{{Short description|Mercenary and spy in feudal Japan}} {{Redirect-several|Ninja|Shinobi}} {{protection padlock|small=yes}} {{Use dmy dates|date=February 2020}} [[File:Hokusai-sketches---hokusai-manga-vol6-crop.jpg|thumb|Drawing of the archetypical ninja from a series of sketches by Hokusai. Woodblock print on paper. Vol. six, 1817.]]
A {{Nihongo|'''ninja'''|忍者|extra={{IPAc-en|lang|ˈ|n|ɪ|n|dʒ|ə}},<ref>{{cite book |editor-last=Wells |editor-first=John |editor-link=John C. Wells |title=Longman Pronunciation Dictionary |publisher=Pearson Longman |edition=3rd |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-4058-8118-0}}</ref> {{IPA|ja|ɲiꜜɲ.dʑa|lang}}<ref name=NHK>{{cite book|script-title=ja:NHK日本語発音アクセント新辞典|publisher=NHK Publishing|editor=NHK Broadcasting Culture Research Institute|date=24 May 2016|lang=ja}}</ref><ref name=daijirin>{{cite book|script-title=ja:大辞林|publisher=Sanseidō|editor-last=Matsumura|editor-first=Akira|edition=4th|date=5 September 2019|lang=ja}}</ref>}}, {{nihongo|'''''shinobi no mono'''''|忍の者|extra={{ipa|ja|ɕi.no.bʲi no mo.noꜜ|lang}}<ref name=daijirin/>}} or {{nihongo|'''shinobi'''|忍び|extra={{ipa|ja|ɕi.no.bʲi|lang}}<ref name=NHK/><ref name=daijirin/>}} was a spy and infiltrator in pre-modern Japan.<ref name="Unmasking">{{cite book |last1=Turnbull |first1=Stephen |title=Ninja: Unmasking the Myth |date=November 30, 2017 |publisher=Pen and Sword |isbn=9781473850439 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c9hgDwAAQBAJ}}</ref> Antecedents may have existed as early as the 12th century.<ref name="Crowdy 2006 50">{{Harvnb|Crowdy|2006|p=50}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Frederic|2002|p=715}}</ref> Subsequent legends to the contrary, there is little evidence that ninja were assassins.<ref name="Unmasking"/>
In the unrest of the Sengoku period, the ''jizamurai'', peasant-warriors in Iga Province and the adjacent Kōka District, formed ''ikki'' – "revolts" or "leagues" – as a means of self-defense. They became known for their military activities in the nearby regions and sold their services as mercenaries and spies. Following the establishment of the Tokugawa shogunate in the 17th century, the ninja faded into obscurity.<ref name="Green 2001 355">{{Harvnb|Green|2001|p=355}}</ref>
==Etymology== [[File:Ninja-kanji.svg|thumb|The word "ninja" in kanji script]] ''Ninja'' is the ''on'yomi'' (Early Middle Chinese–influenced) reading of the two kanji "忍者". In the native ''kun'yomi'' reading, it is pronounced ''shinobi'', a shortened form of ''shinobi-no-mono'' (忍びの者).<ref name="Origin of word Ninja">[http://pakninjas.com/is-it-ninja-or-shinobi-no-mono/ Origin of word Ninja] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110502042122/http://pakninjas.com/is-it-ninja-or-shinobi-no-mono/ |date=2011-05-02 }}.</ref>
The word ''shinobi'' appears in the written record as far back as the late 8th century in poems in the ''Man'yōshū''.<ref name="takagi">{{Harvnb|Takagi|Gomi|Ōno|1962|p=191}}; the full poem is "''Yorozu yo ni / Kokoro ha tokete / Waga seko ga / Tsumishi te mitsutsu / Shinobi kanetsumo''".</ref><ref name="satake">{{Harvnb|Satake|Yasumada|Kudō|Ōtani|2003|p=108}}; the ''Man'yōgana'' used for "''shinobi''{{-"}} is 志乃備, its meaning and characters are unrelated to the later mercenary ''shinobi''.</ref> The literal meaning of ''shinobi'' (忍) is "to steal away; to hide" and—by extension—"to forbear", hence its association with stealth and invisibility. ''Mono'' (者) means "a person".
