Osprey

{{short description|Species of bird}} {{redirect|Fish hawk|other uses|Fish Hawk (disambiguation)|and|Osprey (disambiguation)}} {{Redirect|River hawk|the sports teams|Riverhawks (disambiguation){{!}}Riverhawks}} {{Use British English|date=August 2022}} {{Use dmy dates|date=August 2022}} {{Speciesbox | image = Osprey_Perched_Snag_Heislerville.jpg | image_caption = American osprey (''P. h. carolinensis'') standing on a snag. | image2 = Pandion haliaetus.ogg | image2_caption = Call | status = LC | status_system = IUCN3.1 | status_ref = <ref name=iucn>{{cite iucn |author=BirdLife International |year=2021 |title=''Pandion haliaetus'' |article-number=e.T22694938A206628879 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-3.RLTS.T22694938A206628879.en |access-date=9 March 2022}}</ref> | genus = Pandion | species = haliaetus | authority = (Linnaeus, 1758) | range_map = Pandion global range.svg | range_map_caption = {{legend0|#0097cc| global range}} | synonyms = ''Falco haliaetus'' {{small|Linnaeus, 1758}} }}

The '''osprey''' ({{IPAc-en|"|Q|s|p|r|i|,_|-|p|r|eI}}; '''''Pandion haliaetus'''''), historically known as '''sea hawk''', '''river hawk''', and '''fish hawk''', is a diurnal, fish-eating bird of prey with a cosmopolitan range. It is a large raptor, reaching more than {{cvt|60|cm}} in length and a wingspan of {{cvt|180|cm}}. It is brown on the upperparts and predominantly greyish on the head and underparts.

The osprey is distributed on all continents except Antarctica, but in South America, it occurs only as a nonbreeding migrant. It lives in a wide variety of habitats and nests in locations near a body of water providing an adequate food supply. It has specialised physical characteristics and unique behaviour in hunting its prey, which consists almost exclusively of fish.

==Taxonomy== The osprey was described in 1758 by Carl Linnaeus under the name ''Falco haliaetus'' in his 10th edition of Systema Naturae.<ref>{{cite book |last=Linnaeus | first=C. | author-link=Carl Linnaeus |year=1758 |title=Systema Naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis |volume=1 |edition=10th |publisher=Laurentii Salvii | location=Holmiae (Stockholm) |language=Latin |page=91 |chapter=Haliaetus |chapter-url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/727000}}</ref> Linnaeus specified the type locality as Europe, but in 1761, he restricted the locality to Sweden.<ref>{{cite book |last=Linnaeus |first=C. |author-link=Carl Linnaeus |year=1761 |title=Fauna svecica, sistens animalia sveciae regni mammalia, aves amphibia, pisces, insecta, vermes |edition=2nd |location=Stockholmiae |publisher=Sumtu & Literis Direct, Laurentii Salvii |language=Latin |page=22 |chapter=''Falco haliaetus'' |chapter-url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/32170491}}</ref><ref name=mayr>{{ cite book |editor1-last=Mayr |editor1-first=E. |editor1-link=Ernst Mayr |editor2-last=Cottrell |editor2-first=G. W. |year=1979 |title=Check-List of Birds of the World |volume=1 |edition=2nd |publisher=Museum of Comparative Zoology |place=Cambridge, Massachusetts |page=279 |chapter=''Pandion haliaetus'' |chapter-url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/16108919}}</ref>

The osprey is the only extant species placed in the genus ''Pandion'' that was introduced by French zoologist Marie Jules César Savigny in 1809.<ref>{{cite book |last=Savigny |first=M. J. C. |author-link=Marie Jules César Savigny |year=1809 |title=Description de l'Égypte: Histoire naturelle |volume=1 |publisher=Imprimerie impériale |location=Paris |language=French |page=69 |chapter=''Pandion'' |chapter-url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/15989458}}</ref><ref name=ioc>{{cite web |editor1-last=Gill |editor1-first=F. |editor1-link=Frank Gill (ornithologist) |editor2-last=Donsker |editor2-first=D. |editor3-last=Rasmussen |editor3-first=P. |editor3-link=Pamela C. Rasmussen |date=2023 |title=Hoatzin, New World vultures, Secretarybird, raptors |work=IOC World Bird List Version 14.1 |url=https://www.worldbirdnames.org/bow/raptors/ |publisher=International Ornithologists' Union |access-date=13 June 2024}}</ref> The genus is the sole member of the family Pandionidae.<ref name=ioc/> The species has always presented a riddle to taxonomists, but here it is treated as the sole living member of the family Pandionidae, and the family listed in its traditional place as part of the order Accipitriformes. Other schemes place it alongside the hawks and eagles in the family Accipitridae.<ref name=mayr/> The Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy has placed it together with the other diurnal raptors in a greatly enlarged Ciconiiformes, but this results in an unnatural paraphyletic classification.<ref name=Salzman1993/> Molecular phylogenetic analysis revealed that the family Pandionidae is a sister taxon of the family Accipitridae. The two families diverged an estimated {{ma|50.8}}.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Catanach |first1=T.A. |last2=Halley |first2=M.R. |last3=Pirro |first3=S. |date=2024 |title=Enigmas no longer: using ultraconserved elements to place several unusual hawk taxa and address the non-monophyly of the genus ''Accipiter'' (Accipitriformes: Accipitridae) |journal=Biological Journal of the Linnean Society |article-number=blae028 |doi=10.1093/biolinnean/blae028}}</ref>

