{{Short description|Branch of medicine dealing with, or specializing in, cancer}} {{Distinguish|Ontology}} {{For|the journal|Oncology (journal){{!}}''Oncology'' (journal)}} {{Redirect|Clinical oncology|the journal|Clinical Oncology{{!}}''Clinical Oncology''}} {{More citations needed|date=July 2022}} {{Infobox medical specialty | title = Oncology | subdivisions = Medical oncology, radiation oncology, surgical oncology | image = 240px | caption = A coronal CT scan showing a malignant mesothelioma, indicated by the asterisk and the arrows | focus = Cancerous tumor | tests = Tumor markers, TNM staging, CT scans, MRI, PET-CT | specialist = }} {{Infobox Occupation | name = Oncologist | image = | caption = | official_names = | type = Specialty | activity_sector = Medicine | competencies = | formation = | employment_field = Hospitals, clinics, clinical research centers | related_occupation = }}
'''Oncology''' is a branch of medicine that deals with the study, treatment, diagnosis, and prevention of cancer.<ref name="acs-def">{{cite web |title=What is oncology? |url=https://www.cancer.org/cancer/managing-cancer/finding-care/what-is-oncology.html |publisher=American Cancer Society |access-date=28 March 2025 |date=2025}}</ref><ref name="mayo-ov">{{cite web |title=Medical oncology - Overview |url=https://www.mayoclinic.org/departments-centers/oncology/sections/overview/ovc-20198225 |publisher=Mayo Clinic |access-date=28 March 2025 |date=24 December 2024}}</ref> A medical professional who practices oncology is an ''oncologist''.
Cancer was first found in humans in the years 3000 BCE in Egypt. The Edwin Smith papyrus described a form of cancer as "a bulging tumor of the breast." Galen, a Greek doctor who lived from 130–200 CE, was the first to use the word ''onkos'' to describe tumors, from which the words "oncologist" and "oncology" are derived.
Oncology is focused on the diagnosis of cancer in a person, therapy (e.g., surgery, chemotherapy, radiotherapy and other modalities), monitoring of people after treatment, palliative care for people with advanced-stage cancers, ethical questions surrounding cancer care, screening of people who may have cancer, and the study of cancer treatments through clinical research.<ref name=acs-def/><ref name="Singh-2025">{{cite journal |last1=Singh |first1=Sajal Raj |last2=Bhaskar |first2=Rakesh |last3=Ghosh |first3=Shampa |last4=Yarlagadda |first4=Bhuvaneshwar |last5=Singh |first5=Krishna Kumar |last6=Verma |first6=Prashant |last7=Sengupta |first7=Sonali |last8=Mladenov |first8=Mitko |last9=Hadzi-Petrushev |first9=Nikola |last10=Stojchevski |first10=Radoslav |last11=Sinha |first11=Jitendra Kumar |last12=Avtanski |first12=Dimiter |title=Exploring the Genetic Orchestra of Cancer: The Interplay Between Oncogenes and Tumor-Suppressor Genes |journal=Cancers |date=24 March 2025 |volume=17 |issue=7 |pages=1082 |doi=10.3390/cancers17071082 |doi-access=free |pmc=11988167 |pmid=40227591}}</ref>
An oncologist typically focuses on a specialty area in cancer treatment, such as surgery, radiation, gynecological oncology, geriatric oncology, pediatric oncology, and various organ-specific disciplines (breast, brain, liver, among others).<ref name=acs-def/><ref name=mayo-ov/>
== Diagnosis == Medical histories are an important screening tool to assess the concerns and nonspecific symptoms in a patient (such as fatigue, weight loss, unexplained anemia, fever of unknown origin, paraneoplastic phenomena and other signs) that may require further evaluation for malignancy.<ref name="Singh-2025" /><ref name="mdacc">{{cite web |title=Cancer diagnosis and treatment |url=https://www.mdanderson.org/patients-family/diagnosis-treatment.html |publisher=MD Anderson Cancer Center, University of Texas |access-date=28 March 2025 |date=2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Gill |first1=Paula |last2=Grothey |first2=Axel |last3=Loprinzi |first3=Charles |title=Oncology |chapter=Nausea and Vomiting in the Cancer Patient |date=2006 |pages=1482–1496 |doi=10.1007/0-387-31056-8_83 |isbn=978-0-387-24291-0 |editor-first1=Alfred E. |editor-first2=Daniel F. |editor-first3=Harvey I. |editor-first4=Richard M. |editor-first5=Patricia A. |editor-first6=Timothy J. |editor-first7=Joan H. |editor-first8=Victor J. |editor-last1=Chang |editor-last2=Hayes |editor-last3=Pass |editor-last4=Stone |editor-last5=Ganz |editor-last6=Kinsella |editor-last7=Schiller |editor-last8=Strecher |oclc=262690988 }}</ref>