Historically, the word ''ninja'' was not in common use, and a variety of regional colloquialisms evolved to describe what would later be dubbed ninja. Along with ''shinobi'', these include ''monomi'' ("one who sees"), ''nokizaru'' ("macaque on the roof"), ''rappa'' ("ruffian"), ''kusa'' ("grass") and ''Iga-mono'' ("one from Iga").<ref name="Green 2001 355" /> In historical documents, ''shinobi'' is almost always used.
In modern fiction, {{Nihongo||くノ一|kunoichi}} is also another word used to describe ''ninja'', specifically female ones.<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|p167}} It was originally argot for "woman".<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=忍者の誕生|last=吉丸雄哉(associate professor of Mie University)|date=April 2017|publisher=勉誠出版|isbn=978-4-585-22151-7|editor-last=吉丸雄哉、山田雄司 編|chapter=くのいちとは何か}}</ref>{{Rp|p168}} It supposedly comes from the characters く (ku), ノ (no), and 一 (ichi), which make up the three strokes that form the kanji for {{Nihongo|"woman"|女}}.<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|p168}}
In English, the plural of ''ninja'' can be either unchanged as ''ninja'', reflecting the Japanese language's lack of grammatical number, or the regular English plural ''ninjas''.<ref>''Oxford English Dictionary'', 2nd ed.; ''American Heritage Dictionary'', 4th ed.; Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1).</ref>
==History== Despite many popular folktales, historical accounts of the ninja are scarce. The social origin of the ninja is seen as the reason they agree to operate in secret, trading their service for money without honor and glory.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Mercenaries: A Guide to Private Armies and Private Military Companies|last=Axelrod|first=Alan|publisher=CQ Press|year=2015|isbn=978-1-4833-6467-4|location=Washington, D.C.}}</ref> The first dubbed ninja was a man named Otomono Sahito, though historical evidence of his existence is scarce.
However, some ''ninjutsu'' books described specifically what tactics ninja should use to fight, and the scenarios in which a ninja might find themselves can be deduced from those tactics. For example, in the manuscript of volume 2 of ''Kanrin Seiyō'' (間林清陽) which is the original book of ''Bansenshūkai'' (万川集海), there are 48 points of ninja's fighting techniques, such as how to make ''makibishi'' from bamboo, how to make footwear that makes no sound, fighting techniques when surrounded by many enemies, precautions when using swords at night, how to listen to small sounds, ''kuji-kiri'' that prevents guard dogs from barking, and so on.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sankei.com/article/20220619-TZZ42J6D45NENAYKGQLBDLRPNY/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220620085044/https://www.sankei.com/article/20220619-TZZ42J6D45NENAYKGQLBDLRPNY/|script-title=ja:甲賀で忍術書の原典発見 番犬に吠えられない呪術も「間林清陽」48カ条|language=ja|publisher=Sankei Shimbun|date=19 June 2022|archive-date=20 June 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www3.nhk.or.jp/kansai-news/20220619/2000062476.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220619102048/https://www3.nhk.or.jp/kansai-news/20220619/2000062476.html|script-title=ja:忍者の里 甲賀市で忍術書の基となった書の写本初めて見つかる|language=ja|publisher=NHK|date=19 June 2022|archive-date=19 June 2022}}</ref>
===Predecessors=== [[File:Yamato Takeru at 16-crop.jpg|thumb|upright|Yamato Takeru dressed as a maidservant, preparing to kill the Kumaso leaders. Woodblock print on paper. Yoshitoshi, 1886.]]
