzani took over his position.<ref name="ma barzani" /> Political tensions increased between the KDP and PUK in the years after, while Peshmerga forces fought to keep Iraqi Kurdistan under their own party's control, whilst also fighting off the Iraqi Army's incursions.<ref name=":25" />

In 1988, the Ba'athist Iraqi regime launched the Anfal campaigns against the Peshmerga and their civilian supporters in rural areas of Iraqi Kurdistan, resulting in the deaths of hundreds of thousands of people, most of them civilians. During the fighting against the Peshmerga, the Iraqi army was at times supported by Kurdish collaborators, commonly referred to as ''jash''.<ref name=":26">{{Cite journal |last=Fischer-Tahir |first=Andrea |date=2012 |title=Gendered Memories and Masculinities: Kurdish Peshmerga on the Anfal Campaign in Iraq |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2979/jmiddeastwomstud.8.1.92 |journal=Journal of Middle East Women's Studies |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=92–114 |doi=10.2979/jmiddeastwomstud.8.1.92 |issn=1552-5864}}</ref> [[File:Kurdish militant with machine gun, Northern Iraq, 1991.jpg|thumb|Kurdish fighter during the 1991 Iraqi uprisings (Raperîn)]] Following the First Gulf War, the 1991 uprisings (Raperîn) broke out, which led to ''de facto'' autonomy for the Kurdistan Region.<ref name=":25" /> Both party-affiliated and non-party-affiliated Peshmerga played a significant role during the uprisings, while their fighting capabilities were greatly enhanced by the Iraqi no-fly zones, which stayed in place until 2003.<ref name=":26" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=13 April 2023 |title=March 5th: The Anniversary of Raperin |url=https://kurdistanchronicle.com/babat/2586 |access-date=2026-02-10 |website=Kurdistan Chronicle}}</ref> Killed Peshmerga were commemorated as martyrs. The memory of killed, injured and veteran Peshmerga fighters became widespread in public life through paintings, sculptures, and memorials, as well as through regular representation on radio and television and in commemorative rituals. Most Kurdish collaborators were granted amnesty, and some were subsequently incorporated into the Peshmerga forces of their respective parties.<ref name=":26" />

After gaining autonomy, the Kurdish Civil War broke out, a conflict between the rivaling KDP and PUK parties, in which Peshmerga forces were used to fight against each other.<ref name=":25">S. R. Valentine, Peshmerga: Those Who Face Death, KDP, 2018, chapter six.</ref> The civil war officially ended in September 1998 when the Barzanis and Talabanis signed the ''Washington Agreement'' establishing a formal peace treaty.<ref>{{cite web |first=Frman |last=Abdulrahman |title=Never-ending mystery: what really happened to Kurdish civil war missing |url=http://www.niqash.org/articles/?id=3000 |work=niqash |date=23 February 2012 |access-date=22 February 2015}}</ref> In the agreement, the parties agreed to share oil revenue and power, deny the use of Iraqi Kurdistan to the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK), and to not allow Iraqi troops into the Kurdish regions. By then, around 5,000 Peshmerga and civilians had been killed on both sides, and many more had been evicted for being on the "wrong side".<ref name=":27">{{cite web |first=Charles |last=McDermid |title=New force emerges in Kirkuk |url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Middle_East/LB20Ak02.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100222221442/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Middle_East/LB20Ak02.html |url-status=unfit |archive-date=22 February 2010 |work=Asia Times Online |date=20 February 2010 |access-date=22 February 2015}}</ref>

Throughout the decades of conflict, the Peshmerga were widely considered to be liberators of the Kurdish population.<ref name=":26" />

=== 2003-2011 invasion and occupation of Iraq === {{See also|Operation Viking Hammer|Iraqi no-fly zones conflict}} [[File:Operation VIking Hammer Peshmerga Special Forces and CIA.jpg|thumb|Kurdish Peshmerga and U.S. special forces after defeating Ansar al-Islam during Operation Viking Hammer in Halabja, Iraqi Kurdistan.]] In the years after, tensions remained high, but both parties came closer to each other, and in 2003 both of them, jointly took part in the overthrowing of the Baathist regime as part of the Iraq War and the broader Global War on Terror.<ref name="WhoPeshmerga">[https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-28738975 Profile: Who are the Peshmerga?] BBC News. Retrieved 19 December 2014.</ref> The CIA and other US special forces, who arrived in Iraq in early 2002, conducted unconventional warfare operations with the Peshmerga against Ansal al-Islam terrorists. Furthermore Peshmerga were organized to form a 'northern Front' against Saddam Hussein's troops.<ref>{{cite news |last=Chivers |first=C. J. |date=24 March 2003 |title=A Nation at War: Second Front; Allied Troops Are Flown Into Airfields In North Iraq |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2003/03/24/world/nation-war-second-front-allied-troops-are-flown-airfields-north-iraq.html |access-date=8 July 2021 |work=The New York Times}}</ref> As the bombing campaign and subsequent invasion of Iraq began, Peshmerga forces, operating alongside U.S. Special Forces, advanced beyond the Kurdistan Region and took control of large areas that were widely regarded as Kurdish but had previously been outside Kurdish control. These areas included Sinjar, Tuz Khurmatu, Khanaqin, and Kirkuk.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Claims in Conflict: Reversing Ethnic Cleansing in Northern Iraq: V. The 2003 Iraq War and its Aftermath|url=https://www.hrw.org/reports/2004/iraq0804/6.htm|website=www.hrw.org|access-date=2026-01-30}}</ref> By tying down Saddam Hussein’s 5th Division in northern Iraq, the Peshmerga, helped facilitate the coalition’s invasion of southern Iraq and reduced the number of Iraqi forces available to oppose coalition operations elsewhere, likely saving hundreds if not thousands of lives.<ref>{{cite book|last=Woodward|first=Bob|title=Plan of Attack|year=2004}}</ref> The Peshmerga also played a key role in helping the United States on the mission to capture Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein.<ref name=":23">{{cite news |last=Rai|first=Manish|date=6 October 2014|title=Kurdish Peshmerga Can Be a Game-changer in Iraq And Syria|url=http://www.khaama.com/kurdish-peshmerga-can-be-a-game-changer-in-iraq-and-syria-6802|access-date=14 February 2015|work=Khaama Press}}</ref><ref name=":24">{{cite web |date=15 December 2003|title=Operation Red Dawn's eight-month hunt|url=http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2003/12/15/1071336860245.html|access-date=14 February 2015|work=The Sydney Morning Herald}}</ref>

After the overthrowing, the Peshmerga were politically recognized and obtained a special legal position. This improvement came from the Coalition Provisional Authority (CPA) with issuing orders that recognized the Peshmerga and exempted them from disbandment.<ref name=":7" /> However, the decision was preceded by disagreements between Kurdish leader Masoud Barzani and the U.S. Administrator of Iraq, Paul Bremer, who regarded the continued existence of the Peshmerga as a "red line" in the formation of the new Iraqi state. Barzani rejected calls for disbandment, reportedly telling Bremer to "be a man and come to Kurdistan to disband [the] Peshmerga." Bremer subsequently abandoned his efforts to disband the Peshmerga.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Barzani says he refused request by Bremer to disband Peshmerga in 2003|url=https://theinsightinternational.com/barzani-bremer-disband-peshmerga-2017-09-03|website=The Insight International|date=2017-09-03|access-date=2026-01-30|language=en-US}}</ref> In August 2003, parts of the Peshmerga were assigned to border security and oil pipeline protection, while others trained with coalition troops. Peshmerga units collaborated closely with U.S. forces on patrols, interrogations, and security missions. At one point, the Peshmerga made up 30% of the new Iraqi Army.<ref name=":7" />

In 2004, CTG Kurdistan captured Saudi-born Pakistani terrorist Hassan Ghul, who was operating for al-Qaeda in Iraq. Ghul was turned over to American intelligence officers shortly afterwards, which eventually led to the killing of Osama bin Laden in a covert American military operation in Pakistan in 2011.<ref>{{cite news |last=Ambinder |first=Marc |date=29 April 2013 |title=How the CIA really caught Bin Laden's trail |url=http://theweek.com/article/index/243389/how-the-cia-really-caught-bin-ladens-trail#axzz34IzUbxqb |access-date=14 February 2015 |newspaper=The Week}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Roston |first=Arom |date=9 January 2014 |title=Cloak and Drone: The Strange Saga of an Al Qaeda Triple Agent |url=http://www.vocativ.com/usa/nat-sec/cloak-drone-strange-saga-al-qaeda-triple-agent/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190625232507/https://www.vocativ.com/usa/nat-sec/cloak-drone-strange-saga-al-qaeda-triple-agent/ |archive-date=June 25, 2019 |access-date=14 February 2015 |work=Vocativ}}</ref><ref>Valentine, ''Peshmerga: Those who Face Death'', 2018, chapter five.</ref>