The osprey is unusual in that it is a sole living species that occurs nearly worldwide. Even the few subspecies are not unequivocally separable. Generally, four subspecies are recognised, although differences are small, and ITIS lists only the first three.<ref name=ITIS/> * ''P. h. carolinensis'' (Gmelin, 1788)– the American or North American osprey occurs from Alaska and Canada to much of Central and South America, except Chile and Patagonia. It is larger and has a darker body and paler breast than the European osprey.<ref name=Tesky/> * ''P. h. cristatus'' (Vieillot, 1816) – the Australasian osprey is the smallest and most distinctive subspecies that occurs along the entire marine coastline of Australia and some larger freshwater rivers as well as in Tasmania. It is not migratory.<ref name=Tesky/> Some authorities have assigned it full species-status<ref name=Christidis2008/> as ''Pandion cristatus'', also known as the '''eastern osprey'''.<ref name="avibase_cristatus" />

<gallery mode="packed" heights="190"> File:Pandion haliaetus (Nagarhole, 2010) (cropped).jpg|Eurasian osprey (''P. h. haliaetus''), in India File:Osprey mg 9605 (cropped).jpg|American osprey (''P. h. carolinensis''), in the USA File:Osprey (6916938314) (cropped).jpg|Caribbean osprey (''P. h. ridgwayi''), in the Bahamas File:Eastern Osprey (Pandion cristatus) at Point Grey, Western Australia, August 2023 08 (cropped).jpg|Australasian osprey (''P. h. cristatus''), in Australia </gallery>

A 2018 genetic study using microsatellite data showed only low genetic divergence between ''cristatus'' and the other subspecies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Monti |first1=F. |last2=Delfour |first2=F. |last3=Arnal |first3=V. |last4=Zenboudji |first4=S. |last5=Duriez |first5=O. |last6=Montgelard |first6=C. |date=2018 |title=Genetic connectivity among osprey populations and consequences for conservation: philopatry versus dispersal as key factors |journal=Conservation Genetics |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=839–851 | doi=10.1007/s10592-018-1058-7 |bibcode=2018ConG...19..839M}}</ref> * ''P. h. haliaetus'' (Linnaeus, 1758) – the Eurasian osprey is the nominate subspecies that occurs across the Palearctic realm and several parts of sub-Saharan Africa from the Azores and the Iberian Peninsula east to Japan and Kamchatka Peninsula, throughout South and Southeast Asia, the Indian subcontinent, Madagascar, and much of the African coastline.<ref name=Tesky/> * ''P. h. ridgwayi'' Maynard, 1887 – Ridgway's osprey occurs in the Caribbean islands. It has a very pale head and breast and a weak eye mask.<ref name=Tesky/> It is nonmigratory. Its scientific name commemorates Robert Ridgway.<ref name=Barrow1998/>

===Fossil record=== Three extinct species have been named from the fossil record.<ref name=Avibase/>

''Pandion homalopteron'' described by Stuart L. Warter in 1976 was found in marine Middle Miocene deposits of the Barstovian age in the southern part of California. ''Pandion lovensis'' was described in 1985 and found in Florida; it dates to the Late Clarendonian and possibly represents a separate lineage from that of ''P. homalopteron'' and ''P. haliaetus''. A number of claw fossils have been recovered from Pliocene and Pleistocene sediments in Florida and South Carolina.{{citation needed|date=April 2024}}

The oldest recognized family Pandionidae fossils were recovered from the Oligocene epoch Jebel Qatrani Formation in Faiyum Governorate, Egypt, but they are not complete enough to assign to a specific genus.<ref name="Olson1985" /> The remains of another Oligocene species were discovered in Hungary and described as ''P. pannonicus''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kessler |first=J. E. |date=2018 |title=Evolution and presence of diurnal predatory birds in the Carpathian Basin |journal=Ornis Hungarica |language=en |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=102–123 |doi=10.1515/orhu-2018-0008 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Another Pandionidae claw fossil was recovered from Early Oligocene deposits in the Mainz basin, Germany, and was described in 2006 by Gerald Mayr.<ref name=Mayr2006/>