The title ''ninja'' has sometimes been attributed retrospectively to the semi-legendary 2nd-century prince Yamato Takeru.<ref name="Waterhouse 1996 34">{{Harvnb|Waterhouse|1996|p=34}}</ref>
Prince Shotoku, who lived from 574–622 AD, was believed to have employed a ninja spy named Otomono Sahito.<ref name="thoughtco ninja"/>
In the ''Kojiki'', the young Yamato Takeru disguised himself as a charming maiden and assassinated two chiefs of the Kumaso people.<ref name="Chamberlain 2005 249-253">{{Harvnb|Chamberlain|2005|pp=249–253}}; Volume 2, section 80</ref> However, these records take place at a very early stage of Japanese history, and they are unlikely to be connected to the ''shinobi'' of later accounts. The first recorded use of espionage was under the employment of Prince Shōtoku in the 6th century.<ref name="ratti 1991 325">{{Harvnb|Ratti|Westbrook|1991|p=325}}</ref> Such tactics were considered unsavory even in early times, when, according to the 10th-century ''Shōmonki'', the boy spy Hasetsukabe no Koharumaru was killed for spying against the insurgent Taira no Masakado.<ref name="friday 2007 58 60">{{Harvnb|Friday|2007|pp=58–60}}</ref>
The history of Ninjitsu schools recorded around the 12th century, when Daisuke Togakure and Kain Doshi formalized the teaching of Chinese and native Japanese guerilla tactics to which was as counter-culture of the time. As a samurai, Daisuke lost his lands and title after being defeated in a regional conflict. Refusing to commit Seppuku, Daisuke travelled to the mountains of southwest Honshu in 1162. Here, he met Doshi, a Chinese warrior-monk. Daisuke abandoned his way of bushido, and worked with Doshi to formulate the guerilla art of war called ninjutsu. Daisuke's descendants founded the first ninja-ryu, or ninja school, the ''Togakureryu''.<ref name="thoughtco ninja">{{cite web |title=The History of Japanese Ninjas; Feudal Warriors Who Practiced Ninjutsu |author=Kallie Szczepanski |date= 17 July 2017 |url= https://www.thoughtco.com/history-of-the-ninja-195811 |publisher=Thoughtco}}</ref>
Later, the 14th-century war chronicle ''Taiheiki'' contained many references to ''shinobi''<ref name="Waterhouse 1996 34" /> and credited the destruction of a castle by fire to an unnamed but "highly skilled ''shinobi''".
===Early history=== It was not until the 15th century that spies were specially trained for their purpose. It was around this time that the word ''shinobi'' appeared to define and clearly identify ninja as a secretive group of agents. Evidence for this can be seen in historical documents, which began to refer to stealthy soldiers as ''shinobi'' during the Sengoku period. Later manuals regarding espionage are often grounded in Chinese military strategy, quoting works such as ''The Art of War'' by Sun Tzu.<ref name="ratti 1991 324">{{Harvnb|Ratti|Westbrook|1991|p=324}}</ref>
By the Sengoku period, the ''shinobi'' had several roles, including spy (''kanchō''), scout (''teisatsu''), surprise attacker (''kishu''), and agitator (''konran''). The ninja families were organized into larger guilds, each with their own territories.<ref name="ratti 1991 327">{{Harvnb|Ratti|Westbrook|1991|p=327}}</ref> A system of rank existed. A ''jōnin'' ("upper person") was the highest rank, representing the group and hiring out mercenaries. This is followed by the ''chūnin'' ("middle person"), assistants to the ''jōnin''. At the bottom was the ''genin'' ("lower person"), field agents drawn from the lower class and assigned to carry out actual missions.<ref name="draeger smith 1981 121">{{Harvnb|Draeger|Smith|1981|p=121}}</ref>
