{{Short description|Practice of reading omens from birds}} thumb|Etruscan wall painting from Tomba degli Auguri (c. 530 BC) showing two augurs {{Anthropology of religion| Basic}}
'''Ornithomancy''' is the practice of reading omens from the actions of birds followed in many ancient cultures including the Greeks, and is equivalent to the augury employed by the ancient Romans.
Ornithomancy in some form has been found globally among a wide variety of pre-industrial peoples.<ref>A. Mouton, ''Luwian Identities'' (2013) p. 329-30</ref>
==Etymology== The modern term from Greek ''ornis'' "bird" and ''manteia'' "divination"; in Ancient Greek: οἰωνίζομαι "take omens from the flight and cries of birds"
==Mediterranean developments== Prophesying by birds appeared among the Hittites in Anatolia, with texts on bird oracles written in Hittite known from the 13th or 14th century BCE,<ref>{{cite journal|title=Terms of Ornithomancy in Hittite|author=Sakuma, Yasuhiko|journal=Tokyo University Linguistic Papers|volume=33|year=2013|pages=219–238|url=http://repository.dl.itc.u-tokyo.ac.jp/dspace/bitstream/2261/53476/1/ggr033013.pdf|access-date=2015-12-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151223235612/http://repository.dl.itc.u-tokyo.ac.jp/dspace/bitstream/2261/53476/1/ggr033013.pdf|archive-date=2015-12-23|url-status=dead}}</ref> and from whom the Greek practice may derive.<ref>A. Mouton, ''Luwian Identities'' (2013) p. 335-40</ref> It was also familiar to the Etruscans, who may have brought it to Rome.<ref>L. Cottrell, ''The Penguin Book of Lost Worlds 2'' (1966) p. 158</ref>
=== Greek evidence === Ornithomancy dates back to early Greek times, appearing on Archaic vases, as well as in Hesiod and Homer:<ref>D. Ogden, ''A Companion to Greek Religion'' (2010) p. 151</ref> one notable example from the latter occurs in the ''Odyssey'', when an eagle appears three times, flying to the right, with a dead dove in its talons, an augury interpreted as the coming of Odysseus, and the death of his wife's suitors. Aeschylus has Prometheus claim to have introduced ornithomancy to mankind, by indicating among the birds “those by nature favourable, and those/Sinister”.<ref>Aeschylus, ''Prometheus Bound'' (1982) p. 35</ref>
Ornithomancy could be spontaneous, or it could be the result of a formal consultation:<ref>A. Mouton, ''Luwian Identities'' (2013) p. 336</ref> the seer would face north, and birds on their right—the east, the direction of sunrise—were taken as favourable (the reverse being true of the Roman augur, who by contrast faced ''south'').<ref>H. Nettleship ed., ''A Dictionary of Classical Antiquities'' (1891) p. 86</ref> Although it was mainly the flights and songs of birds that were studied, any action could have been interpreted to either foretell the future or relate a message from the gods.
=== Roman practice === {{main article|Augur}} {{see also|Augury}} Omens from observation of the flight of birds were considered with the utmost seriousness by Romans. The practice of ornithomancy by priests called ''augurs'' was a branch of Roman national religion from before the founding of the city, which had its own priestly college to supervise its practice.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/stream/birdsinlegendfab00inge#page/212/mode/2up |pages=212–225 |author=Ingersoll, Ernest |title=Birds in legend fable and folklore |publisher=Longmans, Green and Co. |year=1923}}</ref>
The word "inauguration" is derived from the Latin noun ''inauguratio'' derived from the verb ''inaugurare'' which was to "take omens from birds in flight." Since Roman ''augurs'' predominantly looked at birds for omens, they were also called ''auspex'' ("bird watcher", plural ''auspices''), however they also interpreted thunder, lightning, the behavior of certain animals, and strange events.<!-- (The ''haruspex'' was a separate, but related divinitory office.)--> The phrase "under the ''auspices''" is derived from this need for a favourable reading of the omens by the augurs.<ref>{{cite book |title=Significant etymology |author=Mitchell, James |year=1908 |publisher=William Blackwood and Sons |pages=16–17 |url=https://archive.org/stream/significantetymo00mitcuoft#page/16/mode/2up/}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Etymological dictionary of modern English |author=Weekley, Ernest |year=1921 |publisher=John Murray |place=London |url=https://archive.org/stream/cu31924027421712#page/n69/mode/2up |page=90}}</ref>
==Cultural echoes== *Lewis Namier introduced his prosopographical study of eighteenth century politics in England with a quotation from Aeschylus on ornithomancy: “I took pains to determine the flight of crook-taloned birds, marking which were of the right by nature, and which were of the left, and what were their ways of living, each after his kind”.<ref>L. R. Namier, ''The Structure of Politics at the Accession of George III'' (London 1929) p. ii</ref> *The magpie counting song is a folklore remnant of ornithomancy.<ref>T. D'Elgin, ''The Everything Bird Book'' (1998) p. 225</ref>
== Other examples == thumb|300x300px|One of the black bird sculptures of Taivoan people in the Public Hall ''Kong-kài'' in Rauron.
=== Taiwan === The Taivoan people refer to the 'oh-ah, oh-ah' call of crows as ''pháinn-kiat-tiāu'', signifying an omen of bad luck and could also indicate an impending attack by other indigenous communities. Hunters are advised not to leave for hunting if they heard such a call. The black bird sculptures, commonly seen on the roofs of the Public Hall ''Kong-kài'' in Taivoan communities like Rauron, are believed to represent crows.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mata Taiwan |title=楠梓仙溪大武壠族漁獵相關禁忌：烏鴉叫聲「歹結調」 |trans-title=Taboos Related to Fishing and Hunting of the Taivoan People in Namasia River: The Crow's Call "Pháinn-Kiat-Tiāu" |url=https://memory.culture.tw/Home/Detail?Id=732564&IndexCode=Culture_Invisible |access-date=2023-03-31 |website=Taiwan Cultural Memory Bank}}</ref>
==See also== {{Columns-list|colwidth=22em| *Calchas *Haruspex *Helenus *Joris-Karl Huysmans *Plutarch *Parrot astrology *Pancha Pakshi Shastra }}
== Notes == {{reflist|2}}
==Sources== * {{cite book |last1=Baumbach |first1=Manuel |name-list-style=amp |first2=Kai |last2=Trampedach |year=2004 |chapter='Winged Words': Poetry and Divination in Posidippus’ Oiônoskopika. |editor1-first=Benjamin |editor1-last=Acosta-Hughes |editor2-first=Elizabeth |editor2-last=Kosmetatou |editor3-first=Manuel |editor3-last=Baumbach |title=Labored in Papyrus Leaves: Perspectives on an Epigram Collection Attributed to Posidippus (P. Mil. Vogl. VIII 309) |series=Hellenic Studies Series 2. |location=Washington, DC |publisher=Center for Hellenic Studies. |url=https://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674011052 |isbn=978-0-674-01105-2}} * Spence, Lewis, ''An Encyclopedia of Occultism'', New York, Carl Publishing Group Edition, 1996. {{ISBN|0-8065-1401-9}} * Mandelbaum, Allen, ''The Odyssey of Homer'', New York, Bantam Classic Edition, 1991. {{ISBN|0-553-21399-7}}
{{Birds}} {{Divination}}
Category:Divination Category:Prophecy Category:Ancient Greek religion Category:Ancient Roman augury Category:Birds in religion