== Etymology == The genus name ''Pandion'' derives from ''Pandíōn'' {{lang|grc|Πανδίων}}, the mythical Greek king of Athens and grandfather of Theseus, Pandion II. The species name ''haliaetus'' ({{langx|la|haliaeetus}})<ref>{{L&S|haliaeetos|ref}}</ref> comes from Greek {{lang|grc|ἁλιάετος}} ''haliáetos'' "sea-eagle" (also {{lang|grc|ἁλιαίετος}} ''haliaietos'') from the combining form {{lang|grc|ἁλι-}} ''hali-'' of {{lang|grc|ἅλς }} ''hals'' "sea" and {{lang|grc|ἀετός}} ''aetos'', "eagle".<ref>{{cite book |last=Jobling |first=J. A. |year=2010 |title=The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names |publisher=Christopher Helm |location=London |isbn=978-1-4081-2501-4 |pages=185, 290–291 |url=https://archive.org/details/Helm_Dictionary_of_Scientific_Bird_Names_by_James_A._Jobling/page/n185}}</ref>

The origins of "osprey" are obscure;<ref name=Livingston1943/> the word itself was first recorded around 1460, derived via the Anglo-French ''ospriet'' and the Medieval Latin ''avis prede'' "bird of prey," from the Latin ''avis praedae'' though the Oxford English Dictionary notes a connection with the Latin ''ossifraga'' or "bone breaker" of Pliny the Elder.<ref name=Morris1969/> However, this term referred to the bearded vulture.<ref name=OED/>

==Description== [[File:Osprey-CootesParadise.webm|thumb|Osprey at Cootes Paradise, Hamilton, Ontario]] thumb|Eurasian osprey in flight, Northern Territory, Australia The osprey differs in several respects from other diurnal birds of prey. Its toes are of equal length, its tarsi are reticulated, and its talons are rounded, rather than grooved. The osprey and owls are the only raptors whose outer toes are reversible, allowing them to grasp their prey with two toes in front and two behind. This is particularly helpful when they grab slippery fish.<ref name="Terres" /> The osprey is {{cvt|0.9|–|2.1|kg}} in weight and {{cvt|50|-|66|cm}} in length with a {{cvt|127|–|180|cm}} wingspan. It is, thus, of similar size to the largest members of the ''Buteo'' or ''Falco'' genera. The subspecies are fairly close in size, with the nominate subspecies averaging {{cvt|1.53|kg}}, ''P. h. carolinensis'' averaging {{cvt|1.7|kg}}, and ''P. h. cristatus'' averaging {{cvt|1.25|kg}}. The wing chord measures {{cvt|38|to|52|cm}}, the tail measures {{cvt|16.5|to|24|cm}}, and the tarsus is {{cvt|5.2|-|6.6|cm}}.<ref name="Ferguson-Lees2001" /><ref name="AAB" />

The upperparts are a deep, glossy brown, while the breast is white, sometimes streaked with brown, and the underparts are pure white. The head is white with a dark mask across the eyes, reaching to the sides of the neck.<ref name="CTDEP" /> The irises of the eyes are golden to brown, and the transparent nictitating membrane is pale blue. The bill is black, with a blue cere, and the feet are white with black talons.<ref name="Terres" /> On the underside of the wings, the wrists are black, which serves as a field mark.<ref>{{cite book |title=Birds of North America|last1=Robbins|first1=C. S.|last2=Bruun|first2=Bertel|last3=Zim|first3=H. S. |last4=Singer |first4=A. |isbn=0-307-37002-X |year=1983|edition=Revised|publisher=Golden Press|location=New York|pages=78–79}}</ref> A short tail and long, narrow wings with four long, finger-like feathers, and a shorter fifth, give it a very distinctive appearance.<ref name="Forsman" />

The sexes appear fairly similar, but the adult male can be distinguished from the female by his slimmer body and narrower wings. The breast band of the male is also weaker than that of the female or is nonexistent, and the underwing coverts of the male are more uniformly pale. Determining the sex in a breeding pair is straightforward, but harder with individual birds.<ref name="Forsman" />

The juvenile osprey may be identified by buff fringes to the plumage of the upperparts, a buff tone to the underparts, and streaked feathers on the head. During spring, barring on the underwings and flight feathers is a better indicator of a young bird, due to wear on the upperparts.<ref name="CTDEP" />

