{{Short description|Open culture movement}} {{distinguish|open science|open educational practices|open educational resources|open learning}} [[File:United Nations Open Education (UNOE) logo.png|alt=United Nations Open Education (UNOE) logo.|thumb|UNESCO UNITWIN United Nations Open Education (UNOE) logo.]] '''Open education''' is an international learning standards and education policy open standards movement based on open source openness.
It was created inspired by the historiography of history of education educational movements of the twentieth century such as popular education, community education, and critical pedagogy, all of which promote the widening participation and inclusiveness in society<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Zawacki-Richter |first=Olaf |date=2020 |title=Elements of open education: An invitation to future research |url=http://www.irrodl.org/index.php/irrodl/article/view/4659 |journal=The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning |volume=21 |issue=3 |doi=10.19173/irrodl.v21i3.4659 |hdl=10459.1/71578 |s2cid=226018305 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bozkurt |first=Aras |date=2019 |title=Intellectual roots of distance education: a progressive knowledge domain analysis |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01587919.2019.1681894?journalCode=cdie20 |journal=Distance Education |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=497–514 |doi=10.1080/01587919.2019.1681894 |s2cid=209060529 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Boskurt |first=Aras |date=2019 |title=An analysis of peer reviewed publications on openness in education in half a century: Trends and patterns in the open hemisphere |url=https://ajet.org.au/index.php/AJET/article/view/4252/1564 |journal=Australasian Journal of Educational Technology |volume=35 |issue=4 |pages=78–97}}</ref> based on open access with the aim of information access to learning and training in informal and formal education systems,<ref>[http://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/07/11/open-education-for-a-global-economy/ Open education for a global economy]</ref> mainly through online and distance education.
Its main products are open educational resources (OER), open source software educational technologies (edtech), open science, open research projects, and open educational practices.
== History == In the 1700s John Amos Comenius proposed open access to education as one of its core goals.<ref name=":1" />
In the 1960s instructional designers and educators faced what was called then a "world-wide crisis in education"<ref>{{Cite book |last=Coombs |first=Philip H |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000075799 |title=The World educational crisis: a systems analysis |date=1968 |publisher=UNESCO IIEP |pages=4}}</ref> as education systems responded slowly to the demand for higher education, which required new models to meet the needs of a much larger and diversified group of lifelong learners.<ref name=":1" />
In the 1970s these conditions led to the establishment of open and distance education systems globally, which developed many educative innovations like educational technologies (EdTech) and the development of open universities.<ref name=":1" />
In 1998 the Public Knowledge Project (PKP) was founded.
In 1999 the Connexions, the first massive open online courses (MOOCs), was established at Rice University in 1999, which transformed into OpenStax, and inspired more than 200 universities and organisations.
In 2001 the MIT Open CourseWare<ref>{{Cite web |title=Our History {{!}} MIT OpenCourseWare {{!}} Free Online Course Materials |url=https://opencw.aprende.org/about/our-history/ |access-date=2025-12-22 |website=opencw.aprende.org}}</ref> was founded.
In 2002 the Open Source Education Foundation (OSEF) was founded to create edtech for childhood education.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Welcome to the Open Source Education Foundation Website |url=http://www.osef.org/ |access-date=2025-12-22 |website=www.osef.org}}</ref>
In 2003 the Berlin Declaration on Open Access to Knowledge in the Sciences and Humanities from the Open Access Movement was signed.
In 2007 the Cape Town Open Education Declaration was signed.
In 2008 the Open Education Global (OEGlobal) was launched by the OpenCourseware Consortium.<ref>{{Cite web |title=History of OEGlobal |url=https://www.oeglobal.org/about-us/history-of-oeg/ |access-date=2025-12-22 |website=OEGlobal |language=en-US}}</ref>
In 2008 the Virginia Open Education Foundation aiming at K–12 education.
In the 2010s educational services platform as a service (PaaS) such EdX, Coursera, and Udacity.