==== Legal status of the Peshmerga ==== Article 117 of the new 2005 Iraqi Constitution allowed federal regions (such as the Kurdistan Region) to establish their own internal security services; that is, the "police, security forces and guards of the region." The Peshmerga are legally recognized as one of these permissible regional internal security forces.<ref name=":9">{{Cite book |url=https://gppi.net/assets/Gaston__Horvath__van_den_Toorn__Mathieu-Comtois___2017__Literature_Review_of_Local__Regional_or_Sub-State_Defense_Forces_in_Iraq.pdf |title=Backgrounder: Literature Review of Local, Regional or Sub-State Defense Forces in Iraq |publisher=Global Public Policy Institute |year=2017 |pages=3 and 22}}</ref>

In 2006, a major conference in Erbil, involving the KRG, Iraqi Government, and Multinational Forces in Iraq, further clarified the Peshmerga's role: defending the Kurdistan Region, supporting federal security efforts, fighting terrorism, and preserving constitutional institutions.<ref name=":7">{{Cite book |last=Khorsheed |first=Hussein M. |url=https://calhoun.nps.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/6e34f42f-b88e-4a3d-9824-38abd48dbd2a/content |title=THE ROLE OF SUBNATIONAL FORCES IN COMBATING TERRORISM DURING CIVIL WAR: THE CASE OF PESHMERGA OF KURDISTAN REGION-IRAQ AGAINST ISIS (2014–2017) |publisher=Naval Postgraduate School Monterey, California |year=2020 |pages=35–36}}</ref><ref name=":12" />

==== Post-recognition phase ==== Following recognition by international powers and under the Iraqi Constitution, the situation in the Kurdistan Region during the occupation of Iraq remained relatively stable, allowing the Peshmerga to reorganize and train their forces at military academies in the Zakho–Duhok and Qalachulan–Sulaymaniyah areas,<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":12" /> while staying divided between the KDP and the PUK.

Over the course of the occupation of Iraq, the Peshmerga’s role gradually evolved from primarily providing security to participating in active counterinsurgency operations, in coordination with Iraqi security forces and multinational forces, against former Ba’athist elements, Al-Qaeda, Sunni tribal fighters, and foreign combatants. Anti-terror operations carried out by the Peshmerga contributed to making the Kurdistan Region one of the more stable areas in Iraq.<ref name=":28" />

In 2009 to 2010, growing accusations of corruption against both parties led to the defection of many party-affiliated Peshmerga to the Gorran Movement, which called for the dissolution of party militias and the elimination of corruption.<ref name=":27" /> Following the death of its leader, Nawshirwan Mustafa, the movement’s popularity declined,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gorran Calls for Boycott of November 11 Iraqi Parliamentary Elections in Kurdistan Region |url=https://peregraf.com/en/news/10121 |access-date=2026-02-10 |website=پەرەگراف |language=en}}</ref> and most Peshmerga fighters remained under the control of the KDP and PUK. [[File:Peshmerga Kurdish Army (15646798993).jpg|thumb|Kurdish Peshmerga soldier with an M93 rifle.]]

=== 2014 war against the Islamic State === In the first half of 2014, during the Islamic State’s (ISIL/ISIS) offensive, the Iraqi Armed Forces rapidly collapsed in much of Sunni-majority western Iraq, leading to the fall of Mosul and other strategic areas. Peshmerga forces, many of whom had not experienced major combat for over a decade, swiftly moved into positions abandoned by Iraqi forces in disputed territories with significant Kurdish populations, including Sinjar, Jalawla, Tuz Khurmatu, Rabia and the oil-rich city of Kirkuk. Most of Iraqi Kurdistan's southern regions, including Jalawla, Tuz Khurmatu and Kirkuk remained under Peshmerga control until 2017 and were defended on numerous occasions against ISIS offensives.<ref name=":28">{{Cite book |last=Shamsi |first=Pishko |url=https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/38238638/2015_WPS_Working_Papers.pdf?1738221140=&response-content-disposition=inline%3B+filename%3DUS_Naval_War_College_Women_Peace_and_Sec.pdf&Expires=1770726432&Signature=ebQH0-17rc00MeCuOZzxgYMgOTJfAwxzfjUvQ0Q4tFEyrORlFskBA9rivIt2DYgPJEv~9-CvEvysZsUNX40CswVQo0JJF841XK0yMWoh5Es7Iw8CODRSxt~GBe4U5o12S238diBSuM20ICXFs-V7cf~N2aq5CN6D0JR8hvBl4qDRB9cXjN~9plC3VqCFGPuMlZqo67yUbva44u1pgQWucAKVRIBsfW-6XA1kTXVNZqF21KUS66ivyYOVxaxQg462d-5tuakzsnyUqgdaUFGLmp7ncckohLkX73p96c4C2NPQMnNbJyBqQGQj6b8lrK5yN9E2eHmVDSX1AK6Iq4NOJg__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA#page=317 |title=THE SUB-CONFLICT BETWEEN ISIL AND THE KURDISH FORCES: WOMEN’S PARTICIPATION BEYOND ARMED STRUGGLE}}</ref><ref name=":0" />

[[File:Morale High Among Kurdish Fighters on Northern Iraq Frontline.webm|thumb|thumbtime=0:29|right|2015 VOA report about Peshmerga fighting IS south of Erbil]] In the second half of 2014, however, the Peshmerga proved unable to hold their newly gained positions to Iraqi Kurdistan's west (Nineveh Plains/Nineveh governorate), including Sinjar, which was followed by widespread massacres committed by the Islamic State, including the Yazidi genocide. After initially withdrawing, with the regional capital Erbil coming within approximately 30 minutes of an Islamic State advance, the Peshmerga later counterattacked and recaptured the entire Erbil governorate, large areas to Iraqi Kurdistan's west, in Nineveh Governorate, and to Iraqi Kurdistan's south, in the Diyala and Kirkuk governorates. These operations were carried out in coordination with U.S. air support and Kurdish forces from the People’s Protection Units (YPG) and the Kurdistan Workers’ Party (PKK), which cooperated with the Peshmerga during several offensives in Nineveh Governorate, including the Sinjar offensives. The Sinjar offensives marked one of the first cross-border military collaborations between Kurdish forces from different parts of Kurdistan in the 21st century.<ref name=":28" /><ref name=":0" /><ref name=":29" />

In September 2014, during the Siege of Kobani, approximately 300 Peshmerga fighters were deployed to Syrian Kurdistan to assist Kurdish forces there, marking the first official deployment of the Peshmerga outside Iraq. Equipped with heavy weaponry, the Peshmerga crossed two international borders and were greeted by large crowds of Kurds in Turkey during their transit.<ref name=":28" />

According to Myles B. Caggins III, the Senior Spokesperson for the Global Coalition to Defeat ISIS at the time, the Peshmerga made the "ultimate sacrifice" in the war Against the Islamic State with over 1,300 Peshmerga fighters being killed, and upwards of 8,000 being wounded.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Caggins |first=Myles B. |date=31 October 2023 |title=Peshmerga Reforms: Navigating Challenges, Forging Unity – Foreign Policy Research Institute |url=https://www.fpri.org/article/2023/10/peshmerga-reforms-navigating-challenges-forging-unity/ |access-date=2025-07-22 |website=Foreign Policy Research Institute |language=en-US}}</ref> As stated by a report of the German Federal Office for Migration and Refugees, the Peshmerga are seen by locals as heroes due to their involvement in the fight against ISIS.<ref name=":29">{{Cite book |url=https://www.bamf.de/SharedDocs/Anlagen/DE/Behoerde/Informationszentrum/Laenderreporte/2024/laenderreport-68-Irak.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=2 |title=Länderreport 68 Irak – Die Autonome Region Kurdistan |date=1 March 2024 |publisher=Federal Office for Migration and Refugees |pages=16 |language=German |trans-title=Country Report 68: Iraq – The Kurdistan Autonomous Region}}</ref>

=== Post-2017 reforms === {{Main|Peshmerga#Unification efforts}}

Following the defeat of ISIS in 2017, conflicts with the Iraqi government, supported by Shi'ite militas and the IRGC renewed, leading to the 2017 Iraqi–Kurdish conflict.<ref>{{cite web |title=Kurds defeated, displaced and divided after Iraq reclaims oil-rich Kirkuk |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/oct/22/kurds-bitter-defeat-iraq-reclaims-kirkuk |website=The Guardian}}</ref>