===Iga and Kōga clans=== {{Main|Iga ikki|Kōka ikki|Iga–Kōka alliance}} [[File:ReizanView.JPG|thumb|The plains of Iga, nested in secluded mountains, gave rise to villages specialized in the training of ninja.]] The Iga and Kōga "clans" were ''jizamurai'' families living in the province of Iga (modern Mie Prefecture) and the adjacent region of Kōka (later written as ''Kōga''), named after a village in what is now Shiga Prefecture. From these regions, villages devoted to the training of ninja first appeared.<ref name="Deal 2007 165">{{Harvnb|Deal|2007|p=165}}</ref> The remoteness and inaccessibility of the surrounding mountains in Iga may have had a role in the ninja's secretive development.<ref name="draeger smith 1981 121" /> The chronicle ''Go Kagami Furoku'' writes, of the two clans' origins:
{{blockquote|There was a retainer of the family of Kawai Aki-no-kami of Iga, of pre-eminent skill in ''shinobi'', and consequently for generations the name of people from Iga became established. Another tradition grew in Kōga.}}
Likewise, a supplement to the ''Nochi Kagami'', a record of the Ashikaga shogunate, confirms the same Iga origin:
{{blockquote|Inside the camp at Magari of the ''shōgun'' <nowiki>[</nowiki>Ashikaga<nowiki>]</nowiki> Yoshihisa there were ''shinobi'' whose names were famous throughout the land. When Yoshihisa attacked Rokkaku Takayori, the family of Kawai Aki-no-kami of Iga, who served him at Magari, earned considerable merit as ''shinobi'' in front of the great army of the ''shōgun''. Since then, successive generations of Iga men have been admired. This is the origin of the fame of the men of Iga.}}
These professional ninjas were actively hired by ''daimyōs'' between 1485 and 1581. Specifically, the Iga professionals were sought after for their skill at siege warfare, or "shirotori", which included night attacks and ambush.<ref>{{Cite conference |last=Nakagawa |first=Takaaki |date=2015 |title=Lecture No. 4: "The Samurai Powers in the Kinai (Capital Region) and Iga" – (2nd term) |url=https://www.human.mie-u.ac.jp/en/projects/iga/lecture/2015/2015-10.html |conference=Conference with the Cooperation of Iga on Ninja Culture |publisher=Mie University |conference-url=https://www.human.mie-u.ac.jp/en/projects/iga/}}; {{Cite conference |last=Kenji |first=Kasai |date=2012 |title=Lecture No.2: Activities of Igashu in the Sengoku Period |url=https://www.human.mie-u.ac.jp/en/projects/iga/lecture/2012/k20121124.html |conference=Conference with the Cooperation of Iga on Ninja Culture |publisher=Mie University |quote=What we can conclude from the writing is that it was already well-known among people in the end of Sengoku period that sneaking and making night attacks were Ninja's favorite tactics. |conference-url=https://www.human.mie-u.ac.jp/en/projects/iga/lecture/2015/2015-1.html}}</ref> By the 1460s, the leading families in the regions had established ''de facto'' independence from their ''shugo''. The Kōka ''ikki'' persisted until 1574, when it was forced to become a vassal of Oda Nobunaga. The Iga ''ikki'' continued until 1581, when Nobunaga invaded Iga Province and wiped out the organized clans.<ref name="Green 2001 357">{{Harvnb|Green|2001|p=357}}</ref> Survivors were forced to flee, some to the mountains of Kii, but others arrived before Tokugawa Ieyasu, where they were well treated. Some former Iga clan members, including Hattori Hanzō, would later serve as Tokugawa's bodyguards.<ref name="Adams 1970 43">{{Harvnb|Adams|1970|p=43}}</ref> Prior to the conquest of Kōka in 1574, the two confederacies worked in alliance together. At an approximate date of 1560, the alliance between Iga and Kōka was formalized in constitutional document.<ref name=":2">{{harvnb|Maltsev|2022|pp=439–440}}; {{Harvnb|Barducci|Orbach|2020|p=1008}}; {{Harvnb|Souyri|2001|pp=190–191}}</ref>