Diagnostic methods<ref>{{Cite web |date=2015-03-09 |title=Tests and Procedures Used to Diagnose Cancer - NCI |url=https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/diagnosis-staging/diagnosis |access-date=2025-08-12 |website=www.cancer.gov |language=en}}</ref> in oncology may include a biopsy or resection; these are methods used to remove suspicious neoplastic cells, which can be removed in part or in whole, and examined by a pathologist to assess for malignancy.<ref name="acs-neo">{{cite web |title=What Are Neoplasms and Tumors? |url=https://www.cancer.org/cancer/understanding-cancer/what-is-cancer/neoplasms-and-tumors.html |publisher=American Cancer Society |access-date=13 August 2025 |date=2025}}</ref><ref name="nci">{{cite web |title=Malignancy |url=https://www.cancer.gov/publications/dictionaries/cancer-terms/def/malignancy |publisher=US National Cancer Institute |access-date=13 August 2025 |date=2025}}</ref> This is essential for determining the next step in the appropriate course of management (active surveillance, surgery, radiation therapy,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2015-04-29 |title=Radiation Therapy for Cancer - NCI |url=https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/treatment/types/radiation-therapy |access-date=2025-08-12 |website=www.cancer.gov |language=en}}</ref> chemotherapy, or a combination of these).<ref>{{Cite web |title=How biopsy procedures are used to diagnose cancer |url=https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/cancer/in-depth/biopsy/art-20043922 |access-date=2023-06-13 |website=Mayo Clinic|archive-date=2023-06-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230613042429/https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/cancer/in-depth/biopsy/art-20043922 |url-status=live }}</ref>
Other diagnostic procedures may include an endoscopy, either upper or lower gastrointestinal, cystoscopy,<ref>{{Cite web |title=What is Cystoscopy? {{!}} Cystoscopy Procedure |url=https://www.cancer.org/cancer/diagnosis-staging/tests/endoscopy/cystoscopy.html |access-date=2025-08-13 |website=www.cancer.org |language=en}}</ref> bronchoscopy,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bronchoscopy Procedure {{!}} What is a Bronchoscopy? |url=https://www.cancer.org/cancer/diagnosis-staging/tests/endoscopy/bronchoscopy.html |access-date=2025-08-12 |website=www.cancer.org |language=en}}</ref> or nasendoscopy<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nasoendoscopy |url=https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/tests-and-scans/nasoendoscopy |access-date=2025-08-12 |website=www.cancerresearchuk.org |language=en}}</ref> to localize tissues suspicious for malignancy and biopsy,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |year=1990 |title=Endoscopy |encyclopedia=British Medical Association Complete Family Health Encyclopedia |publisher=Dorling Kindersley Limited}}</ref> mammograms, X-rays, CT scanning, MRI scanning, ultrasound and other radiological techniques to localize and guide biopsy.<ref name=mdacc/> Scintigraphy, single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT), positron emission tomography (PET) and other methods of nuclear medicine are imaging technologies used to identify areas suspicious of malignancy. Blood tests, including tumor markers, can assist diagnosis of certain types of cancers.
Apart from diagnoses, these modalities (especially imaging by CT scanning) are often used to determine operability, i.e., whether it is surgically possible to remove a tumor in its entirety.
