{{Short description|Activity to extend the life of historical materials}} {{About|conservation and restoration of physical documents|restoration of digital copies of documents|Digital photograph restoration}} {{Use dmy dates|date=October 2015}} [[File:IMA Conservation Technician 4.jpg|thumb|A conservation technician examining an artwork under a microscope at the Indianapolis Museum of Art]] The '''conservation and restoration of books, manuscripts, documents and ephemera''' is an activity dedicated to extending the life of items of historical and personal value made primarily from paper, parchment, and leather. When applied to cultural heritage, conservation activities are generally undertaken by a conservator. The primary goal of conservation is to extend the lifespan of the object as well as maintaining its integrity by keeping all additions reversible. Conservation of books and paper involves techniques of bookbinding, restoration, paper chemistry, and other material technologies including preservation and archival techniques.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Banik|first1=Gerhard |title=Paper and water: a guide for conservators|date=2011|publisher=Butterworth-Heinemann|first2=Irene |last2=Brückle |isbn=978-0-7506-6831-6 |location=Amsterdam|oclc=716844327}}</ref> In contemporary practice, this field also incorporates digital surrogacy as a supplemental preventive measure. By creating high-resolution digital copies, institutions can facilitate "information preservation" and broader access. It is a method that reduces the necessity for physical handling of fragile originals and aids in their long-term survival.<ref name="LOC_Digital">{{cite web |title=Digital Preservation |url=https://www.loc.gov/preservation/digital/ |publisher=Library of Congress |access-date=2026-03-29}}</ref>
Book and paper conservation seeks to prevent and, in some cases, reverse damage due to handling, inherent vice, and the environment. Conservators determine proper methods of storage for books and documents, including boxes and shelving to prevent further damage and promote long-term storage. Carefully chosen methods and techniques of active conservation can both reverse damage and prevent further damage in batches or single-item treatments based on the value of the book or document.
Historically, book restoration techniques were less formalized and carried out by various roles and training backgrounds. Nowadays, the conservation of paper documents and books is often performed by a professional conservator.<ref name="CCI418" /><ref name="CYT">AIC, "Caring for Your Treasures," ''American Institute for Conservation of Historic & Artistic Works'', Accessed 26 April 2014, [http://www.conservation-us.org/about-conservation/caring-for-your-treasures#.U13JgK1dX4g].</ref> Many paper or book conservators are members of a professional body, such as the American Institute for Conservation (AIC) or the Guild of Bookworkers (both in the United States), the Archives and Records Association (in the United Kingdom and Ireland), or the Institute of Conservation (ICON) (in the United Kingdom).<ref>{{cite web|title=What is Conservation|url=https://icon.org.uk/icon-resources/what-is-conservation|access-date=9 March 2020|website=Institute of Conservation|publisher=The Institute of Conservation}}</ref>
==Definition==
{{See also|Conservation and restoration of movable cultural property}}
Conservation, restoration, and preservation, while similar, are each distinct. Conservation of books and paper involves protecting and stabilizing the material in its current state while retaining as much of the original materials as possible.<ref name="caring" /> Restoration involves returning a book or manuscript to as close to new condition as possible with the use of more invasive techniques and less retaining of original materials.<ref name="caring">{{cite web |title=Preservation and Conservation: Caring for Collections |url=https://guides.libraries.emory.edu/c.php?g=50420&p=325032 |website=Emory Libraries & Information Technology |access-date=29 January 2020}}</ref> Preservation is an umbrella term which encompasses conservation and restoration; however, the terms are sometimes used interchangeably when referring to library and archive conservation.{{sfn|Cloonan|2015|p=xvii}} Because conservation is one example of effort to preserve materials, it can be considered a subcategory of preservation.<ref>{{cite web |title=Preservation-Frequently Asked Questions |url=https://www.loc.gov/preservation/about/faqs/general.html#difference |website=Library of Congress |access-date=29 January 2020}}</ref> Conservation often accompanies preservation strategies such as proper storage and display, environmental monitoring, handling training, reformatting and security.{{sfn|Cloonan|2015|p=323}} The main goal of modern conservation is to maintain the integrity of the original parts of the object and that any additions due to restoration must be reversible.{{sfn|Oddy|1992|p=13}} There are two approaches of conservation: active or interventive conservation and passive or preventive conservation.<ref>{{harvnb|Oddy|1992|p=21}}; {{harvnb|Ashley-Smith|2018|p=7}}</ref> Active conservation involves evaluating the condition of an object and treating to prevent further decay by cleaning, repairing, and restoring when necessary. In preventative conservation, the science of storage and display are employed in order to control and stabilize the environmental conditions affecting the object in order to prolong its life span.{{sfn|Oddy|1992|p=21}} Conservation incorporates the fields of bookbinding, restoration, paper chemistry, and other material technologies, as well as preservation of archival resources.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Matt T. |last2=Etherington |first2=Don |title=Bookbinding and the Conservation of Books: A Dictionary of Descriptive Terminology |date=1982 |publisher=Library of Congress |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=0844403660 |page=[https://archive.org/details/bookbindingconse0000robe/page/64 64] |url=https://archive.org/details/bookbindingconse0000robe/page/64 |access-date=12 February 2020 }}</ref>