In 2012 the Open Education Week was inaugurated, as an annual event that occurs in the first week of March,<ref> {{Cite web |title=Open Education Week 2025 {{!}} Gdańsk University of Technology |url=https://pg.edu.pl/en/gdansk-tech-library/2025-02/open-education-week-2025 |access-date=2025-03-02 |website=pg.edu.pl |language=en}} </ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Open Education Week 2025 |url=https://www.tudelft.nl/en/events/2025/library/03-mar/open-education-week-2025}}</ref> where people from all over the world can share best practices in a conference fair.<ref> {{Cite web |date=2025-03-02 |title=Open Education Week March 3-7 2025 A Global Distributed Event |url=https://oeweek.oeglobal.org/ |access-date=2025-03-02 |website=Open Education Week |language=en-US}}</ref>
In 2019 open education has become the open standard of the United Nations Education Science Culture Organization (UNESCO) for world education.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The 2019 UNESCO Recommendation on Open Educational Resources (OER): supporting universal access to information through quality open learning materials |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000383205 |access-date=2025-12-22 |website=unesdoc.unesco.org |language=en}}</ref>
In 2023 UNESCO University Twinning and Networking Programme (UNITWIN) United Nations Open Education (UNOE) was founded.<ref>{{Cite web |title=About the Network |url=https://unitwin-unoe.org/the-network/ |access-date=2025-12-22 |website=United Nations Open Education |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ribeiro |first=Felipe |date=2025-01-01 |title=Open Education in the United Nations |url=https://www.academia.edu/130285732/Open_Education_in_the_United_Nations |journal=United Nations Economics Council for Europe (UNECE) Working Party on Regulatory Cooperation and Standardization Policies (WP.6) Education on Standardization Initiative (START-Ed) |doi=10.5281/ZENODO.16856304}}</ref>
In 2025 an article in Scientific Reports discussed a multilayered framework predicting academic performance in open and distance learning.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ahmed |first1=Wesam |last2=Wani |first2=Mudasir Ahmad |last3=Plawiak |first3=Pawel |last4=Meshoul |first4=Souham |last5=Mahmoud |first5=Amena |last6=Hammad |first6=Mohamed |date=24 July 2025 |title=Machine learning-based academic performance prediction with explainability for enhanced decision-making in educational institutions |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=15 |issue=1 |bibcode=2025NatSR..1526879A |doi=10.1038/s41598-025-12353-4 |pmc=12290028 |pmid=40707614 |article-number=26879}}</ref>
== Characteristics == Source:<ref name=":0" />
* Free education, public education, community education, and popular education * Global civics<ref name=":0" /> * Openness * Freedom of access to information * Open access * Open publishing * Open source software * Open hardware * Open research * Open science * Open university * Instructional design * Student information system privacy data security<ref name="Toczauer">{{cite web |last1=Toczauer |first1=Chelsea |title=Privacy Concerns in the Age of Online Education |url=https://www.onlineeducation.com/features/privacy-concerns-in-the-age-of-online-education |access-date=30 March 2025 |website=Online Education |publisher=Online Education Research, LLC}}</ref><ref name="Kamenskih">{{cite journal |last1=Kamenskih |first1=Anton |date=14 February 2022 |title=The analysis of security and privacy risks in smart education environments |journal=Journal of Smart Cities and Society |language=EN |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=17–29 |doi=10.3233/SCS-210114 |issn=2772-3577 |doi-access=free}}</ref> * Open data * Open knowledge library and information science (LIS) * School participatory management and participatory budgeting open governance * Critical theory <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bayne|first=Sian|date=2015|title=Open education: the need for a critical approach|journal=Learning, Media and Technology|volume=40|issue=3|pages=247–250|doi=10.1080/17439884.2015.1065272|s2cid=60460372|doi-access=free|hdl=20.500.11820/8392c755-9e0c-4725-afa8-a9ab141653aa|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Lane|first=A.|title=Emancipation through open education: Rhetoric or reality|publisher=Open Book Publishers|year=2016|url=https://www.openbookpublishers.com/htmlreader/978-1-78374-278-3/ch2.xhtml#_idTextAnchor009}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Cronin|first=Catherine|title=Open education: Walking a critical path|publisher=Brill Sense|year=2020|url=http://eprints.teachingandlearning.ie/4345/1/Cronin%20chapter%20in%20Conrad%20%26%20Prinsloo%202020.pdf|pages=9–25}}</ref> * Lifelong learning and lifewide learning * Rhizomatic learning * Personalized learning like homeschooling, flexible learning, and informal learning<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cronin |first=Catherine |date=2017 |title=Openness and Praxis: Exploring the Use of Open Educational Practices in Higher Education |journal=The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning |volume=18 |issue=5 |doi=10.19173/irrodl.v18i5.3096 |hdl=10379/6394 |s2cid=157160989 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":3" /> * Open educational practices<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Zawacki-Richter |first=Olaf |date=2020 |title=Elements of Open Education: An Invitation to Future Research |url=http://www.irrodl.org/index.php/irrodl/article/view/4659 |journal=The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=319–334 |doi=10.19173/irrodl.v21i3.4659 |hdl=10459.1/71578 |s2cid=226018305 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref> * Networked learning and connected learning social technologies<ref name=":12" /> like renewable assignments * Computer-mediated communication * Open scholarships * Collaboration co-creation community of inquiry (CoI)<ref name=":4" />