In flight, the osprey has arched wings and drooping "hands", giving it a gull-like appearance. The call is a series of sharp whistles, described as ''cheep, cheep,'' or ''yewk, yewk''. If disturbed by activity near the nest, the call is a frenzied ''cheereek''!<ref name="Peterson1999" /><gallery mode="packed" heights="110"> File:Osprey, Pandion haliaetus, 2015-5997 (cropped).jpg|Eurasian osprey (''P. h. haliaetus'') File:P. h. carolinensis Wing Pattern.jpg|American osprey (''P. h. carolinensis'') File:Pandion haliaetus ridgwayi 360420053 (cropped).jpg|Caribbean osprey (''P. h. ridgwayi'') File:Osprey-Pandion cristatus (cropped).jpg|Australasian osprey (''P. h. cristatus'') </gallery>

==Distribution and habitat== [[File:Osprey at Shadow Mountain Lake, CO 8-27-12 (8054292660).jpg|thumb|253x253px|American osprey pursued by a bald eagle attempting to steal a fish it caught; in Colorado]] {{See also|Ospreys in Britain}} The osprey is the second-most widely distributed raptor species, after the peregrine falcon, and is one of only six land birds with a worldwide distribution.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Monti |first1=Flavio |last2=Duriez |first2=Olivier |last3=Arnal |first3=Véronique |last4=Dominici |first4=Jean-Marie |last5=Sforzi |first5=Andrea |last6=Fusani |first6=Leonida |last7=Grémillet |first7=David |last8=Montgelard |first8=Claudine |title=Being cosmopolitan: evolutionary history and phylogeography of a specialized raptor, the Osprey ''Pandion haliaetus'' |journal=BMC Evolutionary Biology |date=2015 |volume=15 |issue=1 |page=255 |doi=10.1186/s12862-015-0535-6 |pmid=26577665 |pmc=4650845 |bibcode=2015BMCEE..15..255M |doi-access=free}}</ref> It is found in temperate and tropical regions of all continents, except Antarctica. In North America it breeds from Alaska and Newfoundland south to the Gulf Coast and Florida, wintering further south from the southern United States through to Argentina.<ref name="Bull87" /> It is found in summer throughout Europe north into Ireland, Scandinavia, Finland, and Great Britain, though not Iceland, and winters in North Africa.<ref name="Hume2002" /> In Australia, it is mainly sedentary and found patchily around the coastline, though it is a nonbreeding visitor to eastern Victoria and Tasmania.<ref name="Simpsday" />

A {{cvt|1000|km}} gap, corresponding with the coast of the Nullarbor Plain, occurs between its westernmost breeding site in South Australia and the nearest breeding sites to the west in Western Australia.<ref name="Dennis2007a" /> In the islands of the Pacific, it is found in the Bismarck Islands, Solomon Islands, and New Caledonia, and fossil remains of adults and juveniles have been found in Tonga, where it probably was wiped out by arriving humans.<ref name="Steadman2006" /> It may once have ranged across Vanuatu and Fiji, as well. It is an uncommon to fairly common winter visitor to all parts of South Asia,<ref name="Rasmussen2005" /> and Southeast Asia from Myanmar to Indochina and southern China, Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines.<ref name="Strange2000" />

==Behaviour and ecology== ===Diet=== The osprey is piscivorous, with fish making up 99% of its diet.<ref name="evans82" /> It typically takes live fish weighing {{cvt|150|-|300|g}} and about {{cvt|25|-|35|cm}} in length, but virtually any type of fish from {{cvt|50|g}} to {{cvt|2|kg}} can be taken.<ref name="Ferguson-Lees2001" /> Even larger {{cvt|2.8|kg}} northern pike (''Esox lucius'') have been taken in Russia.<ref>Adrianova, Olga V. & Boris N. Kashevarov. "Some results of long-term raptor monitoring in the Kostomuksha Nature Reserve." Status of Raptor Populations in Eastern Fennoscandia. Kostomuksha (2005).</ref> The species rarely scavenges dead or dying fish.<ref name="Ferguson-Lees, J. 2001" />

Ospreys' vision is well adapted to detecting underwater objects from the air. Prey is first sighted when the bird is {{cvt|10|-|40|m}} above the water, after which it hovers momentarily and then plunges feet first into the water.<ref name="BNA" /> It catches fish by diving into a body of water, oftentimes completely submerging its entire body. As an osprey dives, it adjusts the angle of its flight to account for the distortion of the fish's image caused by refraction. Ospreys will typically eat on a nearby perch but have also been known to carry fish for longer distances.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dunne |first1=P. |title=Hawks in flight: the flight identification of North American raptors |date=2012 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |location=Boston |isbn=978-0-395-70959-7 |edition=Second}}</ref>