There are many nuances to conservation and conservators must make decisions about how they will treat the object based on how it will be used or displayed. For example, library conservation requires that the books be legible and usable, but not necessarily aesthetically pleasing. On the other hand, a book or document to be displayed in an exhibit may need to be presented in a more visually appealing condition.{{sfn|Cloonan|2015|p=324}} Paper-based items, such as books, scrapbooks, manuscripts, letters, journals and diaries, certificates, maps, deeds, newspapers, drawings, miniatures, and postcards present distinctive concerns when it comes to care and conservation. Unlike works of art on paper, these items are often handled directly and repeatedly to access information.{{sfn|Landrey|2000|p=31}} Even paper ephemera like newspapers and letters may be significant historical records or family mementos.<ref>Library of Congress, "Preservation Measures for Newspapers", Accessed 13 April 2014, [https://www.loc.gov/preservation/care/newspap.html].</ref>
==History== [[File:National Library manuscripts being washed in Florence after the 1966 flood of the Arno - UNESCO - PHOTO 0000001407 0001 - Restoration.jpg|alt=Responders to the flooding of the Arno in Florence washing a manuscript. |thumb|The conservation response to the 1966 flooding of Arno in Florence was a key event in formalising the book and paper conservation profession.]] The history of early conservation has not yet been written, and early conservators recorded little of their work. Consequently, modern conservators are responsible for recording the previous conservation work they find when evaluating objects.<ref>{{harvnb|Oddy|1992|p=10}}; {{harvnb|Cloonan|2015|p=xxiv}}</ref> As early as 750 BC, Old Testament prophets Isaiah and Jeremiah advised on the importance of the preservation of documents for future use.{{sfn|Cloonan|2015|p=xxiv}} In 1627, Gabriel Naudé published {{Lang|fr|Advis pour dresser une bibliothèqe}}, which contained a chapter discussing book preservation.{{sfn|Cloonan|2015|p=xxiv}} The first substantial work on the subject of book restoration was Alfred Bonnardot's ''{{Lang|fr|Essai sur l'art de Restaurer les Estampes et les Livres}}'', first published in Paris in 1846.<ref name="Petrov">{{cite book |last1=Petrov |first1=Ferdinand |title=The art of painting and the art of restoration |date=2015 |publisher=Ferdinand Petrov |location=Vancouver, British Columbia}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Cloonan|2015|p=xxv}}</ref> Until the late-nineteenth century, the preferred practice was to restore objects to newer or better condition with little regard to original style or composition. However, modern conservation seeks to treat books and paper as little as possible.{{sfn|Cloonan|2015|p=324}}
Peter Waters, considered the father of modern book conservation, was the conservation coordinator at the National Central Library after the 1966 flood of the Arno in Florence, Italy, and was accompanied by hundreds of conservators from around the world.<ref name="libraries" /><ref name="page5">{{harvnb|Waters|2016|p=5}}</ref> Before the flood, library conservation was not yet an established field.{{sfn|Waters|2016|p=456}} The water affected one-third of the library collections including periodicals, newspapers, fine prints, maps, posters, and the Magliabechi and Palatine rare-book collections.<ref name="page5" /> The flood broke the tradition of maintaining proprietary trade secrets and conservation treatments as the disaster necessitated the collaboration of the world's most experienced book and paper conservators.<ref name="page5" /> One book and paper conservation technique that resulted from this collaboration was the development of the "heat-set tissue" paper mending.{{sfn|Waters|2016|pp=5-6}} Another development from the Florence floods was the study of limp vellum binding and its usefulness in conservation due to its resistance to water damage.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Etherington |first1=Don |editor1-last=Conway |editor1-first=Martha O'Hara |editor2-last=Conway |editor2-first=Paul |title=Flood in Florence, 1966: A Fifty-Year Retrospective |date=2018 |publisher=Michigan Publishing Services |location=Ann Arbor, Michigan |isbn=9781607854562 |url=https://quod.lib.umich.edu/m/maize/mpub9310956/1:10/--flood-in-florence-1966-a-fifty-year-retrospective?rgn=div1;view=fulltext |access-date=9 March 2020 |chapter=After Florence: Developments in Conservation Treatment of Books}}</ref> Experienced in large scale archival disasters, Waters defined seven essential requirements for successful recovery after the flood.<ref name="libraries">{{cite book |editor1-last=Miller |editor1-first=William |editor2-last=Pellen |editor2-first=Rita M. |title=Dealing with Natural Disasters in Libraries |date=2006 |publisher=The Haworth Press |location=New York |isbn=9781136791635 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XXl0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT59|access-date=24 January 2020}}</ref> The first publication of a standard of practice for conservators was published in August 1964 in ''Studies in Conservation'' by the International Institute for Conservation American Group, now the American Institute for Conservation (AIC). An updated version was released in 1994.<ref name="core">{{cite web|title=Core Documents: American Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works|url=https://www.culturalheritage.org/docs/default-source/administration/governance/code-of-ethics-and-guidelines-for-practice.pdf?sfvrsn=21|access-date=24 February 2020|website=American Institute of Conservation}}</ref>
right|thumb|250px|A paper conservator handling a book
Christopher Clarkson originally coined the term "book conservation" in Florence in 1967 in order to differentiate the early European conservation techniques which sought to preserve only the text of a book. Clarkson argued that "foreign marks" and "foreign matter" are important to understand the book's physical history and the social history in which the book resided and that this evidence of use should be preserved.{{sfn|Clarkson|2015|p=328}} In 1968, the International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property organized an international seminar on the subject of conservation of library materials in Rome.{{sfn|Cunha|Cunha|1983|p=4}} In 1969, the first university-level conservation conference occurred at the University of Chicago where they published ''Deterioration and Preservation of Library Materials''.{{sfn|Cunha|Cunha|1983|p=4}}
In the United States, the branch bindery for the Library of Congress was created in 1900 for the Government Printing Office, under Chief Clerk Arthur Kimball.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Harris |first1=Kenneth |title=A Brief History of Preservation and Conservation at the Library of Congress |url=https://www.loc.gov/preservation/about/history/pres-hist.pdf |website=Library of Congress}}</ref> This allowed for the first preservation activities to be carried out at the Library of Congress.