A tissue diagnosis (from a biopsy) by a pathologist is essential for the proper classification of cancer<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kumar |first1=Rajesh |last2=Srivastava |first2=Rajeev |last3=Srivastava |first3=Subodh |title=Detection and Classification of Cancer from Microscopic Biopsy Images Using Clinically Significant and Biologically Interpretable Features |journal=Journal of Medical Engineering |date=23 August 2015 |volume=2015 |pages=1–14 |doi=10.1155/2015/457906 |doi-access=free |pmc=4782618 |pmid=27006938 }}</ref> and to guide the next step of treatment. In extremely rare instances when this is not possible, "empirical therapy" (without an exact diagnosis) may be considered, based on the available evidence (e.g., history, x-rays and scans).
Immunohistochemical markers<ref>{{Cite web |title=Common IHC Markers: Their Significance in Cancer Diagnosis |url=https://ampath.com/blogs/common-ihc-markers-their-significance-in-cancer-diagnosis |access-date=2025-08-12 |website=ampath.com |language=en}}</ref> often give a strong indication of the primary malignancy. This situation is referred to as "malignancy of unknown primary", and again, treatment is empirically based on past experience of the most likely origin.<ref name=NICE>{{NICE|104|Metastatic malignant disease of unknown primary origin: Diagnosis and management of metastatic malignant disease of unknown primary origin|2010}}</ref>
==Therapy== Treatment or palliative care depends on the cancer. Certain disorders (such as ALL or AML) will require immediate admission and chemotherapy. Others may be followed up with regular physical examination, medical imaging, and blood tests.
Often, surgery is attempted to remove a tumor entirely. This is only feasible when there is some degree of certainty that the tumor can in fact be removed. When it is certain that parts will remain, [https://www.cancer.gov/publications/dictionaries/cancer-terms/def/curative-surgery curative surgery] is often impossible, e.g. when there are metastases, or when the tumor has invaded a structure that cannot be operated upon without risking the patient's life. Occasionally surgery can improve survival even if not all tumour tissue has been removed; the procedure is referred to as "debulking" (i.e. reducing the overall amount of tumour tissue). Surgery is also used for the palliative treatment of some cancers, e.g. to relieve [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK539698/ biliary obstruction], or to relieve the problems associated with some cerebral tumors. The risks of surgery must be weighed against the benefits.
Chemotherapy and radiotherapy are used as a first-line radical therapy in several malignancies. They are also used for adjuvant therapy,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Adjuvant therapy: Balance side effects with benefits |url=https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/cancer/in-depth/adjuvant-therapy/art-20046687 |access-date=2025-08-12 |website=Mayo Clinic |language=en}}</ref> i.e. when the macroscopic tumor has already been completely removed surgically but there is a reasonable statistical risk that it will recur. Chemotherapy and radiotherapy are commonly used for palliation, where disease is clearly incurable: in this situation the aim is to improve the quality of life and to prolong it.
Hormone manipulation is well established, particularly in the treatment of breast and prostate cancer.
Monoclonal antibody treatments are widely used in oncology, with established therapies such as Rituximab for lymphoma and Trastuzumab for HER2-positive breast cancer, alongside newer agents targeting various cancers. Cancer vaccines and other immunotherapies, such as checkpoint inhibitors, CAR-T cell therapy, and cytokine therapies, remain active areas of research and clinical application.<ref name="Singh-2025" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Beilei |last2=Zhou |first2=Hongyu |last3=Tan |first3=Licheng |last4=Siu |first4=Kin To Hugo |last5=Guan |first5=Xin-Yuan |title=Exploring treatment options in cancer: tumor treatment strategies |journal=Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy |date=17 July 2024 |volume=9 |issue=1 |article-number=175 |doi=10.1038/s41392-024-01856-7 |pmc=11252281 |pmid=39013849 }}</ref>
== Palliative care== Although cancers can be treated to remission with radical treatment. For pediatric patients, that number is much higher.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Locatelli |first1=Franco |last2=Zugmaier |first2=Gerhard |last3=Bader |first3=Peter |last4=Jeha |first4=Sima |last5=Schlegel |first5=Paul-Gerhardt |last6=Bourquin |first6=Jean-Pierre |last7=Handgretinger |first7=Rupert |last8=Brethon |first8=Benoit |last9=Rossig |first9=Claudia |last10=Chen-Santel |first10=Christiane |title=High Molecular Remission Rate in Pediatric Patients (pts) with Relapsed/Refractory B-Cell Precursor Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia (r/r ALL) Treated with Blinatumomab: Rialto an Open-Label, Multicenter, Expanded Access Study |journal=Blood |date=29 November 2018 |volume=132 |issue=Supplement 1 |pages=1375 |doi=10.1182/blood-2018-99-109855 }}</ref> There may be ongoing issues with symptom control associated with progressive cancer, and also with the treatment of the disease. These problems may include pain, nausea, anorexia, fatigue, immobility, and depression. Not all issues are strictly physical: personal dignity may be affected. Moral and spiritual issues are also important.