{{Wikibooks}}
== Technologies == {{Main|Outline of open educational resources}} Source:<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hakim |first1=Sittara |year=2017 |title=SAGE Journals: Your gateway to world-class journal research |journal=E-Learning and Digital Media |language=en |volume=14 |issue=4 |pages=244–253 |doi=10.1177/2042753017692724 |s2cid=196134570}}</ref>
* Educational technology * Massive Open Online Courses (MOOC) like Udemy and Open EdX. * CourseWare like OER Commons and MIT OpenCourseWare. * Educational games like Kahoot! * Learning management system (LMS) like Google Classroom and Moodle * Open educational resources (OER) like open textbooks * Open Journal Systems (OJS) * OpenSchool for school management<ref>{{Cite web |title=openSchool |url=https://openschool.cc/ |access-date=2025-12-22 |website=openschool.cc}}</ref>
== Controversies ==
=== Privacy === While open educational resources are intended to expand access and reduce barriers to learning, they are often delivered through third-party technologies that may gather user data or share information with external entities. In some cases, students must accept broad terms of service in order to participate in online courses, which may include provisions for commercial data use or surveillance. These practices can conflict with the foundational goals of open education, including learner autonomy, transparency, and equitable access.<ref name="Toczauer" /><ref name="Kamenskih" />
Open education platforms, including learning management systems and online tools, often fail to provide transparency about their data collection and usage practices, which can exacerbate privacy concerns for students.<ref name="Qinyi">{{cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Qinyi |last2=Khalil |first2=Mohammad |title=Understanding privacy and data protection issues in learning analytics using a systematic review |journal=British Journal of Educational Technology |date=1 November 2023 |volume=54 |issue=6 |pages=1715–1747 |doi=10.1111/bjet.13388 |url=https://bera-journals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/action/showCitFormats?doi=10.1111%2Fbjet.13388 |access-date=30 March 2025 |language=en |issn=1467-8535|hdl=11250/3099494 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> The lack of user consent regarding how their personal information is handled creates a vulnerability for the user. The long-term storage of sensitive personal data, such as biometric information for authentication and proctoring, can increase risks if proper security policies and measures are not implemented.<ref name="Kamenskih" />
Many smart education environments are at risk due to poor security, and they become susceptible to cyberattacks such as malware and phishing.<ref name="Kamenskih" /> A study by the University of Chicago and New York University found that these tools can track a wide range of student activities, usually collecting more data than is necessary for educational purposes.<ref name="UoC">{{cite news |last1=University of Chicago |date=6 October 2020 |title=UChicago, NYU team find online education tools pose privacy risks |url=https://news.uchicago.edu/story/uchicago-nyu-team-find-online-education-tools-pose-privacy-risks |access-date=30 March 2025 |work=University of Chicago News |publisher=University of Chicago |language=en}}</ref> This raises concerns about the potential for surveillance and the misuse of personal information, which includes students' academic records, study habits, and learning behaviors. Experts recommend that open education platforms prioritize transparency, robust security measures, and clear data policies to help mitigate these privacy and data security risks.<ref name="Qinyi" />
== Theory == thumbnail|Open education and flexible learning
'''Open education studies''' theory is motivated by a belief that learners want to exercise agency in their studies, particularly from a lifelong learning perspective. Throughout its history, open education has been associated with multiple meanings: access, flexibility, equity, collaboration, agency, democratisation, social justice, transparency, and removing barriers.<ref name=":12" />
Researchers and practitioners in the field of open education have adopted generic educational theories such as social constructivism, behaviourism, and cognitivism,<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Dron|first=J|title=Teaching Crowds: Learning and Social Media|publisher=Athabasca University Press|year=2014|url=https://www.aupress.ca/books/120235-teaching-crowds/}}</ref> and then generated their own theoretical foundations following the emergence of open universities<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bozkurt|first=Aras|date=2019|title=Intellectual roots of distance education: A progressive knowledge domain analysis.|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/01587919.2019.1681894|journal=Distance Education|volume=40|issue=4|pages=497–514|doi=10.1080/01587919.2019.1681894|s2cid=209060529|url-access=subscription}}</ref> and the emergence of powerful and sophisticated digital technologies, such as networked learning or connectivism.