The Book and Paper Group (BGP) is the largest specialty group within the AIC. Through meetings and publications, the BPG exchanges information about the conservation of books and paper.<ref>{{cite web |title=Book and Paper Group |url=https://www.culturalheritage.org/membership/groups-and-networks/book-and-paper-group |website=American Institute for Conservation |access-date=24 February 2020}}</ref> The BPG releases a journal ''The Book and Paper Group Annual'', on the subject of book and paper conservation.<ref name=":0">{{cite web |title=The Book and Paper Group Annual |url=https://cool.conservation-us.org/coolaic/sg/bpg/annual/ |website=The Book and Paper Group Annual |publisher=American Institute for Conservation |access-date=24 February 2020}}</ref>
Unique approaches have been made to drum up success in funding book conservation. For Duke University, members of the public can "adopt" a book in need of conservation repair through their Adopt-A-Book program,<ref>{{cite web |title=Adopt-a-Book Program |url=https://library.duke.edu/about/adopt-book-program}}</ref> and helps current and future researchers have access to these materials.
== Agents of deterioration ==
{{Main|Agents of deterioration}}
Conservators must have knowledge of agents that cause decay in order to preserve items.{{sfn|Oddy|1992|p=21}} Agents of deterioration can include mishandling, light, fluctuating humidity, dust and pollution, fire, water, gas and heat, neglect, and pests and other vermin.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/enemiesofbooks00blad/page/n13 |title=The Enemies of Books |publisher=Trübner & Co. |location=London |author=William Blades |author-link=William Blades |year=1880 |access-date=January 1, 2019}}</ref> Inherent vice is "the quality of a material or an object to self-destruct or to be unusually difficult to maintain".<ref>National Postal Museum, "Inherent Vice," ''Smithsonian'', Accessed on 13 April 2014, [http://www.postalmuseum.si.edu/stamp/5d_preserving3.html] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141025203257/http://postalmuseum.si.edu/stamp/5d_preserving3.html|date=25 October 2014}}.</ref> Paper, books, manuscripts, and ephemera are prime examples of materials subject to inherent vice. Early paper was handmade from plant fibers such as flax, hemp, and cotton which are durable and can last for centuries.<ref name="CCI418">{{cite web |url=http://www.cci-icc.gc.ca/caringfor-prendresoindes/articles/418-eng.aspx |title=How to Care for Paper Documents and Newspaper Clippings |publisher=Canadian Conservation Institute|date=4 January 2002 |access-date=13 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140312224951/http://www.cci-icc.gc.ca/caringfor-prendresoindes/articles/418-eng.aspx |archive-date=12 March 2014}}</ref> In the mid-19th century, machine-made paper was introduced, and wood pulp became the most common, least expensive ingredient in paper, especially in newspapers. The presence of lignin in wood pulp paper causes acid to degrade the cellulose, which causes the paper to become brittle and discolored over time.<ref>Dava Tobey, "Preserving History," ''Minnesota Historical Society'', Accessed on 13 April 2014, [http://www.mnhs.org/preserve/conservation/reports/nytimes_preserving.pdf].</ref> In addition, paper has the natural ability to absorb and retain moisture from the atmosphere, making it prone to the growth of mold, fungi, and bacteria.{{sfn|Shelley|1992|p=30}} Furthermore, some inks used in old books and manuscripts are harmful to paper. Iron gall ink, most commonly used from the 8th century through the end of the 19th century, contains acid and can corrode the paper in humid conditions.<ref name="CCI419">{{cite web |url=http://www.cci-icc.gc.ca/caringfor-prendresoindes/articles/419-eng.aspx |title=How to Care for Books |publisher=Canadian Conservation Institute|date=4 January 2002|access-date=13 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140312224951/http://www.cci-icc.gc.ca/caringfor-prendresoindes/articles/419-eng.aspx |archive-date=12 March 2014 }}</ref>
=== Mishandling ===
Poor handling is the primary cause of deterioration for books, manuscripts, and ephemera; however, a poor environment can also be a cause of deterioration for books and paper.<ref name="Landrey 2000 33">{{harvnb|Landrey|2000|p=33}}</ref>
=== Pests and other vermin ===
Insects and vermin are naturally attracted to paper because paper is made of cellulose, starch and protein, materials that provide sources of nourishment.{{sfn|Shelley|1992|p=30}} The most common pests are roaches, silverfish, and various types of beetles.<ref name="MCB">Mary C. Baughman, "Approaches to Insect Problems in Paper and Books," ''Harry Ransom Center'', Accessed 13 April 2014, [http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/conservation/resources/insects/].</ref> Book lice feed on mold spores found on paper and cardboard, and although they do not cause visible damage, their decomposition and excretions can stain paper and may also nourish other pests, continuing the cycle of damage.<ref name="CCI418" /> Freezing collection items can mitigate pests.<ref name="MCB" /> However, some materials should not be frozen, such as books made with leather, because the cold temperatures may cause the fat to rise to the surface of the leather resulting in a white or yellow area called a bloom.<ref name="MCB" /> The use of insecticides directly on collection materials is not generally recommended. However, if the infestation is severe, and fumigation is the best option, the affected items should be separated from the rest of the collection for treatment.{{sfn|Shelley|1992|p=30}}
=== Fluctuating humidity ===
Extremes of temperature or relative humidity are damaging from either end of the spectrum (low or high).<ref>{{harvnb|Shelley|1992|p=29}}</ref> High heat and low relative humidity can cause paper to become brittle and leather bindings to crack. To mitigate these risks, institutional standards often suggest that the ideal relative humidity (RH) for paper collections be maintained at approximately 35%. The primary focus of such standards is environmental stability to prevent structural stress.<ref name="LOC_Paper">{{cite web |title=Care, Handling, and Storage of Works on Paper |url=https://www.loc.gov/preservation/care/paper.html |publisher=Library of Congress |access-date=2026-03-29}}</ref>{{sfn|Shelley|1992|p=29}} Which means the fluctuation in humidity should not be too large. High temperatures and high relative humidity accelerate mold growth, foxing, staining, blooming, disintegration, and "red rot" in leather bindings, while excessively low humidity can cause organic fibers to lose flexibility and become increasingly brittle.<ref name="LOC_Paper"/> Fluctuations in temperatures and humidity may also cause cockling: a wrinkling or puckering preventing the surface from laying flat.<ref>Cameo, "Cockling", ''Museum of Fine Arts Boston'', Accessed 22 April 2014, [http://cameo.mfa.org/wiki/Cockling].</ref> Air quality must also be taken into consideration.