Following the Battle of Okehazama in 1560, Tokugawa employed a group of eighty Kōga ninja, led by Tomo Sukesada. They were tasked to raid an outpost of the Imagawa clan. The account of this assault is given in the ''Mikawa Go Fudoki'', where it was written that Kōga ninja infiltrated the castle, set fire to its towers, and killed the castellan along with two hundred of the garrison.{{citation needed|date=November 2025}}
=== Iga Ninja theory's controversy === After the assassination of Oda Nobunaga, the Iga and Kōka ninja helped Ieyasu undergo the famous ''Shinkun Iga-goe journey''<ref name="THE NINJA BOOK: The New Mansenshukai">{{cite book |author1=Yamada Yuji |translator=Atsuko Oda |title=THE NINJA BOOK: The New Mansenshukai |date=2017 |publisher=Mie University Faculty of Humanities, Law and Economics |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2FwUDgAAQBAJ |access-date=10 May 2024 |language=En |chapter=7. Tokugawa Ieyasu's passing through Iga}}</ref> to escape Nobunaga's enemies in Sakai and return to Mikawa, according to tradition. However, one theory by Mie University researchers suggests that the Kōka clan's Jizamurai militias, not ninja, provided the help.<ref name="Igacrossing1">{{cite book |title=(みちものがたり)家康の「伊賀越え」（滋賀県、三重県）本当は「甲賀越え」だった?忍者の末裔が唱える新説 |work=朝日新聞 |trans-title=(Michi-monogatari) Ieyasu's "Iga's crossing (Shiga Prefecture, Mie Prefecture) Was it really "Koka-goe"? A new theory advocated by a ninja descendant |date=2020 |publisher=Asahi Shimbun |url=https://www.asahi.com/articles/DA3S14509491.html |access-date=19 May 2024 |language=Ja |archive-date=10 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240510065913/https://www.asahi.com/articles/DA3S14509491.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>{{efn|Modern scholar such as Tatsuo Fujita doubted the credibility of Hattori Hanzō's ninja army theory, since it was first appeared in ''Iga-sha yuishogaki'' record which circulated in Edo period during the rule of Shogun Tokugawa Yoshimune. Fujita argued that the circulation of the myth about Hanzō's ninja army helping Ieyasu was created as propaganda to increase the prestige of the Iga and Koka clan confederations in Tokugawa Shogunate.<ref name="fujita" />}}
Their journey was very dangerous due to the existence of "Ochimusha-gari" groups across the route.{{efn|name=ochimusha-gari|According to Imatani Akira, professor of Tsuru University, and Ishikawa Tadashi, assistant professor University of Central Florida, during Sengoku period a particularly dangerous groups called "Ochimusha-gari" or "fallen warrior hunter" groups has emerged. these groups were disenfranchised peasants or Rōnin who had been displaced by war. They formed self-defense forces which operates outside the law, while in actuality they often resorted to hunt samurais or soldiers who has been defeated in wars.