Occasionally, the osprey may prey on rodents, rabbits, hares, other mammals, snakes, turtles, frogs, birds, salamanders, conchs, and crustaceans.<ref name="Ferguson-Lees, J. 2001" /><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.peregrinefund.org/explore-raptors-species/osprey/osprey | title=Osprey |website=The Peregrine Fund}}</ref><ref name="Goenka1985" /> Reports of ospreys feeding on carrion are rare, but they have been observed eating dead white-tailed deer and Virginia opossums.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Pandion_haliaetus/ |title=''Pandion haliaetus'' (Osprey)|website=Animal Diversity Web}}</ref>

<gallery mode="packed" heights="110"> File:Osprey with Rainbow Trout.jpg|American osprey with rainbow trout File:Osprey Fish Nictitating.png|American osprey with American gizzard shad File:Pandion haliaetus -San Francisco Bay, California, USA-head-8 (2).jpg|American osprey with scraps of fish on its beak File:WesternOsprey (cropped).jpg|Eurasian osprey feeding on a fish in Kartung, the Gambia: Characteristically, its tongue often pokes out whilst swallowing food. </gallery>

===Adaptations=== The osprey has several adaptations that suit its piscivorous lifestyle. These include reversible outer toes,<ref name="Clark1987" /> sharp spicules on the underside of the toes,<ref name="Clark1987" /> closable nostrils to keep out water during dives, backward-facing scales on the talons that act as barbs to help hold its catch, and dense, oily plumage to prevent its feathers from getting waterlogged.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://mnfi.anr.msu.edu/abstracts/zoology/Pandion_haliaetus.pdf|title=''Pandion haliaetu''s Linnaeus Osprey |publisher=Michigan Natural Features Inventory |access-date=11 May 2016}}</ref>thumb|American ospreys preparing to mate on the nest

===Reproduction=== thumb|Eurasian osprey standing next to its nest showing their relative sizes

The osprey breeds near freshwater lakes and rivers, and sometimes on coastal brackish waters. Rocky outcrops just offshore are used in Rottnest Island off the coast of Western Australia, where 14 or so similar nesting sites are known, of which five to seven are used in any one year. Many are renovated each season, and some have been used for 70 years. The nest is a large heap of sticks, driftwood, turf, or seaweed built in forks of trees, rocky outcrops, utility poles, artificial platforms, or offshore islets.<ref name="evans82" /><ref name="Berulds03" /> As wide as 2 m and weighing about {{cvt|135|kg}}, large nests on utility poles may be fire hazards and have caused power outages.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/osprey-nest-moved-by-bc-hydro-crews-weighs-300-pounds-1.2853873 | title=Osprey nest moved by BC Hydro crews weighs 300 pounds | publisher=CBC News - British Columbia, Canada | date=28 November 2014 | access-date=18 May 2016}}</ref>

Generally, ospreys reach sexual maturity and begin breeding around the age of three to four, though in some regions with high osprey densities, such as Chesapeake Bay in the United States, they may not start breeding until five to seven years old, and a shortage of suitable tall structures may exist. If no nesting sites are available, young ospreys may be forced to delay breeding. To ease this problem, posts are sometimes erected to provide more sites suitable for nest building.<ref name="chesapeake" /> The nesting platform design developed by Citizens United to Protect the Maurice River and its Tributaries, Inc. has become the official design of the State of New Jersey, U.S. The nesting platform plans and materials list, available online, have been used by people from a number of different geographical regions.<ref name="cumauriceriver" /> A global site maps osprey nest locations and logs observations on reproductive success.<ref name="osprey-watch" /> thumb|American osprey standing on its nest Ospreys usually mate for life. Rarely, polyandry has been recorded.<ref name="Dennis2007b" /> The breeding season varies according to latitude: spring (September–October) in southern Australia, April to July in northern Australia, and winter (June–August) in southern Queensland.<ref name="Berulds03" /> In spring, the pair begins a five-month period of partnership to raise their young. The female lays two to four eggs within a month and relies on the size of the nest to conserve heat. The eggs are whitish with bold splotches of reddish-brown and are about {{cvt|6.2|x|4.5|cm}} and weigh about {{cvt|65|g}}.<ref name="Berulds03" /> The eggs are incubated for about 35–43 days to hatching.<ref>Poole, Alan F. ''Ospreys, A Natural and Unnatural History'' 1989</ref>

The newly hatched chicks weigh only {{cvt|50|-|60|g}}, but fledge in 8–10 weeks. A study on Kangaroo Island, South Australia, had an average time between hatching and fledging of 69 days. The same study found an average of 0.66 young fledged per year per occupied territory, and 0.92 young fledged per year per active nest. Some 22% of surviving young either remained on the island or returned at maturity to join the breeding population.<ref name="Dennis2007b" /> When food is scarce, the first chicks to hatch are most likely to survive. The typical lifespan is 7–10 years, though individuals rarely can live 20–25 years.{{citation needed|date=April 2024}} The oldest European wild osprey on record lived to be 26 years and 11 months of age.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Fransson |first=T. |last2=Kolehmainen |first2=T. |last3=Kroon |first3=C. |last4=Jansson |first4=L. |last5=Wenninger |first5=T. |title=Euring Longevity List |url=https://euring.org/data-and-codes/longevity-list |access-date=23 January 2026 |website=Euring}}</ref>