=== Dust and pollution ===
Dust tends to absorb moisture, providing a suitable environment to attract mold growth and insects.<ref name="SLV">State Library of Victoria, "Caring for Works on Paper", ''State Library of Victoria'', Accessed 13 April 2014, [http://www.slv.vic.gov.au/explore/conservation-guides/caring-works-paper].</ref> Dust can also become acidic when combined with skin oils and the surface of paper.{{sfn|Shelley|1992|p=30}}
=== Light ===
All kinds of light (sunlight, artificial light, spotlights) can be harmful.<ref name="CCI419" /> Light can result in fading, darkening, bleaching, and cellulose breakdown. Some inks and other pigments will fade if exposed to light, especially ultraviolet (UV) light present in normal daylight and from fluorescent bulbs.<ref name="SLV" /> Natural sunlight is considered destructive due to its high intensity and its potential to cause localized warming and drying of the surrounding air. To mitigate these effects, archival standards often recommend excluding ultraviolet light, the most damaging component of the spectrum, by installing specialized filters on windows. In gallery or storage environments, common preservation practices include turning off lights when spaces are not in use and maintaining a minimum distance of 50 centimeters between light sources and bookshelves to prevent localized overheating that could accelerate the degradation of documents.<ref name="TNA_Light">{{cite web |title=A Guide to Environmental Management of Archival Material |url=https://cdn.nationalarchives.gov.uk/documents/information-management/environmental-management.pdf |publisher=The National Archives |access-date=2026-03-29}}</ref> Light damage is cumulative and cannot be reversed.{{sfn|Shelley|1992|p=29}}
=== Fire ===
Smoke damages printed materials by leaving sticky or acidic residue, and extensive heat can cause pages and adhesives to become brittle. Fire-resistant containers or book covers are used to minimize damage. Materials exposed to flames may only be damaged externally.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Masters |first1=Kristin |title=Preserving Rare Books: Preventing and Repairing Fire Damage |url=https://blog.bookstellyouwhy.com/bid/230046/preserving-rare-books-preventing-and-repairing-fire-damage |website=Books Tell You Why |access-date=14 May 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.library.ucla.edu/about/news/resources-for-salvaging-fire-damaged-print-and-audiovisual-materials |title=Resources for salvaging fire damaged print and audiovisual materials |publisher=UCLA Library Preservation & Conservation |date=January 17, 2025 |access-date=October 16, 2025 }}</ref> Risk management in documents often accounts for the correlation between fire and water damage; for instance, structural water leaks can trigger electrical short circuits, leading to fire outbreaks. Consequently, preventative protocols frequently include advance notification for plumbing or construction work, leaving ideally at least 48 hours in advance to allow the temporary relocation of collections or the implementation of protective barriers.<ref name="Cornell_Risk">{{cite web |title=Emergency Preparedness: Risk Assessment |url=https://chinapreservationtutorial.library.cornell.edu/content/readiness/ |publisher=Cornell University Library |access-date=2026-03-29}}</ref>
=== Water ===
Some of the most common forms of water damage to collections include leaking pipes or roofs, flooded basements, and open windows. These are considered small water emergencies and can be easily contained. Larger water emergencies include natural disasters such as hurricanes, flooding from heavy rains, water discharge at high pressure from fire hoses, sprinkler system malfunctions, and major construction accidents. The key to successful recovery of collections from water damage is disaster planning. Disaster planning encompasses assessing and mitigating risks, writing a plan, the initial response, and recovery efforts.<ref>{{cite web |title=3.6 Emergency Salvage of Wet Books and Records |url=https://www.nedcc.org/free-resources/preservation-leaflets/3.-emergency-management/3.6-emergency-salvage-of-wet-books-and-records |website=Emergency Management |publisher=Northeast Document Conservation Center |access-date=14 May 2022}}</ref>
==Contamination of historic books== In the 19th century, Paris green and similar arsenic pigments were often used on front and back covers, top, fore and bottom edges, title pages, book decorations, and in printed or manual colorations of illustrations of books. Since February 2024, several German libraries started to block public access to their stock of 19th-century books to check for the degree of poisoning.<ref>{{cite web |title=Information zum Umgang mit potentiell gesundheitsschädigenden Pigmentbestandteilen an historischen Bibliotheksbeständen (hier: arsenhaltige Pigmente) |language=de |trans-title= |date=December 2023 |author=dbv-Kommission Bestandserhaltung |website=www.bibliotheksverband.de |publisher= |url=https://www.bibliotheksverband.de/sites/default/files/2024-01/ArsenHandreichung2023-12-08.pdf |access-date=2024-03-17 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240317204413/https://www.bibliotheksverband.de/sites/default/files/2024-01/ArsenHandreichung2023-12-08.pdf |archive-date=2024-03-17}} (6 pages)</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Arsenbelastete Bücher |language=de |trans-title=Arsen contaminated books |website=www.uni-bielefeld.de |date=2024 |publisher=Universität Bielefeld |url=https://www.uni-bielefeld.de/ub/arsenic_contamination/ |access-date=2024-03-06 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240311093305/https://www.uni-bielefeld.de/ub/arsenic_contamination/ |archive-date=2024-03-11}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Werke aus dem 19. Jahrhundert: Arsenverdacht – Unibibliothek überprüft 15.000 Bücher |language=de |trans-title= |author= |website=www.spiegel.de |date=2024-03-06 |url=https://www.spiegel.de/panorama/bildung/arsen-verdacht-unibibliothek-duesseldorf-nimmt-15-000-buecher-aus-den-regalen-a-9ef87fd9-0ff9-41c9-abc0-ca9e2f40e505 |access-date=2024-03-06 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240317203814/https://www.spiegel.de/panorama/bildung/arsen-verdacht-unibibliothek-duesseldorf-nimmt-15-000-buecher-aus-den-regalen-a-9ef87fd9-0ff9-41c9-abc0-ca9e2f40e505 |archive-date=2024-03-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Aktuelles: Information zum Umgang mit potentiell gesundheitsschädigenden Pigmentbestandteilen, wie arsenhaltigen Pigmenten, an historischen Bibliotheksbeständen |language=de |trans-title= |website=www.bibliotheksverband.de |date=2024-02-29 |author=dbv-Kommission Bestandserhaltung |url=https://www.bibliotheksverband.de/aktuelles |access-date=2024-03-06 |url-status= |archive-url= |archive-date=}}</ref><ref name="Pilz_2024">{{cite web |title=Warum von grünen Büchern eine Gefahr ausgeht |language=de |trans-title=Why green books are dangerous |date=2024-03-04 |author-first=Michael |author-last=Pilz |work=Welt |department=Kultur > Arsen |url=https://www.welt.de/kultur/article250348708/Buecher-Warum-von-gruenen-Buechern-eine-Gefahr-ausgeht.html |access-date=2024-03-17 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240304173848/https://www.welt.de/kultur/article250348708/Buecher-Warum-von-gruenen-Buechern-eine-Gefahr-ausgeht.html |archive-date=2024-03-04}}</ref>
== Preventive conservation and storage == thumb|250px|A paper conservator surveying a collection of materials in storage Storage in a cool, dry, clean, and stable location can extend the life of an item.<ref name="nedcc">{{cite web|title=Storage Methods and Handling Practices|url=https://www.nedcc.org/free-resources/preservation-leaflets/4.-storage-and-handling/4.1-storage-methods-and-handling-practices|access-date=5 February 2020|website=Northeast Document Conservation Center}}</ref> Manuscripts and paper documents are often stored in protective archival-quality boxes and folders, made of acid-free and lignin-free materials.<ref name="OSE">Sherelyn Ogden, "Storage Enclosures for Books and Artifacts on Paper," ''Northeast Document Conservation Center'', Accessed 22 April 2014, [http://www.nedcc.org/free-resources/preservation-leaflets/4.-storage-and-handling/4.4-storage-enclosures-for-books-and-artifacts-on-paper].</ref> Documents with heavy use may be stored or encapsulated in a clear polyester (Mylar) film sleeve or folder. As added protection against acid formation, paper-based storage materials may have a buffer, such as calcium carbonate, which can neutralize acids as they form in the storage materials.<ref name=OSE /> Boxes should not be overfilled. Items may be interleaved with acid/lignin-free paper.<ref name=SLV /> If boxes are only partially full, spacers may be used, or the box may be stored horizontally.<ref name=CCI418 /> Large format material is best stored in a plan cabinet with shallow drawers.<ref name=SLV /> The rolling of large items (e.g. maps) should be avoided where possible; but if there is no other option, the item should be rolled around a large diameter archival quality tube.<ref>{{harvnb|Landrey|2000|p=42}}</ref>
Average-size books should be shelved vertically, side-by-side so they can support each other.<ref name="nedcc" /> Shelves should not be overpacked and should stand away from exterior walls. Oversized or fragile books may be stored horizontally and completely flat, but stacking should be kept to a minimum.<ref name=CCI419 /> Books may be placed in supportive and protective boxes, to prevent soiling and abrasion and to provide structural support. Book boxes may range from simple four-flap enclosures made of archival safe paper or cardboard to custom clamshell or drop-spine boxes covered in book cloth.<ref name="nedcc" />
Until recently, baked enamel steel shelving was considered the best option for book storage; however, if not properly baked the enamel coating can give off formaldehyde and other volatile compounds that can harm collections. Unless properly baked, enamel-coated shelves are no longer a widely recommended shelving option. Professional testing can confirm that shelves are properly baked. Powder-coated steel shelving prevents off-gassing problems associated with baked enamel. Chrome-plated steel shelving and anodized aluminum shelving are considered other options for metal shelving, aluminium shelving is considered the optimal choice, particularly for highly sensitive artifacts; however, it is also the most expensive. Wood shelving is a more economical option but the wood must be sealed to prevent the emission of acids and volatiles. The most recommended coating is moisture-borne polyurethane. Paints such as two-part-epoxy, latex, and acrylic can also be used, but they vary in their effectiveness and ease of use.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ogden |first1=Sherelyn |title=Storage Furniture: A Brief Review of Current Options |url=https://www.nedcc.org/free-resources/preservation-leaflets/4.-storage-and-handling/4.2-storage-furniture-a-brief-review-of-current-options |website=Northeast Document Conservation Center |access-date=9 March 2020}}</ref>
==Active conservation and repair techniques==
thumb|Book conservation tools and chemicals
The four stages of conservation include '''stabilization, cleaning, repair, and restoration'''.