<ref name="SAMURAI HUNTER1">{{cite book |author1=Fujiki Hisashi |title=刀狩り: 武器を封印した民衆 |date=2005 |publisher=岩波書店 |isbn=4004309654 |page=29･30 |language=Ja |quote=Kunio Yanagita "History of Japanese Farmers"}}</ref><ref name="SAMURAIHUNTER2">{{cite book |author1=Kirino Sakuto |title=真説本能寺 (学研M文庫 R き 2-2) |date=2001 |publisher=学研プラス |isbn=4059010421 |pages=218–219 |language=Ja |quote=Tadashi Ishikawa quote}}</ref><ref name="SAMURAIHUNTER3">{{Cite book |author=Akira Imatani |date= 1993 |pages=152–153, 157–158, 167 |quote=Akira Imatani "Practice of attacking fallen warriors"; 2000; p.153 chapter 4 |title=天皇と天下人 |publisher=新人物往来社 |isbn=4404020732}}</ref>}} During this journey, Tokugawa generals such as Ii Naomasa, Sakai Tadatsugu and Honda Tadakatsu fought their way through raids and harassment from ''Ochimusha-gari'' outlaws to secure the way for Ieyasu, while sometimes advancing by usage of gold and silver bribes given to some of the more amenable Ochimusha-gari groups.<ref name="SAMURAIHUNTER4">{{cite book |author1=Mitsuhisa Takayanagi |url=https://ndlsearch.ndl.go.jp/books/R100000039-I2973958 |title=戦国戦記本能寺の変・山崎の戦 (1958年) |date=1958 |publisher=春秋社 |page=65 |language=Ja |quote=Luís Fróis;''History of Japan''..; Nihon Yoso-kai Annual Report”, Japanese historical materials also show that Ieyasu distributed a large amount of gold and silver to his subordinates) A certain “ Ishikawa Tadashi Sosho |access-date=9 May 2024}}</ref> As they reached Kada, an area between Kameyama town and Iga,<ref name="fujita">{{Cite journal |author=藤田達生 |date=2005 |title=「神君伊賀越え」再考 |url=https://doi.org/10.24707/aichikenshikenkyu.9.0_1 |journal=愛知県史研究 |publisher=愛知県 |volume=9 |pages=1–15|doi=10.24707/aichikenshikenkyu.9.0_1 }}</ref> the attacks from Ochimusha-gari finally ended as they reached the former territory of the Kōka ikki, who were friendly to the Tokugawa clan. The Koka clan helped the Tokugawa escort group eliminate the Ochimusha-gari outlaw threat. Then, they escorted the group until they reached Iga Province, where they were further protected by samurai clans from Iga ikki which accompanied the Ieyasu group until they safely reached Mikawa.<ref name="IetadaNikkiIgacross">{{Cite web |author=Masahiko Iwasawa |date=1968 |title=(Editorial) Regarding the original of Ietada's diary |url=https://www.hi.u-tokyo.ac.jp/publication/syoho/02/syoho0002-iwazawa.pdf |accessdate=2022-11-16 |website=東京大学史料編纂所報第２号}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |author=Morimoto Masahiro |url=https://bookmeter.com/books/20204283 |title=家康家臣の戦と日常 松平家忠日記をよむ (角川ソフィア文庫) Kindle Edition |date=1999 |publisher=KADOKAWA |access-date=10 May 2024}}</ref>
It was reported by Edo period traditional records that Hattori Hanzō, a Tokugawa vassal from Iga, negotiated with Iga ninjas to hire them as guards along the way to avoid the ochimusha-gari.{{efn|name="ochimusha-gari"}} The local Koka-Ikki ninjas and Iga-Ikki ninjas under Hanzo who helped Ieyasu to travel into safety consisted of 300 Ninjas.<ref name="THE NINJA BOOK: The New Mansenshukai" /> Furthermore, Uejima Hidetomo, a researcher of Iga Ninja history, has stated there is research which revealed that Hattori Yasuji, one of the ninjas who accompanied Ieyasu on his journey in Iga province, also served as a bodyguard and espionage officer under Muromachi Shogun Ashikaga Yoshiaki.<ref name="Uejima Hidetomo; Hattori Yasuji">{{cite web |author1=Kenshiro Kawanishi (川西賢志郎) |title=「伊賀越え」同行忍者の経歴判明 家康と足利義昭の二重スパイか |trans-title="Iga Cross" The history of the accompanying ninja is known to Ieyasu and Yoshiaki Ashikaga? |url=https://www.sankei.com/article/20230926-5WHL72CRVBOOHJ2HTTRLE27TDI/ |website=Sankei online |publisher=The Sankei Shimbun |access-date=24 June 2024 |language=Ja |date=2023}}</ref>