<gallery mode="packed" heights="110"> File:Pandion haliaetus MWNH 0705.JPG|Egg, collection of the Museum Wiesbaden File:Osprey chicks at Back Bay National Wildlife Refuge in Virginia. (5343668960).jpg|Hatchling chicks File:Osprey Chicks (26177677892) (cropped).jpg|5 week old chicks File:Osprey Fledgling (16995065659) (cropped).jpg|Fledgling juvenile File:Pandion haliaetus -San Francisco Bay, California, USA -head-8.jpg|Adult </gallery>

===Migration=== European breeders winter in Africa.<ref name="Collins" /> American and Canadian breeders winter in South America, although some stay in the southernmost U.S. states such as Florida and California.<ref name="microwave" /> Some ospreys from Florida migrate to South America.<ref name="Martell2004" /> Australasian ospreys tend not to migrate.

Studies of Swedish ospreys showed that females tend to migrate to Africa earlier than males. More stopovers are made during their autumn migration. The variation of timing and duration in autumn was more variable than in spring. Although migrating predominantly during the day, they sometimes fly in the dark hours, particularly in crossings over water and cover on average {{cvt|260|-|280|km}} per day with a maximum of {{cvt|431|km}} per day.<ref name="Alerstam2006" /> European birds may also winter in South Asia, as indicated by an osprey tagged in Norway being monitored in western India.<ref name="Mundkur1988" /> In the Mediterranean, ospreys show partial migratory behaviour with some individuals remaining resident, whilst others undertake relatively short migration trips.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Monti, F. |author2=Grémillet, D. |author3=Sforzi, A. |author4=Sammuri, G. |author5=Dominici, J.M. |author6=Bagur, R.T. |author7=Navarro, A.M. |author8=Fusani, L. |author9=Duriez, O. |year=2018 |title=Migration and wintering strategies in vulnerable Mediterranean Osprey populations |journal=Ibis |volume=160 |pages=554–567 |doi=10.1111/ibi.12567 |issue=3|doi-access=free}}</ref>

=== Mortality === Swedish ospreys have a significantly higher mortality rate during migration seasons than during stationary periods, with more than half of the total annual mortality occurring during migration.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Klaassen |first1=R. H. G. |last2=Hake |first2=M. |last3=Strandberg |first3=R. |last4=Koks |first4=B.J. |last5=Trierweiler |first5=C. |last6=Exo |first6=K.-M. |last7=Bairlein |first7=F. |last8=Alerstam |first8=T. |date=2013 |title=When and where does mortality occur in migratory birds? Direct evidence from long-term satellite tracking of raptors |journal=Journal of Animal Ecology |volume=83 |issue=1 |pages=176–184 |doi=10.1111/1365-2656.12135 |pmid=24102110 |doi-access=free}}</ref> These deaths can also be categorized into spatial patterns: Spring mortality occurs mainly in Africa, which can be traced to crossing the Sahara. Mortality can also occur through mishaps with human utilities, such as nesting near overhead electric cables or collisions with aircraft.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Washburn |first=B.E. |year=2014 |title=Human–Osprey Conflicts: Industry, Utilities, Communication, and Transportation |url=http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2592&context=icwdm_usdanwrc |journal=Journal of Raptor Research |volume=48|issue=4|pages=387–395 |doi=10.3356/jrr-ospr-13-04.1 |s2cid=30695523|doi-access=free}}</ref>

==Predation== In Florida, ospreys may be eaten by some growth stage of invasive snakes such as Burmese pythons, reticulated pythons, Southern African rock pythons, Central African rock pythons, boa constrictors, yellow anacondas, Bolivian anacondas, dark-spotted anacondas, and green anacondas.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Final Environmental Assessment For The Large Constrictor Snakes Listed As Injurious Wildlife under the Lacey Act|date=January 2012|publisher=U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service}}</ref>

==Conservation== thumb|Adult American ospreys on a man-made nest in New Jersey, US

The osprey has a large range, covering {{convert|9670000|sqkm|sqmi|abbr=on}} in just Africa and the Americas, and has a large global population estimated at 460,000 individuals. Although global population trends have not been quantified, the species is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population decline criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e., declining more than 30% in ten years or three generations), and for these reasons, the species is evaluated as least concern.<ref name=iucn/> Evidence indicates regional decline in South Australia, where former territories at locations in the Spencer Gulf and along the lower Murray River have been vacant for decades.<ref name="Dennis2007a" />