Post-ISIS Peshmerga reforms focused on unification and modernization. In September 2022, the U.S. and KRG renewed a MoU to create a unified, nonpartisan force under MoPA command by 2026, including disbanding partisan Units 70 and 80, establishing two Area Commands and 11 light infantry divisions, and achieving a planned strength of 138,000.<ref name="OIR2025" /> By mid-2025, four divisions were operational, biometric enrollment exceeded 85%, and unification entered its final phase, with completion expected by year-end.<ref>{{cite news |title=Peshmerga unification enters final phase, set for completion by year-end |url=https://www.rudaw.net/english/kurdistan/010720253 |work=Rudaw |date=July 1, 2025 |access-date=August 20, 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Peshmerga Ministry Advances Unification Process |url=https://channel8.com/english/news/36365 |work=Channel8 |date=April 20, 2025 |access-date=August 20, 2025}}</ref> Advancements included the 2025 'Peshmerga Medical Force Readiness Initiative' and proposals for air defense systems.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Kurdistan Region – Representation in the United States |url=https://us.gov.krd/new-history-of-kurdistan/ |publisher=KRG Representation in the US |date=2025 |access-date=August 20, 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=After the Coalition: Evaluating the Next Steps for Foreign Forces in Iraq and Syria |url=https://newlinesinstitute.org/political-systems/after-the-coalition-evaluating-the-next-steps-for-foreign-forces-in-iraq-and-syria/ |publisher=Newlines Institute |date=March 18, 2025 |access-date=August 20, 2025}}</ref> Continued Coalition support via CTEF provided stipends, vehicles, and equipment.<ref name="OIR2025" /> However, progress has been slowed by KDP-PUK division, ISIS' threat, and disputes with the central government in Baghdad.<ref>{{cite news |title=US-led coalition support for Peshmerga to continue |url=https://www.rudaw.net/english/kurdistan/10082025 |work=Rudaw |date=August 10, 2025 |access-date=August 20, 2025}}</ref>

==Structure == === Party affiliations === The Peshmerga are mostly divided among forces loyal to the Kurdistan Democratic Party (KDP) and those loyal to the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan (PUK),<ref name="Helfont2017">{{cite journal|last1=Helfont|first1=Samuel|title=Getting Peshmerga Reform Right: Helping the Iraqi Kurds to Help Themselves in Post-ISIS Iraq.|journal=Foreign Policy Research Institute|date= 1 March 2017|volume=16|pages=13}}</ref> while other, minor Kurdish parties such as the Kurdistan Socialist Democratic Party also have their own small Peshmerga units.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.rudaw.net/english/kurdistan/161020161 |title=Kaka Hama, head of Kurdish Socialist Party joins Mosul battle plan with force |agency=Rudaw Media Network |date=16 October 2016 |access-date=24 February 2018}}</ref> The Kurdistan Islamic Movement also had its own Peshmerga unit, which became an official Peshmerga branch during the Iran-Iraq war, and was disarmed in 2003.<ref>Kurdish Islamists in Iraq from the Muslim Brotherhood to the So-Called Islamic State: Continuity or Departure?, Mohammed Shareef, 2015, pp. 25, {{ISBN|9786038032657}}</ref> In daily life and the media, Peshmerga are referred to as ''Peshmerga i parti'' (KDP) or ''Peshmerga i yaketi'' (PUK) – i.e., KDP peshmerga or PUK Peshmerga.<ref>{{Cite book |author1=Andrew Cottey |author2=Aziz Sardar |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/14702436.2021.1888644 |title=The Iraqi Kurdish Peshmerga: military reform and nation-building in a divided polity |publisher=Defence Studies |year=2021 |pages=229}}</ref> The KDP and PUK do not disclose information about the composition of their forces with government or media.<ref name="Helfont2017" /> Thus there is no reliable number of how many Peshmerga fighters exist.<ref name="Helfont2017" /> Media outlets have speculated that there are between 150,000 and 200,000 Peshmerga, but this number is highly disputed.<ref>{{cite news|title=Over 150,000 enlisted as Peshmerga troops in Kurdistan Region, official data shows |agency=Rudaw |url=http://www.rudaw.net/english/kurdistan/03042017|access-date=13 August 2017|date=3 April 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Hawramy|first1=Fazel|title=Kurdish Peshmerga divisions hamper war effort|url=https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2015/01/iraq-kurdish-peshmerga-division-islamic-state.html|access-date=12 February 2018|work=Al-monitor|date=13 January 2015}}</ref> The Peshmerga are divided into a KDP-governed "yellow" zone covering Dohuk Governorate and Erbil Governorate and a PUK-governed "green" zone covering Sulaymaniyah Governorate and Halabja Governorate.<ref>Chapman, Dennis. ''Security Forces of Kurdistan Regional Government'', US Army War College. 2009, p. 3.</ref><ref name="Helfont2017" /><ref name="CMEC" /> Each zone has its own branch of Peshmerga with their own governing institutions that do not coordinate with the other branch.<ref name="CMEC" /><ref>S. R. Valentine, ''Peshmerga: Those Who Face Death'', KDP, 2018, chapter 9.</ref>

=== Unification efforts === As a result of the split nature of the Peshmerga forces, there is no central command center in charge of the entire force, and Peshmerga units instead follow separate military hierarchies depending on political allegiance.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lebanonwire.com/1409MLN/14091314STR.asp|title=Lebanonwire.com – Kurdish Peshmerga Forces Have Room to Grow|work=lebanonwire.com|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150113050615/http://lebanonwire.com/1409MLN/14091314STR.asp|archive-date=2015-01-13}}</ref> Multiple unification and depoliticizing efforts of the Peshmerga have been made since 1992. Many deadlines have been missed,<ref name="CMEC" /> reforms have been watered down,<ref name="Helfont2017" /> and most of the Peshmerga are still under the influence and command of the KDP and the PUK.

==== Ministry of Peshmerga Affairs ==== {{Main|Ministry of Peshmerga Affairs}}

After gaining autonomy in 1991 the Kurdistan Region created its own proto-defence ministry: The Ministry of Peshmerga Affairs (MoPA). The Ministry was established to professionalize, unify, and centralize command of the party-affiliated Peshmerga forces, but in its early years it lacked real authority, something that became evident during the Kurdish civil war. Following the end of the civil war the KDP and PUK agreed to the re-establishment of the unified Ministry of Peshmerga Affairs, which was favoured by the overall ''KRG Unification Agreement'', and formally took place in 2006. In January 2010, the MoPA created the first, to itself subordinate, integrated Peshmerga brigade, called a Regional Guard Brigade (RGB). Three more RGBs were formed in March of the same year. Mario Fumerton and Wladimir van Wilgenburg commented, "The KDP’s temporary alliance with Saddam Hussein to expel the PUK from Erbil in 1996 is still remembered as a grave betrayal; conversely, many KDP members recall being driven out of other territories by the PUK. In part for these reasons, each side keeps a portion of its own forces under direct party control as a final guarantee to maintain the balance of power."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Fliervoet |first=Feike |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/resrep17331.8.pdf?refreqid=fastly-default%3Ac3f372a87a6b7ebaf23860fc55e3a06a&ab_segments=0%2Fbasic_search_gsv2%2Fcontrol&initiator=search-results&acceptTC=1 |title=Fighting for Kurdistan?: Assessing the nature and functions of the Peshmerga in Iraq |publisher=Clingendael Institute |year=2018 |pages=14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Fliervoet |first=Feike |date=1 March 2018 |title=The evolution of the Peshmerga |url=https://www.clingendael.org/pub/2018/fighting-for-kurdistan/2-the-evolution-of-the-peshmerga/ |access-date=17 August 2025 |publisher=Clingendael Institute}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Borsari |first=Federico |date=17 July 2019 |title=Institutionalisation of the Peshmerga: tipping the balance of Iraq's stability |url=https://www.meri-k.org/publication/institutionalisation-of-the-peshmerga-tipping-the-balance-of-iraqs-stability/ |access-date=2025-09-15 |website=Middle East Research Institute}}</ref>

In 2016 and 2017, following the events of the Iraqi Civil War, the United States and several European nations pressured the PUK and KDP to set up more mixed brigades as a condition for aid and funding. The PUK and KDP united 12 to 14 brigades under the RGB, which were then placed under the command of the Ministry of Peshmerga Affairs.<ref name="Helfont2017" /> The Netherlands, the US, the UK, and Germany form the Multi-National Advisory Group (MNAG) that supports the project to establish a "modern, effective, affordable, and accountable Peshmerga."<ref name=":18"/> In addition, to support reform efforts, the United Kingdom appointed a Special Defence Adviser to the MoPA.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Aziz |first=Sardar |last2=Cottey |first2=Andrew |date=2021-02-15 |title=The Iraqi Kurdish Peshmerga: military reform and nation-building in a divided polity |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/14702436.2021.1888644 |journal=Defence Studies |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=226–241 |doi=10.1080/14702436.2021.1888644 |issn=1470-2436|hdl=10468/11579 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

In 2022, the KDP's 1st Support Force and the PUK's 2nd Support Force were integrated into the MoPA, a move described by Col. Todd Burroughs, deputy director of the US-led coalition's Military Advisor Group North, as a 'significant step in the Peshmerga reform process.'<ref name=":18">{{Cite web |date=28 February 2022 |title=Peshmerga unit joining Ministry of Peshmerga receives ammunition |url=https://www.kurdistan24.net/en/story/387432/Peshmerga-unit-joining-Ministry-of-Peshmerga-receives-ammunition |access-date=15 September 2025 |website=Kurdistan24}}</ref><ref name=":19">{{Cite web |last=Palani |first=Kamaran |date=15 September 2022 |title=Peshmerga Reform: High Stakes for the Future of Iraqi Kurdistan |url=https://www.ispionline.it/en/publication/peshmerga-reform-high-stakes-future-iraqi-kurdistan-36155 |access-date=2025-09-15 |website=ISPI |language=en-US}}</ref>