Open education has also been influenced by the philosophy of education of openness,<ref name=":12" /> characterized by an emphasis on transparency and collaboration.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Peters |first=Michael |date=2014 |title=Open Education and Education for Openness |url=http://eepat.net/doku.php?id=open_education_and_education_for_openness#selection-237.0-242.0 |access-date=July 8, 2021 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20140501132743/http://eepat.net/doku.php?id=open_education_and_education_for_openness#selection-237.0-242.0 |archive-date=1 May 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Initial conceptualizations of open education were characterized by independent study, where learners are independent of time and space through asynchronous learning, but also independent in developing their own learning strategies and practices, focused on personalized learning and learner autonomy and agency.thumbnail|A diagram on open education and flexible learning distinctions.|alt=A diagram on open education and flexible learning distinctions.The community of inquiry (CoI) model proposed by Garrison, Anderson, and Archer (2000)<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Garrison|first=D|date=2010|title=The first decade of the community of inquiry framework: A retrospective.|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2009.10.003|journal=The Internet and Higher Education|volume=13|issue=1–2|pages=5–9|doi=10.1016/j.iheduc.2009.10.003|url-access=subscription}}</ref> was developed to provide conceptual order and act as a heuristic tool for the use of computer-mediated communication in support of educational experiences, particularly relevant for online and open education. The CoI model argues that a meaningful online learning experience is created through a combination of and interaction between cognitive, social, and teaching presence.<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":2" />
A range of other theories and conceptual frameworks relate to open education, including connectivism which adopts a non-linear approach to learning, influenced by complexity theory, where communities of knowledge are formed through connections forged in a networked learning environment.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Siemens|first=George|date=2005|title=Connectivism—A learning theory for the digital age|url=https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/a25f/84bc55488d01bd5f5acac4eed0c7d8f4597c.pdf|journal=Journal of Instructional Technology and Distance Learning|volume=2|issue=1|pages=3–10|s2cid=10302016}}</ref> Connectivism relates to openness through its emphasis on learner autonomy and agency and its use of OER.
The study of autodidact self-determined learning, known as heutagogy also relates to open education, founded on the principles of self-efficacy and capability, meta-cognition and reflection, and non-linear learning. Self determined learning is often viewed as part of a continuum experience between pedagogy, andragogy and heutagogy, reflecting a shift from teacher-centred to learner-determined environments and activities.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Blaschke|first=Lisa-Marie|date=2012|title=Heutagogy and lifelong learning: A review of heutagogical practice and self-determined learning|url=http://www.irrodl.org/index.php/irrodl/article/view/1076|journal=The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning|volume=13|issue=1|pages=56–71|doi=10.19173/irrodl.v13i1.1076|doi-access=free}}</ref>
A learning ecologies framework supports open education through both a lifelong and lifewide learning perspective, which is learning in different places simultaneously across the multiple contexts one inhabits.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Peters|first=Mitchell|date=2019|title=Lifelong learning ecologies in online higher education: Students' engagement in the continuum between formal and informal learning|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lifewide_learning|journal=British Journal of Educational Technology|volume= 50| issue = 4|pages=1729–1743|doi=10.1111/bjet.12803|s2cid=164652888|url-access=subscription}}</ref> A learning ecologies approach rests on the possibilities of new technologies in facilitating self-sustaining, interest-driven and boundary crossing learning, interrelated with the openness in education movement.
A rhizomatic learning approach can also underlie forms of open education, characterised as an organic process where the curriculum is connected to the community and the learner navigates diversely connected learning environments by making links, negotiating the learning process, and adapting to change.<ref>(Cormier, 2008, p. 16)</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cormier |first=Dave |date=2008 |title=Rhizomatic education: Community as curriculum |url=https://nsuworks.nova.edu/innovate/vol4/iss5/2/ |journal=Innovate |volume=4 |issue=5}}</ref> In the most recent theoretical foundations of open education, including connectivism, heutagogy, and rhizomatic learning, openness arises from the learner-centred and non-linear design of learning contexts and resources and the promotion of learner agency and autonomy.<ref name=":12" />
Governments, institutions, and people realize the importance of education. Human knowledge is crucial to producing competent leaders, innovators, and teachers. Educational systems must provide each individual the chance in building a better life.