While many of these problems fall within the remit of the oncologist, palliative care has matured into a separate, closely allied specialty to address the problems associated with advanced disease. Palliative care is an essential part of the multidisciplinary cancer care team.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-01-12 |title=Palliative Care in Cancer - NCI |url=https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/advanced-cancer/care-choices/palliative-care-fact-sheet |access-date=2025-08-12 |website=www.cancer.gov |language=en}}</ref>
==Progress and research== There is a tremendous amount of research being conducted, ranging from cancer cell biology, and radiation therapy to chemotherapy treatment regimens and optimal palliative care and pain relief. Next-generation sequencing and whole-genome sequencing have completely changed the understanding of cancers. Identification of novel genetic/molecular markers will change the methods of diagnosis and treatment, paving the way for personalized medicine.
[https://www.ihope.fr/therapeutic-trials/?lang=en#:~:text=They%20are%20comparative%20trials.%20These%20randomized%20trials,a%20standard%20treatment%20with%20an%20innovative%20treatment. Therapeutic trials] often involve patients from many different hospitals in a particular region. In the UK, patients are often enrolled in large studies coordinated by Cancer Research UK (CRUK),<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/home|title=Cancer Research UK|website=Cancer Research UK|date=10 May 2021 |access-date=2022-12-30|archive-date=2022-12-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221230024308/https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/home|url-status=live}}</ref> Medical Research Council (MRC),<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.mrc.ac.uk/ |title=Home - Medical Research Council<!-- Bot generated title --> |access-date=2004-03-29 |archive-date=2017-09-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170912150433/https://www.mrc.ac.uk/ |url-status=live }}</ref> the European Organisation for Research and Treatment of Cancer (EORTC)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.eortc.org/|title=European Organisation For Research And Treatment Of Cancer|date=January 17, 2017|website=EORTC|access-date=March 2, 2020|archive-date=October 28, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221028085102/https://www.eortc.org/|url-status=live}}</ref> or the National Cancer Research Network (NCRN).