'''Stabilization''' is the minimum level of treatment needed to slow deterioration.<ref>Northeast Document Conservation Center (NEDCC). https://www.nedcc.org/book-conservation/about</ref> This can include wrapping or containing the object in an archival box, or making a custom one, as well as some basic structural repairs.<ref>Young, L.S. (1995). Bookbinding and Conservation by Hand. Oak Knoll Press. Page 238</ref> Because books are made from a variety of materials, conservators may also need to employ techniques and experience relating to the conservation of leather, parchment, papyrus, or fabric conservation. To extend the functional lifespan of modern collections, particularly those produced on acidic wood-pulp paper, large scale deacidification treatments are frequently utilized. These mass deacidification processes employ alkaline buffers to effectively neutralize the acid content within the paper fibers. This chemical stabilization provides an alkaline reserve that can protect the material against future acid attack, potentially extending the life expectancy of the paper by three to five times.<ref name="LOC_Deacid">{{cite web |title=Mass Deacidification |url=https://www.loc.gov/preservation/about/deacid/index.html |publisher=Library of Congress |access-date=2026-03-29}}</ref>
The main objective of '''cleaning''' is to achieve clarity of surface detail.{{sfn|Oddy|2015|p=351}} Books and documents may be subjected to different types of cleaning. Conservators may clean dust from paper and leather with a soft brush or cloths, a specialized vacuum cleaner, nonchemical vulcanized rubber sponges, or nonabrasive erasing materials such as vinyl erasers.<ref name=CYT /><ref name=CCI418 /> In order to remove mold and insects, conservators use scalpels, aspirators, or specialized vacuum cleaners. Deep freezing is used to kill the insects.<ref name="NUA">NEDCC, "Conservation Treatment for Works of Art and Unbound Artifacts on Paper," ''Northeast Document Conservation Center'', Accessed 26 April 2014, [http://nedcc.org/free-resources/preservation-leaflets/7.-conservation-procedures/7.5-conservation-treatment-for-works-of-art-and-unbound-artifacts-on-paper]</ref> In addition, some longer-term and milder approaches have gradually been adopted. Controlled Atmosphere Fumigation reduces the oxygen concentration to below 1% by changing the air composition, such as introducing nitrogen or argon, thereby causing the death of pests within 2 to 6 weeks. It is a method that minimizes the risk of chemical reactions or physical stress to the delicate substrates of books and manuscripts.<ref name="Pest_Nitrogen">{{cite web |title=Nitrogen/Argon Gas Treatment |url=https://museumpests.net/solutions-nitrogenargon-gas-treatment/ |publisher=MuseumPests.net |access-date=2026-03-29}}</ref>
thumb|Leather bound wine list
Because some adhesive materials are acidic and stain paper, conservators have developed techniques to remove adhesive. Prior repairs made with water-based adhesives such as animal glue are removed in a water bath, by local application of moisture, or with poultices or steam. Synthetic adhesives and pressure-sensitive (self-adhering) tapes are usually dissolved or softened with an organic solvent before removal.<ref name=NUA /> Washing not only removes dirt and aids in stain reduction; it also washes out acidic compounds and other degradation products that have built up in the paper. Washing also relaxes brittle or distorted paper and aids in flattening. When washing alone does not combat acidity, conservators use an alkaline buffer applied by immersion or by spraying.<ref name=NUA /> Flattening follows aqueous treatment; paper is placed between blotters or felts under moderate pressure.<ref name=NUA />
thumb|Book conservation techniques
When cleaning and alkalization alone are not sufficient to stabilize the artifact, conservators may opt to '''repair''' and '''restore''' the materials. Mending and filling techniques for paper include narrow strips of torn Japanese tissue adhered with a reversible non-staining adhesive such as starch paste or methyl cellulose. Paper can also be mended with heat-set tissue repair. Holes or paper losses are filled individually with Japanese paper, with paper pulp, or with a paper carefully chosen to match the original in weight, texture, and color.<ref>{{harvnb|Schechter|1999|pp=10–17}}</ref><ref name=NUA /> Books with broken sewing, loose or detached boards or leaves require special care.{{sfn|Landrey|2000|p=45}} Several techniques are used in conservation binding. The original sewing in a volume is retained if this is possible but is sometimes reinforced using new linen thread and sewing supports.<ref name="NBM">NEDCC, "Conservation Treatment for Bound Materials of Value," ''Northeast Document Conservation Center'', Accessed 26 April 2014, [http://www.nedcc.org/free-resources/preservation-leaflets/7.-conservation-procedures/7.6-conservation-treatment-for-bound-materials-of-value]</ref> If the original binding is too deteriorated, the book may be rebound with new archival safe materials.<ref>{{cite web |title=Guidelines for Library Binding |url=https://www.nedcc.org/free-resources/preservation-leaflets/7.-conservation-procedures/7.1-guidelines-for-library-binding |website=Northeast Document Conservation Center |access-date=9 March 2020}}</ref> Whole leaves or sheets of weak or brittle paper are reinforced by backing each sheet with another sheet of paper. Japanese paper is sometimes used as a backing, adhered with a starch paste.<ref name="backing">{{cite web |title=Conservation Treatment for Works of Art and Unbound Artifacts on Paper |url=https://www.nedcc.org/free-resources/preservation-leaflets/7.-conservation-procedures/7.5-conservation-treatment-for-works-of-art-and-unbound-artifacts-on-paper |website=NEDCC |publisher=Northeast Document Conservation Center |access-date=19 February 2020}}</ref>
thumb|A book conservator examining pages of a bound volume
When extensive conservation of the object is impossible or not cost-effective, '''reformatting''' techniques are employed to minimize treatments and excessive handling.<ref name="backing" /> Reformatting options include photocopying, digitization, and microfilming. Many libraries and universities have book copiers where the book can be supported at an angle, avoiding the damage to its structure that can be caused by forcing it flat.<ref name="Landrey 2000 33"/><ref name=CCI419 /> In spite of the digital revolution, preservation microfilming is still used. Microfilm can have a life expectancy of 500 or more years, and only needs light and magnification to read.<ref>Steve Dalton. [http://www.nedcc.org/free-resources/preservation-leaflets/6.-reformatting/6.1-microfilm-and-microfiche "Microfilm and Microfiche"]. ''Northeast Document Conservation Center''. Accessed 22 April 2014.</ref> These reformatting techniques are not a solution by themselves however, and are typically used in conjunction with preventative conservation measures to maintain the original.