More recently, theories which support open education have developed in line with the rapid evolution of networked digital technologies and the sophistication of social software. Technology has made the expansion of educational opportunities easier.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2015-09-21 |title=How Has Technology Changed Education? |url=https://education.purdue.edu/2024/01/how-has-technology-changed-education/ |access-date=2018-06-27 |work=Purdue University Online |language=en}}</ref> Through the Internet, students can easily find information practically on any topic while mentors are capable of sharing their expertise with any student within seconds. Educational materials are disseminated to a global audience without additional costs. Evolving technology makes it possible for learners to interact with the global community in the comfort of their homes. Under distance learning, universities and colleges expand their impact through online courses that people in any country can take.<ref>{{Cite web |date=9 October 2015 |title=How can technology improve school education? |url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2015/10/how-can-technology-improve-school-education/ |access-date=2018-06-27 |website=World Economic Forum}}</ref>
Open education includes resources such as practices and tools that are not hampered by financial, technical, and legal impediments. These resources are used and shared easily within the digital settings. Technology revolutionized techniques in sending receiving information on a daily basis particularly in education. Availability of web resources has transformed everything.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Digital Learning Challenge: Obstacles to Educational Uses of Content in the Digital Age A Foundational White Paper |url=https://cyber.harvard.edu/media/files/copyrightandeducation.html |access-date=2018-06-27 |website=cyber.harvard.edu}}</ref>
Open education is founded on open Eeducational resources (OER) comprised or learning, teaching, and research sources.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-20 |title=Open educational resources {{!}} United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization |url=http://www.unesco.org/new/en/communication-and-information/access-to-knowledge/open-educational-resources/ |access-date=2018-06-27 |website=www.unesco.org |language=en}}</ref> With Open Education, the costs of textbooks which surged over three times the rate of inflation for many years must not hinder education. Based on the NBC News review of the Department of Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics data, prices of student books increased three times inflation rates from January 1977 until June 2015 reflecting an increase of 1,041 percent.<ref>{{Cite news |title=College Textbook Prices Have Risen 1,041 Percent Since 1977 |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/feature/freshman-year/college-textbook-prices-have-risen-812-percent-1978-n399926 |access-date=2018-06-27 |work=NBC News |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Kingkade |first=Tyler |date=2013-01-04 |title=College Textbook Prices Increasing Faster Than Tuition And Inflation |url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/01/04/college-textbook-prices-increase_n_2409153.html |access-date=2018-06-27 |work=Huffington Post |language=en-US}}</ref>
During the COVID-19 pandemic, with the global lockdowns, remote learning gained popularity. Tools like Google Classroom, Nearpod, and Kahoot! helped facilitate the shift to online learning for millions of students.<ref name="UoC" /> OER can possibly address this problem since materials are free online and economical in printed form. Resources intended for buying textbooks can be rechanneled towards technology, enhancing the medium of instructions, and lowering debt.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Open Educational Resources (OER) |url=https://library.educause.edu/topics/teaching-and-learning/open-educational-resources-oer |access-date=2018-06-27 |language=en}}</ref> Research studies also showed many students learn more because of their access to quality materials. Technology also has unlimited potentials in raising teaching and learning to a higher level.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Open Education - SPARC |url=https://sparcopen.org/open-education/ |access-date=2018-06-27 |work=SPARC |language=en-US}}</ref>
An example of an institutional practice in line with open education would be decreasing barriers to entry, for example, eliminating academic admission requirements. Universities which follow such practices include the Open University in Britain, Athabasca University and Thompson Rivers University, Open Learning in Canada and the Open University of Catalonia, in Spain, among many others (see full list here). Massive open online courses (MOOC) and OpenCourseWare are among the most recent and visible approaches to open education, adopted by universities worldwide. Although many MOOC's have free enrolment, the costs of acquiring a certification may be a barrier. Many open education institutes offer free certification schemes accredited by organizations like UKAS in the UK and ANAB in the United States; others offer a badge.{{Portal|Education|Schools }} ==See also== * List of free educational software
==References== {{reflist}}
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Category:Open education Category:Education theory Category:Educational technology Category:Philosophy of education