==== 2022 Memorandum of understanding ==== A major step towards unification was reached in 2022, when a four-year memorandum of understanding (MoU) between the US Department of Defense and Ministry of Peshmerga Affairs was signed, outlining conditions and timelines for integration into MoPA, effective until September 2026.<ref name=":0"/><ref name="OIR2025" />

By 2025, unification was in its final phase, with 10 additional brigades formed, two command regions planned, and salary payments digitialized via the 'MyAccount' system.<ref>{{cite news |date=August 19, 2025 |title=Peshmerga Unification Nears, Digital Salaries Soon Fully Implemented |url=https://www.basnews.com/en/babat/892443 |access-date=August 20, 2025 |work=Basnews}}</ref><ref name="OIR2025" /> An Inspector General Report for ''Operation Inherent Resolve'' report noted progress in establishing four divisions, but highlighted delays in the development of Area Commands and persistent partisanship.<ref name="OIR2025" /> As of Q2 2025, 28 Regional Guard Brigades were unified, 4 divisions operational, biometric enrollment exceeded 85%, and a four-year budget was submitted for a 138,000-strong force. Salary digitization via 'MyAccount' was nearing completion.<ref name="OIR2025" /><ref>{{cite news |title=Coalition Advisors Look Ahead with Peshmerga 1st Support Forces Command |url=https://www.dvidshub.net/image/8869320/coalition-advisors-look-ahead-with-peshmerga-1st-support-forces-command |work=DVIDS |date=February 13, 2025 |access-date=August 20, 2025}}</ref>

==== Future outlook ==== In spite of all reforms, officers partially still continue to report to and take orders from their party leaders who also control the deployment of forces loyal to them and appoint front-line and sector commanders.<ref name="CMEC" /> Critical reforms stalled include the full incorporation of Units 80 and 70, and additional division HQs, amid U.S. frustration over partisanship.<ref name="OIR2025" /><ref name="Peregraf">{{cite news |title=U.S. Voices Frustration Over Stalled Peshmerga Reform |url=https://peregraf.com/en/news/9424 |work=Peregraf |date=August 1, 2025 |access-date=August 20, 2025}}</ref> Peshmerga officials repeatedly affirm that full unification will be completed by 2026, if not sooner and U.S. officials stress that they will continue supporting unifying efforts.<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 January 2025 |title=KDP, PUK to unify Peshmerga forces in March in major bid to build national army |url=https://thenewregion.com/posts/1497 |access-date=2025-09-17 |website=The New Region |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Qadi |first=Ahora |date=2025-05-21 |title=Peshmerga Minister: U.S. Support for Peshmerga Will Continue as Trust Deepens |url=https://www.kurdistan24.net/en/story/841633/slug |access-date=2025-09-17 |website=Peshmerga Minister: U.S. Support for Peshmerga Will Continue as Trust Deepens |language=en}}</ref>

=== Combat Forces === Both the KDP and the PUK Peshmerga rely heavily on irregulars in times of conflict to increase their ranks.<ref name="Howard2002">{{cite news|last1=Howard|first1=Michael|title=Revenge spurs women's army|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2002/nov/26/iraq.michaelhoward|access-date=13 February 2018|work=The Guardian|date=26 November 2002}}</ref> However, both maintain several professional military brigades. The Peshmerga forces are described as a secular force with a Muslim majority and smaller Assyrian, Chaldean Catholic, Yazidi, Shabak and Kaka'i units.<ref name=":9" /><ref>{{cite news |last1=Coles |first1=Isabel |date=December 21, 2014 |title=Iraqi Kurds, Yazidis fight Islamic State for strategic town of Sinjar |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-iraq-sinjar-idUSKBN0JZ0QO20141221 |access-date=20 March 2015 |work=Reuters}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Mosul Christians form army under Peshmerga direction |url=http://rudaw.net/english/kurdistan/070120151 |access-date=20 March 2015 |agency=Rudaw}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=25 July 2022 |title=PMF militants forcibly shave Kaka'i peshmerga member's moustache |url=https://www.newarab.com/news/pmf-militants-shave-moustache-kakai-peshmerga-member |access-date=28 July 2025 |website=The New Arab}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite web |date=11 November 2015 |title=Peshmerga all-Shabak battalion ready to fight ISIS |url=https://www.rudaw.net/english/kurdistan/111120151 |access-date=13 September 2025 |website=Rudaw}}</ref> Though some units are composed of minorities, they are not segregated and serve in regular infantry divisions too.<ref>{{Cite web |date=4 April 2023 |title=Kurdistan Forms New Unified Infantry Divisions of Peshmerga Forces, including Minorities |url=https://kurdistanchronicle.com/b/2574 |access-date=2025-09-15 |website=Kurdistan Chronicle}}</ref> In 2016 the MoPA intended to create a military division for the Arabs and Turkmen of Kirkuk Province, but financial difficulties halted the project.<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 August 2016 |title=Peshmerga Ministry to create brigade for Kirkuk Arabs, Turkmen |url=https://www.kurdistan24.net/en/story/368413/Peshmerga-Ministry-to-create-brigade-for-Kirkuk-Arabs,-Turkmen |access-date=23 July 2025 |website=Kurdistan24}}</ref> Most minority units have been formed, when the Peshmerga took over the disputed territories in the War against the Islamic State.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=Gaston |first=Erica |date=2017-10-24 |title=It's Too Early to Pop Champagne in Baghdad: The Micro-Politics of Territorial Control in Iraq |url=https://warontherocks.com/2017/10/its-too-early-to-pop-champagne-in-baghdad-the-micro-politics-of-territorial-control-in-iraq/ |access-date=2025-07-23 |website=War on the Rocks |language=en-US}}</ref>