thumb|Book conservation techniques
'''Mass conservation''' preserves many books and documents with the same problems, which reduces the cost of treatment and individual handling. Given the great variety of material found in archival material that would require sorting and separate treatments, mass conservation is more often applied to library material than archival material. The only mass conservation treatment that can realistically be applied to archival material is preventive conservation by means of temperature and humidity-controlled environments.{{sfn|Ritzenthaler|2015|p=374}} However, if archival material is sorted by material type, batch treatment can be applied to low to moderate value items. Batch treatment may include humidification, deacidification, or mending. Single-item treatment is required for high-value or complex books or documents that require detailed, individual documentation.{{sfn|Ritzenthaler|2015|pp=374-375}}
==Ethics== Many conservator-restorers abide by a code of ethics determined by a regional professional body, such as that of the American Institute of Conservation (AIC) for conservation professionals involved in caring for cultural artifacts.<ref name="core" /> Book and paper conservators strive to ensure the integrity of the artefacts on which they work, encompassing the physical, aesthetic, historical and textual information. One method of applying this is through reversible treatments and alterations, so that repairs can be undone in the future as techniques evolve and improve. Consequently, book conservators are trained in the physical and chemical properties of the materials with which they work. However, complete reversibility is often impossible, thus conservators must be conscientious of the long term effects of chemical and physical treatments.{{sfn|Ritzenthaler|2015|p=375}}
Furthermore, conservators must make decisions about which treatments best match the strength and material of the object. In some instances, conservators may decide that it is better to store the object and make a reproduction for use rather than treat it if no treatment options are available due to financial or technological limitations.{{sfn|Ritzenthaler|2015|p=375}} In contemporary conservation ethics, the principle of "Minimum Intervention" is widely regarded as a fundamental approach. Rather than attempting to restore an item to its original "new" state, this ethic prioritizes the stabilization of its current physical condition. Restoration should not aim to turn old books back into "new ones", but should focus on stabilizing their current state and preserving all historical traces, including annotations on the margins or binding details.<ref name="VA_Ethics">{{cite web |title=Ethics in Collaborative Research: mechanisms and principles |url=https://www.vam.ac.uk/blog/projects/ethics-in-collaborative-research-mechanisms-and-principles |publisher=V&A Blog |access-date=2026-03-29}}</ref> Moreover, if treatment is used, it must be used as sparingly as possible to maintain the aesthetic and historical integrity of the artifact.{{sfn|Ritzenthaler|2015|p=376}} Generally, conservation techniques aim to mend and stabilize the item so it can be stored and used long-term. Conservators must consider the ethics of how a book or document should be restored or replicated without losing its aesthetic and historical integrity.{{sfn|Ritzenthaler|2015|pp=376-377}} Another ethical aspect of book conservation is the detailed documentation of treatments and alterations including procedures and materials used. Photographic documentation is usually more detailed for single-item treatments than for batch treatments.{{sfn|Ritzenthaler|2015|p=377}} A trained conservator can observe past treatments done on the book or document, but good documentation specifies the exact techniques and materials used.{{sfn|Pickwoad|2015|p=368}}
Historically, there was no codified set of rules for book and paper conservation. According to Andrew Oddy in 1992, "modern scientific conservation is governed by an unwritten set of rules or ethics".{{sfn|Oddy|1992|p=12}} There have been many failed attempts to codify these "rules" because conservation requires individual application and is dependent on the goals of the museum and curator; consequently, these approaches cannot be generalized.{{sfn|Oddy|1992|p=12}} Paul N. Banks wrote "The Laws of Conservation", also known as ''The Ten Laws of Conservation''; though never officially published, they have been widely shared by his students.{{sfn|Cloonan|2015|p=324}}
== Sustainability == {{Main|Sustainable materials use and disposal (conservation of cultural heritage)}}
As part of actions to mitigate climate change, book and paper conservators increasingly implement sustainability-focused changes to their practice on either a personal or organisational level. Methods for increasing the sustainability of book and paper conservation work include the responsible sourcing of tools and repair materials (e.g. bamboo spatulas),<ref>{{Cite web|last=Peachey|first=Jeff|title=bamboo spatulas|url=https://jeffpeachey.com/tag/bamboo-spatulas/|url-status=live|access-date=2021-11-10|website=Peachey Conservation|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150206154651/http://jeffpeachey.com:80/tag/bamboo-spatulas/ |archive-date=6 February 2015 }}</ref> the use of less industrial chemical solvents and safer chemical alternatives, the use of fewer animal-sourced products (e.g. replacing gelatine glues with synthetic ethylene-vinyl acetate emulsions),<ref>{{Cite web|title=Evasol|url=https://conservationsuppliesaus.com.au/product/evasol/|access-date=2021-11-10|website=Conservation Supplies Australia|date=16 June 2020 |language=en-AU}}</ref> and reducing the amount of labour and energy required in conservation activities (e.g. preventive treatment measures, using materials sparingly).
In the early 2000s, conservators determined that preservation of materials should no longer be governed by a universal standard but rather rely on a localized approach.<ref name="getty">{{cite web|last1=Dardes|first1=Kathleen|last2=Standiforth|first2=Sarah|title=Preventive Conservation: Sustainable Stewardship of Collections|url=https://www.getty.edu/conservation/publications_resources/newsletters/30_2/preventive_conservation.html|access-date=19 February 2020|website=The Getty Conservation Institute|publisher=Getty Conservation Research Foundation Museum|archive-date=24 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200724041434/https://www.getty.edu/conservation/publications_resources/newsletters/30_2/preventive_conservation.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> This allows for more holistic methods determined by the regional climate, resources, historical care practices and collection types.