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the main threats to osprey populations were egg collectors and hunting of the adults, along with other birds of prey,<ref name="UM"/><ref name="Cocker" /> but osprey populations declined drastically in many areas in the 1950s and 1960s; this appeared to be in part due to the toxic effects of insecticides such as DDT on reproduction.<ref name="Ames1966" /> The pesticide interfered with the bird's calcium metabolism, which resulted in thin-shelled, easily broken or infertile eggs.<ref name="Bull87" /> Possibly because of the banning of DDT in many countries in the early 1970s, together with reduced persecution, the osprey, as well as other affected bird of prey species, have made significant recoveries.<ref name="evans82" /> Artificial nesting sites have also played a role in conservation. Farmers discovered that building artificial nesting sites was mutually beneficial; this reduced the impact of habitat loss, and the ospreys would drive away red-tailed hawks that preyed on farmers' chickens.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bierregaard |first=Richard O. |last2=Poole |first2=Alan F. |last3=Washburn |first3=Brian E. |date=2014-12-01 |title=Ospreys (''Pandion haliaetus'') in the 21st Century: Populations, Migration, Management, and Research Priorities |url=http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.3356/0892-1016-48.4.301 |journal=Journal of Raptor Research |language=en |volume=48 |issue=4 |pages=301–308 |doi=10.3356/0892-1016-48.4.301 |issn=0892-1016}}</ref>

In South Australia, nesting sites on the Eyre Peninsula and Kangaroo Island are vulnerable to unmanaged coastal recreation and encroaching urban development.<ref name="Dennis2007a" />

==Cultural depictions== ===Literature=== * Roman writer Pliny the Elder reported that parent ospreys made their young fly up to the sun as a test and dispatched any that failed.<ref name="deVries76" /> * Another odd legend regarding this fish-eating bird of prey, derived from the writings of Gerald of Wales and later Albertus Magnus and recorded in Holinshed's ''Chronicles'', was that it had one webbed foot and one taloned foot.<ref name="Cocker" /><ref name="Cooper92" /> * The osprey is mentioned in the famous Chinese folk poem "''guan guan ju jiu''" (關關雎鳩); ''ju jiu'' 雎鳩 refers to the osprey, and ''guan guan'' (關關) to its voice. In the poem, the osprey is considered to be an icon of fidelity and harmony between wife and husband, due to its highly monogamous habits. Some commentators have claimed that ''ju jiu'' in the poem is not the osprey, but the mallard duck, since the osprey cannot make the sound "guan guan".<ref name="vogel" /><ref name="jiang" /> * Irish poet William Butler Yeats used a grey wandering osprey as a representation of sorrow in ''The Wanderings of Oisin and Other Poems'' (1889).<ref name="deVries76" /> * A medieval belief held that fish were so mesmerised by the osprey that they turned belly-up in surrender,<ref name="Cocker" /> and this is referenced by Shakespeare in Act 4 Scene 5 of ''Coriolanus'':

{{Poem quote| I think he'll be to Rome As is the osprey to the fish, who takes it By sovereignty of nature. }}

===Iconography=== * In heraldry, the osprey is typically depicted as a white eagle,<ref name="Cooper92" /> often maintaining a fish in its talons or beak, and termed a "sea-eagle". It is historically regarded as a symbol of vision and abundance; more recently, it has become a symbol of positive responses to nature,<ref name="Cocker" /> and has been featured on more than 50 international postage stamps.<ref name="stamp" /> * {{Anchor|Provincial bird}}In 1994, the osprey was declared the provincial bird of Nova Scotia, Canada.<ref name="gov.ns.ca" />

<gallery heights="160" mode="packed"> File:Sääksmäki.vaakuna.svg|The osprey pictured in the coat of arms of Sääksmäki File:Selous-Scouts-cap-badge.png|Cap badge of the Selous Scouts was a stylized osprey </gallery>

===Sports=== Some sports clubs are named after the osprey, such as the University of North Florida's North Florida Ospreys and Missoula Osprey baseball team.<ref>{{cite news|last=Briggeman|first=Kim|url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-missoulian-now-it-has-a-name/158640817/|title=Now, it has a name|newspaper=Missoulian|via=Newspapers.com|date=January 22, 1999|access-date=November 6, 2024}}</ref>