The following units are affiliated with or have been identified within the Peshmerga force: {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Force !! Estimated size !! Command !! Description |- ! colspan="4" |MoPA-affiliated units |- | {{flagicon image|Fixed Emblem of the Ministry of Peshmerga Affairs.png}} Regional Guard Brigades (RGB)<ref name="CMEC" /><ref name="Helfont2017" /><ref name=":3" />|| 73,000 (as of 2025, with 28 unified brigades)<ref name="OIR2025" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=4 May 2022 |title=Peshmerga carried out 7,516 operations against ISIS: Inspector General Report |url=https://www.kurdistan24.net/index.php/en/story/388230/Peshmerga-carried-out-7,516-operations-against-ISIS:-Inspector-General-Report |access-date=24 July 2025 |website=Kurdistan24}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=1 November 2024 |title=2.3. Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG) authorities {{!}} European Union Agency for Asylum |url=https://euaa.europa.eu/country-guidance-iraq-2024/23-kurdistan-regional-government-krg-authorities |access-date=2025-07-22 |website=European Union Agency For Asylum |language=en}}</ref>|| Şoreş Îsmaîl||MoPA's main force. Supposedly apolitical.<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 June 2022 |title=New selection procedure ready for Peshmerga unification: Dutch Military Advisor |url=https://www.kurdistan24.net/en/story/388605 |access-date=21 July 2025 |website=Kurdistan24}}</ref> |- | 1st Support Forces Command<ref name=":10">{{Cite web |date=2022-05-04 |title=Peshmerga carried out 7,516 operations against ISIS: Inspector General Report |url=https://www.kurdistan24.net/en/story/388230/slug |access-date=2025-09-14 |website=Kurdistan24 |language=en}}</ref> |10,000 combined with the 2nd Support Forces.<ref name=":19" /> |Lt. Gen. Sihad Barzani |Transferred to MoPA from KDP in 2022. Focuses on support roles, including artillery and officer training. |- |{{flagicon image|2nd support forces peshmerga small logo.png}} 2nd Support Forces Command<ref name=":10" /> |10,000 combined with the 1st Support Forces.<ref name=":19" /> |Maj. Gen. Mariwan Muhammed Amin |Transferred to the MoPA from PUK in 2022. Focuses on support roles. |- ! colspan="4" |KDP-affiliated units |- | {{flagicon image|Unit 80 peshmerga small logo.png}} 80 Unit<ref name="CMEC" /><ref name="Helfont2017" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |date=16 August 2017 |title=Who's Who: Quick Facts About Local and Sub-State Forces |url=https://gppi.net/2017/08/16/quick-facts-about-local-and-sub-state-forces |access-date=2025-07-24 |website=Global Public Policy Institute |language=en-US}}</ref>|| 50,000–60,000 || Najat Ali Salih || KDP. In process of integration into MoPA by 2026.<ref name="OIR2025" /><ref name="reform" /> |- | {{flagicon image|Zerevani peshmerga small logo.png}} Zeravani<ref name="CMEC" />|| 51,000–120,000 active personnel and 250,000 reservists<ref name="Lortz2015" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rudaw.net/english/kurds/3415.html|access-date=2008-06-06|title=Barzani: Düzenli ordu yakında|work=Milliyet|date=2007-07-20|first=İhsan|last=Dortkardes|language=ku|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110129060057/http://www.rudaw.net/english/kurds/3415.html|archive-date=January 29, 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref>|| Masoud Barzani|| KDP's militarized police force. |- |{{flagicon image|Gulan special forces small logo.png}} Gulan Forces<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-12-04 |title=Peshmerga commander Mansour Barzani visits mother who lost 3 sons in ISIS attack |url=https://www.kurdistan24.net/en/story/386475/slug |access-date=2025-09-16 |website=Kurdistan24 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=23 January 2025 |title=Mansour Barzani, the second son of Masoud Barzani and commander of the KDP's Barzan and Gulan special forces, has met with Turkey's Defense Minister in Ankara. |url=https://x.com/KurdistanWatch/status/1882392333141823990 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250127061312/https://x.com/KurdistanWatch/status/1882392333141823990 |archive-date=January 27, 2025 |access-date=2025-09-16 |website=X (formerly Twitter) |url-status=live }}</ref> |6,000 (2016)<ref>{{Cite web |date=4 November 2016 |title=Kurdish president's son and grandson fight IS on front line, say 'ready to die' |url=https://reuters.screenocean.com/record/80309 |access-date=2025-09-17 |website=Reuters Archive Licensing |language=en}}</ref> |Mansour Barzani |Commanded by Mansour Barzani. |- |{{flagicon image|Peshmerga roj small logo.png}} Peshmerga Roj<ref name=":3" /> |3,000–6,000 fighters |Ibrahim Biro and Brig. Gen. Mohammed Rejeb Dehdo |Military wing of the ENKS. Consists of Kurds from Syria. Located in the KRG, Pro-KDP and takes orders from Masoud Barzani. |- |{{flagicon image|Ctd small logo.png}} Counter Terrorism Department (Kurdistan Region)<ref>{{Cite web |date=27 September 2020 |title=What is Kurdistan CT? |url=https://www.facebook.com/KURDISTAN.CT/posts/what-is-kurdistan-ct-the-counter-terrorism-department-ctd-is-the-primary-organiz/1728270000671508/ |access-date=18 September 2025 |website=CTD via Facebook}}</ref> |N/A |N/A |Counterterrorism unit part of the Kurdistan Region Security Council. |- |Barzan Forces<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2002554/190107-irk-peschmerga.pdf |title=Irak: Peschmerga in der KRG Region |date=7 January 2019 |publisher=Schweizerische Flüchtlingshilfe |pages=7 |language=de |trans-title=Iraq: Peshmerga in the KRG region}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://nsiteam.com/social/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/R5_4-Foreign-Policy-Final-12Oct17-R.pdf |title=Evolution of US foreign policy in the Middle East |date=12 October 2017 |publisher=NSI |pages=19}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=22 July 2023 |title=“There's not even 1% chance that Kurdistan will have a national army,” senior commanders |url=https://kirkuknow.com/en/news/69551 |access-date=2025-09-18 |website=Kirkuknow |language=en}}</ref> |N/A |N/A |Brigade formation, consisting of men recruited from the Barzani clan. Its also known as ''Barzan Army''. |- |Black Tiger Battalion<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 January 2017 |title=Sirwan Barzani: ISIS is the enemy of the world, not just Peshmerga |url=https://www.rudaw.net/english/kurdistan/190120173 |access-date=2025-11-17 |website=Rudaw}}</ref> |N/A |Sirwan Barzani |Formed to confront the Islamic State in 2014 under Sirwan Barzani, who carries the nickname 'Black Tiger'. |- | {{flagicon image|Seal of the President of the Kurdistan Region.svg|border=|size=25px}} Presidential Guard (Kurdistan Region)<ref name="CMEC" />|| N/A || Nechirvan Barzani|| Military unit tasked with protecting the President of Kurdistan Region. |- ! colspan="4" |PUK-affiliated units |- | {{flagicon image|70 unit peshmerga small logo.png}} 70 Unit<ref name="CMEC" /><ref name="Helfont2017" /><ref name=":3" />|| 50,000–60,000 || Sheikh Jaafar Sheikh Mustafa || PUK. In process of integration into MoPA by 2026.<ref name="OIR2025" /><ref name="reform">{{cite web |title=Peshmerga Ministry reforms launched to reunify PUK, KDP forces |url=http://www.rudaw.net/english/kurdistan/310720181 |access-date=31 July 2018}}</ref> |- | {{flagicon image|Defense and emergency forces peshmerga small logo.png}} Defense and Emergency Forces (DEF)<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Bakr |first=Mera Jasm |url=https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Mera-Bakr/publication/371301973_THE_WAR_AT_HOME_THE_NEED_FOR_INTERNAL_SECURITY_SECTOR_REFORM_IN_IRAQI_KURDISTAN/links/647dd747d702370600d69b74/THE-WAR-AT-HOME-THE-NEED-FOR-INTERNAL-SECURITY-SECTOR-REFORM-IN-IRAQI-KURDISTAN.pdf |title=The War at Home: The Need for Internal Security Sector Reform in Iraqi Kurdistan |publisher=Washington, DC: Middle East Institute |year=2021}}</ref><ref name=":11">{{Cite web |date=14 February 2025 |title=As the non-binding, U.S.-led initiative to unify Peshmerga forces enters its final year, PUK is quietly expanding its military strength with several new brigades, seemingly aiming to narrow the gap with KDP's forces. |url=https://x.com/KurdistanWatch/status/1890468855971004469 |access-date=14 September 2025 |website=@KurdistanWatch}}</ref>|| 32,000<ref name=":11" />|| N/A || PUK's equivalent of KDP's Zeravani. They are also known as ''Black Forces''. |- | {{flagicon image|Ctg peshmerga small logo.png}} CTG Kurdistan<ref name="CMEC" /> || 5,000<ref name="kurdistanskyscrapers.com">{{Cite web|url=http://kurdistanskyscrapers.com/topic/9346414/1/|title=kurdistanskyscrapers.com|website=kurdistanskyscrapers.com}}</ref> || Wehab Helebcî || |- | Hezekani Kosrat Rasul<ref name="CMEC" /> || 2,000–3,000 || Kosrat Rasul Ali || Kosrat Rasul Ali's personal protection brigade, one of the last remaining units to defend during the Kirkuk crisis.