== See also == * Preservation (library and archive) * Inherent vice * Mass deacidification * Foxing * Conservation and restoration of parchment * Conservation and restoration of photographs * Book rebinding * Radiography of cultural objects including X-ray microtomography combined with digital analysis techniques are methods used to access the contents of sealed documents or fragile scrolls while conserving the integrity of the physical substrate. * Conservation and restoration of cultural property *Conservator-restorer
== References == {{Reflist}}
== Further reading == *{{cite journal |last1=Ashley-Smith |first1=Jonathan |title=The ethics of doing nothing |journal=Journal of the Institute of Conservation |date=2018 |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=6–15 |doi=10.1080/19455224.2017.1416650 |doi-access=free }} *{{cite book |last=Clarkson |first=Christopher |title=Preserving our Heritage |date=2015 |publisher=American Library Association |location=Chicago |isbn=9781555709372|editor-last=Cloonan |editor-first=Michele Valerie|chapter=Mininum intervention in treatment of books }} *{{cite book |title=Preserving our Heritage |date=2015 |publisher=American Library Association |location=Chicago |isbn=9781555709372|editor-last=Cloonan |editor-first=Michele Valerie}} *{{cite book |last1=Cunha |first1=George Martin |last2=Cunha |first2=Dorothy Grant |title=Library and Archives Conservation: 1980s and beyond |url=https://archive.org/details/libraryarchivesc0000cunh |url-access=registration |date=1983 |publisher=The Scarecrow Press |location=Metuchen, NJ |isbn=0810815877}} *{{cite journal |last1=Etherington |first1= Don |date=2007 |title=Historical Background of Book Conservation |journal=Collection Management |volume=31 |issue=1–2 |pages=21–29 |doi=10.1300/J105v31n01_02 }} *{{cite journal |last=Kaltwasser |first=Franz Georg |year=1992 |title=Old Books Between the Shredder and Conservation |journal=The Book Collector |volume=41 |issue= 4 |pages=456–476 }} *{{cite book |last1=Landrey |first1=George J. |title=The Winterthur Guide to Caring for Your Collection |date=2000 |publisher=University Press of New England |location=Hanover and London |isbn=9780912724522}} *{{cite book |editor1-last=Oddy |editor1-first=Andrew |title=The Art of the Conservator |date=1992 |publisher=Smithsonian Institution Press |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=1560982292}} *{{cite book |last=Oddy |first=Andrew |title=Preserving our Heritage |date=2015 |publisher=American Library Association |location=Chicago |isbn=9781555709372|editor-last=Cloonan |editor-first=Michele Valerie|chapter=Does Reversibility Exist in Conservation? }} *{{cite book |last=Pickwoad |first=Nicholas |title=Preserving our Heritage |date=2015 |publisher=American Library Association |location=Chicago |isbn=9781555709372|editor-last=Cloonan |editor-first=Michele Valerie|chapter=Distinguishing between the good and bad repair of books }} *{{cite book |last=Ritzenthaler |first=Mary Lynn |title=Preserving our Heritage |date=2015 |publisher=American Library Association |location=Chicago |isbn=9781555709372|editor-last=Cloonan |editor-first=Michele Valerie|chapter=Excerpts from "Conservation Treatment" }} *{{cite book |last1=Schechter |first1=Abraham A. |title=Basic Book Repair Methods |date=1999 |publisher=Libraries Unlimited |location=Westport, CT |isbn=1563087006 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lj2pERMVdqEC&pg=PA14 |access-date=9 March 2020}} *{{cite book |last1=Shelley |first1=Marjorie |editor1-last=Bachmann |editor1-first=Konstanze |title=Conservation Concerns: A Guide for Collectors and Curators |date=1992 |publisher=Smithsonian Books |location=Washington D.C. |isbn=9781560981749 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/conservationconc00kons }} *{{cite book |last1=Waters |first1=Shelia |title=Waters Rising: Letters from Florence |date=2016 |publisher=The Legacy Press |location=Ann Arbor, Michigan |isbn=9781940965000}} *{{cite book |last1=Ward |first1=Phillip R. |title=Nature of Conservation, A Race Against Time |date=1986 |publisher=The J. Paul Getty Institute |location=Santa Monica, CA}}
== External links== *{{cite web |title=American Institute of Conservation Code of Ethics |url=https://www.culturalheritage.org/docs/default-source/resources/governance/organizational-documents/code-of-ethics-and-guidelines-for-practice.pdf?sfvrsn=ca344aed_26 |website=AIC}} *{{cite web |title=CoOL Disaster preparedness and response |url=https://cool.culturalheritage.org/bytopic/disasters/}} *{{cite web |last1=Pickwoad |first1=Nicholas |title=Determining how best to conserve books in special collections |url=https://cool.culturalheritage.org/coolaic/sg/bpg/annual/v13/bp13-07.html |website=The American Institute for Conservation's Book and Paper Group Annual|year=1994 }} *{{cite web |title=Conserve O Gram|date=1993 |url=https://www.nps.gov/museum/publications/conserveogram/13-02.pdf |website=National Park Services}} *{{cite web |title=3.6 Emergency Salvage of Wet Books and Records |url=https://www.nedcc.org/free-resources/preservation-leaflets/3.-emergency-management/3.6-emergency-salvage-of-wet-books-and-records |website=Northeast Document Conservation Center}} * [https://www.culturalheritage.org/ The American Institute for Conservation of Historic & Artistic Works] * [https://www.nga.gov/conservation/paper.html.html/ National Gallery of Art Works on Paper] * [https://www.conservation-wiki.com/wiki/Paper_Conservation_Wiki AIC's Paper Conservation Catalog] * [https://www.metmuseum.org/about-the-met/conservation-and-scientific-research/paper-conservation The Metropolitan Museum of Art Paper Conservation] * [https://www.nedcc.org/book-conservation/about Northeast Document Conservation Center Book Conservation] *[https://www.canada.ca/en/conservation-institute.html The Canadian Conservation Institute] *[https://www.culturalheritage.org/membership/groups-and-networks/book-and-paper-group/about-the-annual/bpgannual The Book and Paper Group Annual]
{{Cultural Conservation-Restoration |state=expanded}} {{Libraries and library science}} {{Books}}
Category:Book arts Category:Preservation (library and archival science) Category:Conservation and restoration of cultural heritage