The most valued companies worldwide whose leading products are in Oncology include Pfizer (United States), Roche (Switzerland), Merck (United States), AstraZeneca (United Kingdom), Novartis (Switzerland) and Bristol-Myers Squibb (United States) who are active in the treatment areas Kinase inhibitors, Antibodies, Immuno-oncology and Radiopharmaceuticals.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://torreya.com/publications/pharma-1000-report-update-torreya-2021-11-18.pdf |title=Top Global Pharmaceutical Company Report |work=The Pharma 1000 |date=November 2021 |access-date=29 December 2022 |archive-date=2022-03-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220315051910/https://torreya.com/publications/pharma-1000-report-update-torreya-2021-11-18.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
== Specialties == * The four main divisions: ** Clinical oncology: focuses on treatment of cancer with both systemic therapies and radiation.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.rcr.ac.uk/discover-explore/discover-oncology/what-clinical-oncology|title=What is clinical oncology? | the Royal College of Radiologists|access-date=2021-08-11|archive-date=2021-08-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210811081632/https://www.rcr.ac.uk/discover-explore/discover-oncology/what-clinical-oncology|url-status=live}}</ref> ** Medical oncology: focuses on the treatment of cancer with chemotherapy, targeted therapy, immunotherapy, and hormonal therapy.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kennedy |first1=B.J. |title=Medical Oncology as a Discipline |journal=Oncology |date=1997 |volume=54 |issue=6 |pages=459–462 |doi=10.1159/000227603 |pmid=9394841 }}</ref> ** Radiation oncology: focuses on treatment of cancer with radiation.<ref name="Cancer.Net"/> ** Surgical oncology: focuses on treatment of cancer with surgery.<ref name="Cancer.Net">{{cite web|title=Types of Oncologists|url=http://www.cancer.net/all-about-cancer/newly-diagnosed/find-oncologist/types-oncologists|publisher=Cancer.Net : American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO)|access-date=25 May 2013|date=2011-05-09|archive-date=2013-06-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130601155338/http://www.cancer.net/all-about-cancer/newly-diagnosed/find-oncologist/types-oncologists|url-status=live}}</ref> * Sub-specialties in oncology: ** Adolescent and young adult (AYA) oncology.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shaw |first1=Peter H. |last2=Reed |first2=Damon R. |last3=Yeager |first3=Nicholas |last4=Zebrack |first4=Bradley |last5=Castellino |first5=Sharon M. |last6=Bleyer |first6=Archie |title=Adolescent and Young Adult (AYA) Oncology in the United States: A Specialty in Its Late Adolescence |journal=Journal of Pediatric Hematology/Oncology |date=April 2015 |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=161–169 |doi=10.1097/MPH.0000000000000318 |pmid=25757020 }}</ref> ** Bone & Musculoskeletal oncology: focuses on cancers of bones and soft tissue.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Weber |first1=Kristy L. |last2=Gebhardt |first2=Mark C. |title=What's new in musculoskeletal oncology |journal=The Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery-American Volume |date=April 2003 |volume=85 |issue=4 |pages=761–767 |doi=10.2106/00004623-200304000-00029 |pmid=12672857 }}</ref> ** Breast oncology: focuses on cancers of breast. ** Cardiooncology (an Emerging specialty) is a branch of cardiology that addresses the cardiovascular impact of cancer and its treatments.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ghosh |first1=AK |last2=Walker |first2=JM |title=Cardio-oncology. |journal=British Journal of Hospital Medicine |date=2 January 2017 |volume=78 |issue=1 |pages=C11–C13 |doi=10.12968/hmed.2017.78.1.C11 |pmid=28067553}}</ref> ** Dermatological oncology: focuses on the medical and surgical treatment of skin, hair, sweat gland, and nail cancers ** Gastrointestinal oncology: focuses on cancers of the stomach, colon, rectum, anal canal, liver, gallbladder, pancreas.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mulder |first1=Chris Jacob Johan |title=Digestive oncologist in the gastroenterology training curriculum |journal=World Journal of Gastroenterology |date=2011 |volume=17 |issue=9 |pages=1109–1115 |doi=10.3748/wjg.v17.i9.1109 |pmc=3063902 |pmid=21556128 |doi-access=free }}</ref> ** Genitourinary oncology: focuses on cancers of genital and urinary system.