<ref>{{cite web |title=Kosrat defends Kirkuk |url=https://www.kurdipedia.org |access-date=2023-09-16}}</ref> |- | Kurdistan Commando Forces<ref>{{Cite web |date=13 August 2025 |title=PUK President Highlights Importance of Cooperation Between Security Forces |url=https://www.pukmedia.com/EN/Details/78859 |access-date=16 September 2025 |website=PUK Media}}</ref> |500–10,000 |Diyar Omar |Well-equipped Commando unit.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-10-20 |title=Kurdistan Commando Forces refute claims that their commander was martyred amid anti-IS operation |url=https://esta.krd/en/200225/ |access-date=2025-09-16 |website=Esta Media Network |language=en-US}}</ref> |- |{{flagicon image|Golden force small logo.png}} Golden Force<ref name=":32">{{Cite web |last=McCardle |first=Guy D. |date=2024-03-01 |title=SOFREP Pic of the Day: Kurdish Peshmerga Golden Force |url=https://sofrep.com/news/sofrep-pic-of-the-day-kurdish-peshmerga-golden-force/ |access-date=2025-09-17 |website=SOFREP |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Aziz |first=Halsho |date=2021-10-13 |title=Golden Force ready to respond to incidents in Kirkuk: commander |url=https://esta.krd/en/100123/ |access-date=2025-09-17 |website=Esta Media Network |language=en-US}}</ref> |N/A |Barham Sheikh Mohammed |Sub-unit of the Kurdistan Commando Forces. |- | Presidential Peshmerga Brigade<ref name="CMEC" />|| N/A || Hero Ibrahim Ahmed (Jalal Talabani formerly) | A unit which was stationed in Baghdad during the presidency of Jalal Talabani.<ref name=":12">{{Cite book |last=Chapman |first=Dennis P. |url=https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/tr/pdf/ADA510826.pdf |title=SECURITY FORCES OF THE KURDISTAN REGIONALGOVERNMENT |publisher=United States Army War College |year=2009 |pages=130, 137, 138}}</ref> |- ! colspan="4" |Minority units |- | {{flagicon image|Logo of Êzîdxan Protection Force.jpg}} Êzîdxan Protection Force or "Yazidi Peshmerga"<ref name="orders">{{cite web|url=http://www.kurdistan24.net/en/news/84c02995-a87c-404f-b24b-94bf453380f3/Haider-Shesho--Ezidkhan-Units-take-orders-from-President-Barzani--peshmerga-Ministry-|title=Haider Shesho: Ezidkhan Units take orders from President Barzani, Peshmerga Ministry|agency=Kurdistan24|author=Baxtiyar Goran|date=9 March 2017}}</ref> || 7,000<ref>[http://ezidipress.com/blog/is-terror-in-shingal-wer-kaempft-gegen-wen-ein-ueberblick/ IS-Terror in Shingal: Wer kämpft gegen wen? Ein Überblick], ''Ezidi Press''. 12 October 2014</ref>–8,000<ref>[http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2015/12/iraq-kurdistan-sinjar-liberated-isis-hegemony.html# With the Islamic State gone from Sinjar, Kurdish groups battle for control], Al-Monitor. 27 March 2016</ref>–10,000<ref name=":3" />|| Haydar Shesho and Qasim Shesho|| Pro-KDP. Yazidi Democratic Party. Incorporated into MoPA.<ref>{{Cite web|author=Editorial Staff|date=2017-04-18|title=Haider Shesho resigns from PUK, to form new Yazidi Democratic Party|url=https://ekurd.net/haider-shesho-resigns-puk-2017-04-18|access-date=2021-06-21|website=Kurd Net – Ekurd.net Daily News|language=en-US}}</ref> |- |Jazeera Brigade<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /> |2,000 |Brig. Gen. Bolond Hussayn |Brigade of Ethnic-Arabs from Zummar and Rabia. Affiliated with the MoPA. Formed by the KDP. |- |Battalion of the Assyrian Democratic Movement<ref>{{Cite book |last=Alda |first=Benjamen |url=https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/116662354/_Christian_Militias_09_77.34benjamen-libre.pdf?1720473423=&response-content-disposition=inline%3B+filename%3DA_Century_of_Changing_Perceptions_of_Chr.pdf&Expires=1753214929&Signature=fkX7BHasUYZKKWpVlgU-o-LT85E0zkinOi2m0jsAms0W9OHxeXv8iNtIf-8ymvqkERPW8~0wc-2zrGB5AUqtKXxXZ1NPdr6Wfhd1m99aXs1iXmB0lt6-O~-dxYR3ir4ZEQVypLIK2Pnaywn1WZ04-0u~qxprPrqc3YeB9FwblwZe8OTgFWfH0Q1gKtT0Ovr2durOBcsdkjZMJWHvJwIrUxwcH2wwNROdyq81YxMZUOuAGXupl5bbvpqYjPc3KGpvHr~Ob~pV2PeJn2iLaQIvovqeAcZiqlovCz4UfW60mlIK3hKCEzMhvrVxCV1QX9j5bLTOT0rw5eMJFo8lQg5LfA__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA |title=A Century of Changing Perceptions of “Christian Militias” in Iraq |publisher=The Middle East Journal |year=2024 |pages=403–404}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite news |date=2014-10-30 |title=Iraq's Christian paramilitaries split in IS fight – Al-Monitor: the Pulse of the Middle East |url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2014/10/iraq-christian-paramilitary-forces-nineveh.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304202804/http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2014/10/iraq-christian-paramilitary-forces-nineveh.html |archive-date=2016-03-04 |access-date=2025-07-27 |work=Al-Monitor |language=en-us}}</ref> |~ 360 (1993), ~ 2,000 (2014) |William Ishaya (formerly) |Neutral between the KDP and PUK. Affiliated with the MoPA. Military wing of the Assyrian Democratic Movement. |- | Nineveh Plain Guard Forces (NPGF) or "Christian Peshmerga"<ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/confidence-and-security-building-measures-nineveh-plains|title=Confidence- and Security-Building Measures in the Nineveh Plains|website=The Washington Institute}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite web |date=14 July 2017 |title=Confidence- and Security-Building Measures in the Nineveh Plains {{!}} The Washington Institute |url=https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/confidence-and-security-building-measures-nineveh-plains |access-date=2025-07-24 |website=www.washingtoninstitute.org |language=en}}</ref>|| 1,500–2,500 || Sarkis Aghajan Mamendo (unconfirmed) || Pro-KDP. Affiliated with the MoPA. Chaldean Syriac Assyrian Popular Council. |- |Shabak Battalion<ref name=":8" /> |~ 1,000 |Col. Mahmood Shabak |Battalion made up of the Shabak minority. |- |Kaka'i Battalion<ref>{{Cite web |title=Battle-tested Kakai battalion begs to retake villages |url=http://rudaw.net/english/kurdistan/240820153 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817194721/http://rudaw.net/english/kurdistan/240820153 |archive-date=2016-08-17 |access-date=2016-06-03 |agency=Rûdaw}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Iraq's Kakai minority joins fight against Islamic State |url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/en/originals/2015/09/iraq-kakai-religious-beliefs-armed-force-isis.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160806094905/http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/en/originals/2015/09/iraq-kakai-religious-beliefs-armed-force-isis.html |archive-date=2016-08-06 |access-date=2016-06-03 |publisher=Al-Monitor}}</ref> |~ 680 (August 2015) |Nezar and Adel Kakai |Battalion made up of the Kaka'i religious minority. Affiliated with the MoPA. |- |Tiger Guards<ref name=":20">{{Cite web |date=13 March 2015 |title=Iraq Christian Brigade To Battle ISIS: Anti-Islamic State 'Tiger Guards' Will Support Kurdish Fighters |url=http://www.ibtimes.com/iraq-christian-brigade-battle-isis-anti-islamic-state-tiger-guards-will-support-1846070 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160803201117/http://www.ibtimes.com/iraq-christian-brigade-battle-isis-anti-islamic-state-tiger-guards-will-support-1846070 |archive-date=3 August 2016 |access-date=3 June 2016 |work=International Business Times}} Retrieved 3 June 2016.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=13 March 2015 |title=Iraq's first Christian brigade to battle ISIS |url=http://english.alarabiya.net/en/News/middle-east/2015/03/13/Iraq-s-first-Christian-brigade-formed-to-battle-ISIS.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160322052853/http://english.alarabiya.net/en/News/middle-east/2015/03/13/Iraq-s-first-Christian-brigade-formed-to-battle-ISIS.html |archive-date=22 March 2016 |access-date=3 June 2016 |work=Al Arabiya}} Retrieved 3 June 2016.</ref> |~ 600 (March 2015) |N/A |Christian brigade under the authority of the KRG.<ref name=":20" /> |- |Nineveh Plains Force (NPF)<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /> |~ 500 (July 2015) |Romeo Hakari |Pro-KDP. Affiliated with the MoPA. Bet-Nahrain Democratic Party. |- |Dwekh Nawsha<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":5" /> |~ 100–250 |Lt. Col. Odisho |Pro-KDP. Military wing of the Assyrian Patriotic Party. Not as clearly acting as official sub-units of Kurdish forces as the NPGF or NPF. |- ! colspan="4" |Asayish (security force) |- | {{flagicon image|Asayish kurdistan region logo.png}} KDP Asayish || Unknown || Barzan Qassab || KDP. Affiliated with the Ministry of Interior. |- | {{flagicon image|Puk asayish small logo.png}} PUK Asayish || Unknown || N/A || PUK. Affiliated with the Ministry of Interior. |- |PUK Asayish SWAT units |Unknown |N/A |PUK. |- ! colspan="4" |Others |- |KDPS Peshmerga<ref>{{Cite web |date=28 April 2022 |title=How are non-Pêshmerga armed special forces used? |url=http://mezopotamyaajansi.net/en/NEWS/content/view/http%3A%2F%2Fmezopotamyaajansi.net%2Fen%2FNEWS%2Fcontent%2Fview%2F169464 |access-date=2025-09-16 |website=mezopotamyaajansi.net}}</ref> |3,000 |N/A |Peshmerga force of the Kurdistan Social Democratic Party. |}