"Seahawks", another term for osprey, is also common among sports teams. The Seattle Seahawks, a professional American football team in the National Football League, received their identity from a naming contest, defeating 1,740 others.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.seahawks.com/news/the-a-z-on-how-the-seahawks-got-their-name-95956 |title=The A-Z On How The Seahawks Got Their Name |publisher=Seattle Seahawks |date=June 17, 2016 |access-date=May 30, 2020}}</ref> According to team general manager John Thompson, the name "shows aggressiveness, reflects our soaring Northwest heritage, and belongs to no other major league team."<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-news-tribune-no-names-name-seattle/158640849/|title=No-Names' name: Seattle Seahawks|newspaper=The News Tribune|via=Newspapers.com|date=June 18, 1975|access-date=November 6, 2024}}</ref>

===Other=== So-called "osprey" plumes were an important item in the plume trade of the late 19th century and used in hats including those used as part of the army uniform. Despite their name, these plumes were actually obtained from egrets.<ref name="birdnotesnews" />

During the 2017 regular session of the Oregon Legislature, a short-lived controversy arose over the western meadowlark's status as the state bird versus the osprey. The sometimes-spirited debate included State Representative Rich Vial playing the meadowlark's song on his smart phone over the House microphone.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oregonlive.com/politics/index.ssf/2017/07/lawmakers_adjourn_2017_session.html |title=Lawmakers adjourn 2017 session with mixed results for biggest priorities |website=OregonLive.com |date=8 July 2017 |access-date=15 October 2017}}</ref> A compromise was reached in SCR 18,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://olis.leg.state.or.us/liz/2017R1/Downloads/MeasureDocument/SCR18/Enrolled |title=SCR 18 |website=state.or.us |access-date=15 October 2017 |archive-date=4 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171004040513/https://olis.leg.state.or.us/liz/2017R1/Downloads/MeasureDocument/SCR18/Enrolled }}</ref> which was passed on the last day of the session, designating the western meadowlark as the state songbird and the osprey as the state raptor.

== See also == * {{Portal inline|Birds}} * {{Portal inline|Animals}}

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<ref name="Ferguson-Lees, J. 2001">{{cite book |last1=Ferguson-Lees |first1=J. |last2=Christie |first2=D.A. |last3=Franklin |first3=K. |last4=Mead |first4=D. |last5=Burton |first5=P. |year=2001 |title=Raptors of the world |series=Helm Identification Guides |isbn=978-0-618-12762-7}}</ref>

<ref name="Dennis2007b">{{cite journal |last=Dennis |first=T.E. |title=Reproductive activity in the Osprey (''Pandion haliaetus'') on Kangaroo Island, South Australia |journal=Emu |volume=107 |issue=4 |pages=300–307 |year=2007 |doi=10.1071/MU07010 |bibcode=2007EmuAO.107..300D |s2cid=85099678}}</ref>

}}

==External links== {{Commons category}} {{Wikispecies|Pandion haliaetus}} {{Wikisource|Ornithological Biography/Volume 1/Fish Hawk|''The Fish Hawk, or Osprey'' by John James Audubon|nocat=yes}} * {{EBirdSpecies|osprey|Osprey}} * {{VIREO|osprey}} * {{NeotropicalBirds|osprey|Pandion haliaetus}} * [https://www.rspb.org.uk/birds-and-wildlife/wildlife-guides/bird-a-z/osprey/ UK Osprey Information] Royal Society for the Protection of Birds * [http://sabap2.adu.org.za/docs/sabap1/170.pdf Osprey species text in ''The Atlas of Southern African Birds''] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20130221101529/http://www.mbr-pwrc.usgs.gov/id/framlst/i3640id.html Osprey – ''Pandion haliaetus''] – USGS Patuxent Bird Identification InfoCenter * [http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Pandion_haliaetus.html Osprey Info] Animal Diversity Web * [http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/animals/bird/paha/all.html USDA Forest Service osprey data] * [http://www.osprey-watch.org/ Osprey Nest Monitoring Program at OspreyWatch] * [http://www.opb.org/television/programs/ofg/segment/ospreys-rebound-rely-on-help-from-humans/ ''Ospreys Rebound, Rely On Help From Humans''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150205095949/http://www.opb.org/television/programs/ofg/segment/ospreys-rebound-rely-on-help-from-humans/ |date=5 February 2015 }} Documentary produced by Oregon Field Guide * [http://cams.allaboutbirds.org/channel/27/Hellgate_Ospreys/ Hellgate Ospreys Bird Cam] Montana Osprey Project, hosted by the Cornell Lab

Category:Pandion (bird) Category:Falconiformes (sensu lato) Category:Cosmopolitan birds Category:Birds of the Dominican Republic Category:Extant Miocene first appearances Category:Symbols of Oregon Category:Provincial symbols of Nova Scotia Category:Animal taxa named by Carl Linnaeus Category:Birds described in 1758 Category:Birds of the United States Category:Least concern biota of the United States