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bukowski |first1=Ronald M. |title=Genitourinary Oncology: Current Status and Future Challenges |journal=Frontiers in Oncology |date=2011 |volume=1 |page=32 |doi=10.3389/fonc.2011.00032 |pmc=3355990 |pmid=22649760 |doi-access=free }}</ref> ** Geriatric oncology: focuses on cancers in elderly population.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vijaykumar |first1=D K |last2=Anupama |first2=R |last3=Gorasia |first3=Tejal Kishor |last4=Haleema Beegum |first4=T R |last5=Gangadharan |first5=P |title=Geriatric oncology: The need for a separate subspecialty |journal=Indian Journal of Medical and Paediatric Oncology |date=April 2012 |volume=33 |issue=2 |pages=134–136 |doi=10.4103/0971-5851.99755 |pmc=3439792 |pmid=22988358 |doi-access=free }}</ref> ** Gynecologic oncology: focuses on cancers of the female reproductive system.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Benedetti-Panici |first1=P. |last2=Angioli |first2=R. |title=Gynecologic oncology specialty |journal=European Journal of Gynaecological Oncology |date=2004 |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=25–26 |pmid=15053057 }}</ref> ** Head & Neck oncology: focuses on cancers of oral cavity, nasal cavity, oropharynx, hypopharynx and larynx.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Manganaris |first1=Argyris |last2=Black |first2=Myles |last3=Balfour |first3=Alistair |last4=Hartley |first4=Christopher |last5=Jeannon |first5=Jean-Pierre |last6=Simo |first6=Ricard |title=Sub-specialty training in head and neck surgical oncology in the European Union |journal=European Archives of Oto-Rhino-Laryngology |date=July 2009 |volume=266 |issue=7 |pages=1005–1010 |doi=10.1007/s00405-008-0832-4 |pmid=19015865 }}</ref> ** Hemato oncology: focuses on cancers of blood and stem cell transplantation.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-10-09 |title=What is Hematology Oncology? |url=https://www.cancercenter.com/treatment-options/hematologic-oncology |access-date=2025-08-13 |website=City of Hope |language=en}}</ref> **Mathematical oncology ** Molecular oncology: focuses on molecular diagnostic methods in oncology.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jenkins |first1=Robert |title=Principles of Molecular Oncology |journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics |date=April 2001 |volume=68 |issue=4 |pages=1068 |doi=10.1086/319526 |pmc=1275628 }}</ref> ** Neuro-oncology: focuses on cancers of brain. ** Nuclear medicine oncology: focuses on diagnosis and treatment of cancer with [https://www.iaea.org/newscenter/news/what-are-radiopharmaceuticals radiopharmaceuticals.] ** Ocular oncology: focuses on cancers of eye.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Natarajan |first1=Sundaram |title=Ocular oncology - A multidisciplinary specialty |journal=Indian Journal of Ophthalmology |date=2015 |volume=63 |issue=2 |pages=91 |doi=10.4103/0301-4738.154364 |pmc=4399140 |pmid=25827536 |doi-access=free }}</ref> ** Pain & Palliative oncology: focuses on treatment of end stage cancer to help alleviate pain and suffering.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Epstein |first1=A.S. |last2=Morrison |first2=R.S. |title=Palliative oncology: identity, progress, and the path ahead |journal=Annals of Oncology |date=April 2012 |volume=23 |issue=Suppl 3 |pages=iii43–iii48 |doi=10.1093/annonc/mds087 |pmc=3493143 |pmid=22628415 }}</ref> ** Pediatric oncology: concerned with the treatment of cancer in children.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wdlff |first1=James A. |title=History of Pediatric Oncology |journal=Pediatric Hematology and Oncology |date=January 1991 |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=89–91 |doi=10.3109/08880019109033436 |pmid=1863546 }}</ref> ** Preventive oncology: focuses on epidemiology & prevention of cancer.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mkrtchyan |first1=L. N. |title=On a New Strategy of Preventive Oncology |journal=Neurochemical Research |date=June 2010 |volume=35 |issue=6 |pages=868–874 |doi=10.1007/s11064-009-0110-x |pmid=20119639 }}</ref> ** Psycho-oncology: focuses on psychosocial issues on diagnosis and treatment of cancer patients.