==== Specialized Units ==== The Peshmerga Media Cell is one of the specialized units of the MoPA. Established in January 2022, it was created to professionalize the force's information and media operations. The unit acts as the official channel for statements on Peshmerga activities, with responsibilities that include safeguarding operational security, protecting journalists reporting from conflict zones, and ensuring the dissemination of accurate information to local and international audiences.<ref>{{Cite web |date=25 January 2022 |title=Ministry of Peshmerga and DMI officially launch Peshmerga Media Cell |url=https://gov.krd/dmi-en/activities/news-and-press-releases/2022/january/ministry-of-peshmerga-and-dmi-officially-launch-peshmerga-media-cell/ |access-date=2025-09-15 |website=Kurdistan Regional Government |language=en}}</ref> It has also received support from international coalition advisers in developing media and information management practices.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Peshmerga learn the power of Social Media |url=https://www.centcom.mil/MEDIA/igphoto/2001706293/ |access-date=15 September 2025 |website=CENTCOM.mil}}</ref>

=== Peshmerga in the Iraqi Army === Due to limited funding and the vast size of the Peshmerga forces, the KRG planned to downsize its forces from large numbers of low-quality forces to a smaller but much more effective and well-trained force.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cordesman |first1=Anthony H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S6oP3Y9ZM3sC&pg=PA129 |title=Withdrawal from Iraq |last2=Mausner |first2=Adam |year=2009 |isbn=9780892065530 |access-date=20 March 2015}}</ref> Consequently, in 2009, the KRG and Baghdad engaged in discussions about incorporating parts of the Peshmerga forces into the Iraqi Army in what would be the 15th and 16th Iraqi Army divisions.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cordesman |first1=Anthony H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KgEo2q76J_0C&pg=PA309 |title=Iraq and the United States |last2=Mausner |first2=Adam |last3=Derby |first3=Elena |year=2010 |isbn=9780892065950 |access-date=20 March 2015}}</ref><ref>Chapman, Dennis. ''Security Forces of Kurdistan Regional Government'', US Army War College. 2009, p. 112.</ref> However, after increasing tension between Erbil and Baghdad regarding the disputed areas, the transfer was largely put on hold. Some Peshmerga were already transferred but reportedly deserted again, and there are allegations that former Peshmerga forces remained loyal to the KRG rather than their Iraqi chain of command; regardless, thousands of members of the 80 Unit of KDP and the 70 Unit of PUK are based in Baghdad and cooperate well with other Iraqi forces.<ref>{{cite news |title=Peshmerga, Iraqi Army form committees to start joint ops in disputed areas |url=http://www.rudaw.net/english/kurdistan/06022019 |agency=Rudaw}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=June 13, 2013 |title=1,000 Kurdish soldiers desert from Iraqi army |url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/1000-kurdish-soldiers-desert-from-iraqi-army.aspx?pageID=238&nID=48701& |access-date=20 March 2015 |work=Hurriyet Daily News}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Iraq's army and Kurds will join forces to retake Mosul |url=https://theworld.org/stories/2016/07/30/iraqs-army-and-kurds-will-join-forces-retake-mosul |agency=PRI}}</ref>

The Presidential Peshmerga Brigade of the PUK was stationed in Baghdad and paid by the Iraqi government during the presidency of Jalal Talabani.<ref name=":12" />

=== Ranks === {{Main|Military ranks of the Peshmerga}}

The Peshmerga, despite wearing a variety of uniform types, consistently maintain proper standards of dress. This includes the correct display of rank insignia for both enlisted personnel and commissioned officers, as well as the proper wear of headgear. In addition, they have designated ceremonial and duty uniforms that project a highly professional appearance.<ref>{{Cite web |date=9 October 2019 |title=Iraqi Kurdistan Regional Guard Forces (peshmerga) |url=https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/para/peshmerga.htm |access-date=15 September 2025 |website=GlobalSecurity.org}}</ref>

Officers can be promoted by the President of the Kurdistan Region for outstanding military and civil achievements.<ref>{{Cite web |date=8 February 2024 |title=President Nechirvan Barzani promotes ranks of Peshmerga Ministry officers |url=https://www.gulanmedia.com/en/story/316795 |access-date=2025-09-15 |website=Gulan Media |language=en}}</ref>

== Inventory and capabilities ==

{{main|List of equipment of the Peshmerga}} Peshmerga forces largely rely on old arms captured from battles. The Peshmerga captured large stockpiles of weapons during the 1991 Iraqi uprisings.<ref>{{cite web |date=June 28, 2013 |title=Iraqi Defense Ministry Asks KRG To Return Saddam-Era Weapons |url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2013/06/iraq-asks-krg-for-pre-saddam-weapons.html# |access-date=20 March 2015 |work=Al-Monitor}}</ref> Several stockpiles of weapons were captured from the old Iraqi Army during the 2003 U.S. invasion of Iraq, in which Peshmerga forces were active. Following the retreat of the new Iraqi Army during the June 2014 Islamic State offensive, Peshmerga forces reportedly again managed to get hold of weapons left behind by the Iraqis.<ref>{{cite web |author=Hugh Naylor |date=September 18, 2014 |title=As ISIL retreats, Iraqi Kurds gain new ammunition |url=https://www.thenationalnews.com/world/as-isil-retreats-iraqi-kurds-gain-new-ammunition-1.234090 |access-date=20 March 2015 |work=The National}}</ref> Since August 2014, Peshmerga forces have also captured weapons from the Islamic State.<ref>{{cite web |author=Richard Spencer, The Telegraph |date=3 October 2014 |title=Kurdish forces captured an ISIS base after a two-day siege – but the ISIS fighters inside somehow slipped away |url=https://nationalpost.com/2014/10/03/kurdish-forces-captured-a-isis-base-after-a-two-day-siege-but-the-isis-fighters-inside-somehow-slipped-away/ |access-date=20 March 2015 |work=National Post}}</ref>thumbnail|right|Peshmerga soldiers stand in formation during the Modern Brigade Course graduation ceremony.The Peshmerga arsenal is limited and confined by restrictions because the Kurdish Region has to purchase arms through the Iraqi government. Due to disputes between the KRG and the Iraqi government, arms flows from Baghdad to Kurdistan Region have been almost nonexistent, as Baghdad fears Kurdish aspirations for independence.<ref>{{cite web |author=Hollie McKay |title=Iraq's Peshmerga desperate for US arms in fight against ISIS |url=http://www.foxnews.com/world/2015/01/03/iraq-peshmerga-desperate-for-us-arms-in-fight-against-isis/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150103073335/http://www.foxnews.com/world/2015/01/03/iraq-peshmerga-desperate-for-us-arms-in-fight-against-isis/ |archive-date=January 3, 2015 |access-date=20 March 2015 |work=Fox News}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Arms for Kurdish Peshmerga to affect military balance |url=http://www.dw.de/arms-for-kurdish-peshmerga-to-affect-military-balance/a-17853077 |access-date=20 March 2015 |work=Deutsche Welle}}</ref><ref name="Helfont2017" /> After the Islamic State offensive of August 2014, multiple governments armed the Peshmerga with light arms, night-vision devices, and ammunition.<ref>{{cite web |author=Nicholas Watt |date=August 14, 2014 |title=UK prepares to supply arms directly to Kurdish forces fighting Isis |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/aug/14/uk-britain-arms-supply-kurdish-forces-iraq-isis |access-date=23 October 2014 |work=The Guardian}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Seven western states join US to arm Iraqi Kurdistan: Pentagon |url=https://ekurd.net/mismas/articles/misc2014/8/state8392.htm |website=ekurd.net}}</ref> However, Kurdish officials and Peshmerga stressed that they were not receiving enough and Baghdad was blocking arms from reaching the KRG, emphasizing the need for weapons to be sent directly and not through Baghdad.<ref>{{cite news |title=Iraq's Kurds appeal for new U.S. arms to combat Islamic State |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/iraqs-kurds-appeal-for-new-us-arms-to-combat-islamic-state/2014/11/12/d2a0fe28-6aa6-11e4-9fb4-a622dae742a2_story.html |access-date=20 March 2015 |newspaper=Washington Post}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=November 19, 2014 |title=Iraqi Kurds say West not providing enough arms to defeat Islamic State |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-barzani-idUSKCN0J30ON20141119 |access-date=20 March 2015 |work=Reuters}}</ref> Despite this, the United States has maintained that the government of Iraq is responsible for the security of Iraqi Kurdistan and that Baghdad must approve all military aid.<ref name="Helfont2017" /> As of 2025, continued CTEF support provided vehicles, heavy equipment, small arms, ammunition, and non-lethal aid, with proposals for air defenses in the 2024 NDAA.<ref name="OIR2025" /><ref>{{cite web |title=After the Coalition: Evaluating the Next Steps |url=https://newlinesinstitute.org/political-systems/after-the-coalition-evaluating-the-next-steps-for-foreign-forces-in-iraq-and-syria/ |publisher=Newlines Institute |date=March 18, 2025 |access-date=August 20, 2025}}</ref>

The Peshmerga lack a proper medical corps and communication units.<ref name="Helfont2017" /> This became apparent during the Islamic State offensive in 2014 where the Peshmerga found itself lacking ambulances and frontline field hospitals, forcing wounded fighters to walk back to safety.<ref name="Helfont2017" /> There is also a lack of communication tools, as Peshmerga commanders are forced to use civilian cellphones to communicate with each other.<ref name="Helfont2017" /> Under the guidance of the US-led coalition the Peshmerga started to standardize its weapons systems, replacing Soviet-era weapons with NATO firearms.<ref name="Helfont2017" /> In 2015, for the first time, Peshmerga soldiers received urban warfare and military intelligence training from foreign trainers of the CJTF–OIR.<ref>{{cite news |date=16 April 2015 |title=Coalition helps Peshmerga muscle up on urban warfare |url=http://rudaw.net/english/kurdistan/160420155 |access-date=17 April 2015 |work=Rudaw}}</ref> Some Peshmerga of the MoPA have also been trained by American private military contractors like DynCorp.<ref>{{Cite web |date=10 March 2022 |title=Peshmerga forces receive combat vehicle and helicopter assault training |url=https://www.kurdistan24.net/en/story/387565/Peshmerga-forces-receive-combat-vehicle-and-helicopter-assault-training |access-date=15 September 2025 |website=Kurdistan24}}</ref> By 2025, advancements included the Peshmerga Medical Force Readiness Initiative to address field hospital shortages.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Kurdistan Region – Representation in the United States |url=https://us.gov.krd/new-history-of-kurdistan/ |publisher=KRG Representation in the US |date=April 2025 |access-date=August 20, 2025}}</ref>