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-11-21 |title=Psycho-oncology |url=https://www.imperial.nhs.uk/our-services/cancer-services/psycho-oncology |access-date=2025-08-13 |website=www.imperial.nhs.uk |language=en}}</ref> ** Thoracic oncology: focuses on cancers of lung, mediastinum, oesophagus and pleura.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Harish |first1=Krishnamachar |last2=Koushik |first2=Agrahara Sreenivasa Kirthi |title=Multidisciplinary teams in thoracic oncology-from tragic to strategic |journal=Annals of Translational Medicine |date=May 2015 |volume=3 |issue=7 |pages=89 |doi=10.3978/j.issn.2305-5839.2015.01.31 |pmc=4430737 |pmid=26015931 }}</ref> ** Veterinary oncology: focuses on treatment of cancer in animals.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Breen |first1=Matthew |title=Update on Genomics in Veterinary Oncology |journal=Topics in Companion Animal Medicine |date=August 2009 |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=113–121 |doi=10.1053/j.tcam.2009.03.002 |pmc=2754151 |pmid=19732729 }}</ref>
== See also ==
{{div col|colwidth=30em}} * Cancer research * Comparative oncology * Oncology nursing * Oncometabolism * Tumour heterogeneity * Warburg effect (oncology) {{div col end}}
;Organizations {{div col|colwidth=30em}} * American Cancer Society * American Cancer Society Cancer Action Network * American Cancer Society Center * American Society of Clinical Oncology * Canadian Cancer Society * Cancer Research UK * National Cancer Institute * National Comprehensive Cancer Network * Programme of Action for Cancer Therapy {{div col end}} <!-- Please keep entries in alphabetical order -->
== References == {{reflist|colwidth=30em}}
== Further reading == * {{cite journal |last1=Watson |first1=Ian R. |last2=Takahashi |first2=Koichi |last3=Futreal |first3=P. Andrew |last4=Chin |first4=Lynda |year=2013 |title=Emerging patterns of somatic mutations in cancer |journal=Nat Rev Genet |volume=14 |issue=10 |pages=703–718 |doi=10.1038/nrg3539 |pmc=4014352 |pmid=24022702 }} * {{cite journal |last1=Meyerson |first1=Matthew |last2=Gabriel |first2=Stacey |last3=Getz |first3=Gad |title=Advances in understanding cancer genomes through second-generation sequencing |journal=Nature Reviews Genetics |date=October 2010 |volume=11 |issue=10 |pages=685–696 |doi=10.1038/nrg2841 |pmid=20847746 }} * {{cite journal |last1=Katsanis |first1=Sara Huston |last2=Katsanis |first2=Nicholas |year=2013 |title=Molecular genetic testing and the future of clinical genomics |journal=Nat Rev Genet |volume=14 |issue=6 |pages=415–426 |doi=10.1038/nrg3493 |pmc=4461364 |pmid=23681062 }} * {{cite journal |last1=Mardis |first1=Elaine R. |title=Applying next-generation sequencing to pancreatic cancer treatment |journal=Nature Reviews Gastroenterology & Hepatology |date=August 2012 |volume=9 |issue=8 |pages=477–486 |doi=10.1038/nrgastro.2012.126 |pmid=22751458 }} * {{cite book |last=Mukherjee |first=Siddhartha |author-link=Siddhartha Mukherjee |year=2011 |title = The Emperor of All Maladies: A Biography of Cancer |title-link=The Emperor of All Maladies: A Biography of Cancer |publisher=Fourth Estate |isbn=978-0-00-725092-9}} * {{cite journal |last1=Vickers |first1=A. |title=Alternative Cancer Cures: 'Unproven' or 'Disproven'? |journal=CA: A Cancer Journal for Clinicians |date=1 March 2004 |volume=54 |issue=2 |pages=110–118 |doi=10.3322/canjclin.54.2.110 |pmid=15061600 |doi-access=free }}
== External links == {{Commons category}} * {{cite web |title = Comprehensive Cancer Information |url = http://www.cancer.gov/ |website = National Cancer Institute |access-date = 2016-01-16 |date = January 1980 }} * {{cite web |title = NCCN - Evidence-Based Cancer Guidelines, Oncology Drug Compendium, Oncology Continuing Medical Education |url = http://www.nccn.org/ |publisher = National Comprehensive Cancer Network |access-date = 2016-01-16 |archive-date = 2021-06-30 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210630233706/http://www.nccn.org/ |url-status = dead }} * {{cite web |title = European Society for Medical Oncology {{!}} ESMO |url = http://www.esmo.org/ |website = www.esmo.org |access-date = 2016-01-16 }}
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Category:Oncology : Category:Medical specialties