==Issues== Peshmerga has been accused of corruption, partisanship, nepotism and fraud.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Peshmerga of Iraq |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/programmes/insideiraq/2008/03/2008525185811788617.html |work=Aljazeera.com |date=1 March 2008 |access-date=22 February 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=KRG and the 'godfathers': 2006 secret US cable on Wikileaks |url=http://kurdistantribune.com/2014/krg-godfathers-2006-secret-cable-on-wikileaks/ |work=The Kurdistan Tribune |date=8 May 2014 |access-date=22 February 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Jacqueline |last=Devigne |title="Iraqoncilable" Differences? The Political Nature of the Peshmerga |url=http://tiglarchives.org/sites/default/files/resources/nimep/v5/NIMEP_Insights_2011_48-64.pdf |work=NIMEP Insights |date=2011 |access-date=22 February 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://ekurd.net/mismas/articles/misc2014/3/state7820.htm|title=PUK official warns Peshmerga will not take orders from anyone else: Iraqi Kurdistan|access-date=20 March 2015}}</ref> The Peshmerga was accused of listing "ghost employees" who do not exist or do not show up for work, but receive salaries. Those setting up the scam split the salary with these employees.<ref name="Helfont2017" />

In addition the KDP and PUK have used the Peshmerga to exert a monopoly on the use of force within their zones.<ref name="Helfont2017" /> In 2011 KDP Peshmerga fired on anti-government protesters in Sulaymaniyah, and the PUK later used its own security forces to break up these protests,<ref name="CMEC" /> leading to criticism from all of the opposition parties in the Kurdistan Region Parliament. In 2014 the KDP used its Peshmerga forces to stop delegates from the Gorran Movement to enter Erbil and attend parliament.<ref name="Helfont2017" />

Outside of Kurdistan Region the Peshmerga has been criticized for using force to exert control of local Arab, Yazidi and Assyrian communities, particularly during the Iraqi Civil War.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.hrw.org/report/2016/11/13/marked-x/iraqi-kurdish-forces-destruction-villages-homes-conflict-isis|title=Marked With An "X" {{!}} Iraqi Kurdish Forces' Destruction of Villages, Homes in Conflict with ISIS|date=2016-11-13|publisher=Human Rights Watch|access-date=2018-04-24|language=en}}</ref>

Concerns about persistent partisanship remain.<ref name="OIR2025" /> In 2025, U.S. reports expressed frustration over stalled unification due to party lines, despite commitments.<ref name="Peregraf"/>

==Role of women== {{main|Kurdish women}}

=== Historic involvement === [[File:Peshmerga & YPG.jpg|thumb|People's Defense Units' (YPG) woman volunteer with Peshmerga soldier]] Women have played a significant role in the Peshmerga since its foundation, compared to other Middle Eastern militaries. The Kurdish Zand tribe was known for allowing women in military roles.<ref name="Lortz2015" /> During the Iraqi–Kurdish conflict the majority of women served within the Peshmerga in supporting roles such as building camps, taking care of the wounded, and carrying munitions and messages.<ref name="Howard2002" /> Several women brigades served on the front lines. The PUK started recruiting women during the Kurdish Civil War. Women were given a 45-day basic training, which included parade drills and basic marksmanship training with various rifles, mortars, and RPGs.<ref name="Lortz2015" />

=== Modern era === In the months leading up to the 2003 U.S. invasion of Iraq, the United States launched Operation Viking Hammer which dealt a huge blow to Islamic terrorist groups in Iraqi Kurdistan and uncovered a chemical weapons facility.<ref>''Plan of Attack'', Bob Woodward, Simon and Schuster, 2004.</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Operation Hotel California: The Clandestine War inside Iraq |author1=Mike Tucker |author2=Charles Faddis |year=2008 |publisher=The Lyons Press |isbn=978-1-59921-366-8 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/operationhotelca00tuck }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://wamu.org/audio/dr/08/10/r2081007-22101.asx|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110930081326/http://wamu.org/audio/dr/08/10/r2081007-22101.asx |url-status=dead |title=An interview on public radio with the author|archive-date=September 30, 2011}}</ref><ref name="Chalk, Peter 2012">Chalk, Peter, Encyclopedia of Terrorism Volume 1, 2012, ABC-CLIO</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://fas.org/irp/world/para/ansar.htm |title=Ansar al-Islam |publisher=Federation of American Scientists |access-date=2012-08-08}}</ref> The PUK later confirmed that female Kurdish fighters had participated in the operation.<ref name="Howard2002" />[[File:Female Peshmerga Training.jpg|thumb|Female Peshmerga soldiers training with G36's]]

In 2014 the Peshmerga had at least 600 women in their ranks.<ref name=":6">{{cite web |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/islamic-state/11216064/Meet-the-Kurdish-women-fighting-the-Islamic-State.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/islamic-state/11216064/Meet-the-Kurdish-women-fighting-the-Islamic-State.html |archive-date=January 12, 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=Meet the Kurdish women fighting the Islamic State |date=8 November 2014|work=Telegraph|access-date=20 March 2015}}{{cbignore}}</ref> The number of women increased significantly during the war against ISIS due to a shortage of manpower and the desire for revenge.<ref name=":6" /> The Peshmerga have one entirely female brigade.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gruber-Sytchev |first=Verena |url=https://kclpure.kcl.ac.uk/ws/portalfiles/portal/138254475/2020_Gruber_Sytchev_Verena_1363759_ethesis.pdf |title=The Social Construction of Military Unity and a Post-merger Integration of the Unified Peshmerga Forces in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq. |date=2020 |publisher=King's College London |pages=8}}</ref> In the KDP, these Peshmerga women have been refused access to the frontline and are mostly used in logistics and management positions,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://rudaw.net/english/kurdistan/28092014|title=No Frontline Deployment for Female Kurdish Troops|work=Rudaw|access-date=20 March 2015}}</ref> while PUK Peshmerga women are deployed on the front lines and are actively engaging in combat.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://rudaw.net/english/kurdistan/220620151|title=KRG halts recruiting of female Peshmerga|agency=Rudaw}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2014/08/iraq-kurdistan-female-regiment-peshmerga-fight-is.html|title=Meet the female Peshmerga forces fighting IS |date=August 11, 2014 |publisher=Al-Monitor}}</ref><ref name="Lortz2015" /> Women are paid the same as men.<ref name=":6" />

=== Famous female fighters === Margaret George Malik was an iconic Assyrian guerilla fighter and commander within the Peshmerga who was given a leading position in important battles such as the Battle of Zawita Valley.<ref name="Vindheim2016">{{cite book |last1=Vindheim |first1=Jan Bojer |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hlBfDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT71 |title=Kurdistan stiger fram |date=2016 |publisher=Kolofon Forlag |isbn=978-82-300-1494-3 |pages=71}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Assyrians in Iraq, Vahram Petrosian |url=http://www.aina.org/articles/assyriansiniraq.pdf}}</ref><ref name="Sankey2018">{{cite book |last1=Sankey |first1=Margaret D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4HxqDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA172 |title=Women and War in the 21st Century: A Country-by-Country Guide |date=2018 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-4408-5766-9 |pages=172}}</ref> She was nicknamed "Joan of Arc of Kurdistan" for the courage she displayed in combat. In 1995 Colonel Nahida Rashid created the first women's Peshmerga unit. Other well known female Peshmergas are Hero Ibrahim Ahmad, Amineh Kakabaveh, Pakhshan Zangana, and Kafiya Suleiman.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://stars.library.ucf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1690&context=honorstheses |title=Female Militarization and Women's Rights: A Case Study of thePeshmerga and YPJ |publisher=University of Central Florida |year=2019 |pages=38, 43}}</ref>

== Gallery == <gallery> File:Peshmerga near Syria - June 23, 2014.jpg|Peshmerga gathered near the Syrian border in 2014 File:Kurdistan army (Peshmerga Image).jpg|Peshmerga soldiers in ceremonial gear File:Peshmerga parade.jpg|Peshmerga Parade File:Coalition Advisors Look Ahead with Peshmerga 1st Support Forces Command (8869305).jpg|Peshmerga meet Anti-IS Coalition advisors </gallery>

==References== {{Reflist}}

== Further reading == * Simon Ross Valentine, ''Peshmerga: Those Who Face Death: The Kurdish Army, its History, Development, and the Fight against ISIS'', Kindle Direct Publishing, 2018, 300pp. {{ISBN?}} * Chapman, Dennis P., Lieutenant Colonel USA, ''Security Forces of the Kurdistan Regional Government'', ''Mohammed Najat'', Costa Mesa, California: Mazda Publishers, 2011. {{ISSN|0026-3141}} Reviewed by Michael M. Gunter in ''Middle East Affairs'', Vol. 65, No. 3, Summer 2011.

==External links== {{Commons category-inline|Kurdish Peshmerga}} * [http://mope.gov.krd/English/ Official MPA site at Kurdish Regional Government site] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200710200404/http://mope.gov.krd/English/ |date=July 10, 2020 }}

{{Iraqi Kurdistan}} {{Kurdish nationalist organisations}} {{Military of the Arab world}} {{Military of Kurdistan}}

Category:Peshmerga Category:Anti–Islamic State factions in Iraq Category:Kurdistan Region (Iraq) Category:Military units and formations established in the 1920s Category:Organizations of the 1991 Iraqi uprisings Category:Military history of the Kurdistan Region (Iraq) Category:Armies by country Category:1920s establishments in Iraq Category:Military units and formations of the Kurdistan Region (Iraq)