However, a modern scholar such as Tatsuo Fujita doubted the credibility of Hattori Hattori Hanzō's ninja army theory, since it was first appeared in ''Iga-sha yuishogaki'' record which circulated in Edo period during the rule of Shogun Tokugawa Yoshimune.<ref name="fujita" /> During his rule, Yoshimune were known for establishing the Oniwaban secret police institution whose members hailed from the confederation clans of Koka and Iga.<ref name="Ninja Ancient Shadow Warriors of Japan (The Secret History of Ninjutsu); Oniwaban">{{cite book |author1=Kacem Zoughari, Ph.D. |title=Ninja Ancient Shadow Warriors of Japan (The Secret History of Ninjutsu) |date=2013 |publisher=Tuttle Publishing |isbn=9781462902873 |page=65 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EvvPAgAAQBAJ |access-date=10 May 2024 |language=En}}</ref><ref name="Samurai An Encyclopedia of Japan's Cultured Warriors; Oniwaban">{{cite book |title=Samurai An Encyclopedia of Japan's Cultured Warriors |date=2019 |isbn=9781440842719 |page=203 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing USA |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0BjHEAAAQBAJ |access-date=10 May 2024 |ref=Constantine Nomikos Vaporis Ph.D. |language=En}}</ref><ref name="Ninja Unmasking the Myth; Oniwaban">{{cite book |author1=Stephen Turnbull |author1-link=Stephen Turnbull (historian) |title=Ninja Unmasking the Myth |date=2017 |publisher=Pen & Sword Books |isbn=9781473850439 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c9hgDwAAQBAJ |access-date=10 May 2024 |language=En}}</ref> It has been argued that the circulation of the myth about Hattori Hanzō ninja army helping Ieyasu was created as propaganda to increase the prestige of the Iga and Koka clan confederations in Tokugawa Shogunate.<ref name="fujita" />
=== Activities under Tokugawa ===
In one notable incident from 1600, a ninja snuck through of Eastern Army defenders during the Siege of Hataya and planted the flag of the besieging army high on the front gate.<ref name="thoughtco ninja"/>
In 1608, a daimyo named Tōdō Takatora was assigned by Ieyasu to control of Tsu, a newly established domain which covered portions of Iga and Ise Province. The domain at first worth of to the 220,000,{{sfn|Nakayama|2015}}{{fcn|date=April 2026}} then grow further in productivity to the total revenue of 320,000 koku under Takatora governance.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Yuji Yamada |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2FwUDgAAQBAJ |title=THE NINJA BOOK: The New Mansenshukai |date=2017 |publisher=Mie University Facultyof Humanities, Law and Economics |language=En |translator=Atsuko Oda |access-date=11 May 2024}}</ref><ref name="Gaku">{{cite book |last1=Oishi |first1=Gaku |title=江戸五百藩-ご当地藩のすべてがわかる |date=2020 |publisher=Chuokoron-Shinsha |isbn=978-4128001354}}{{in lang|ja}}</ref> It was reported that Tōdō Takatora employs the Iga-ryū Ninjas. Aside from Ninjas, he also employs local clans of Iga province as "Musokunin", which is a class of part time Samurai who has been allowed to retain their clan name but does not own any land or ''Han''. The Musokunin also worked as farmer during peace, while they are obliged to take arms in the time of war.{{sfn|Kenji Fukui|2018|p=165}}{{fcn|date=April 2026}}<ref name="Iga Musokunin; Todo Takatora">{{cite book |url=https://www.rekishikaido.gr.jp/catv/2018/906/ |title=254: 藤堂藩を裏で支えた無足人 |publisher=Rekishi Kaido Promotional Council |language=Ja |access-date=11 May 2024}}</ref>{{sfn|Iwata Nishizawa|1917|p=695}}{{fcn|date=April 2026}}
In 1614, the Iga province warriors saw action during the siege of Osaka. Takatora brought the Musokunin auxiliaries from Iga province to besiege the Osaka castle during the winter phase.{{sfn|Kenji Fukui|2018|p=165}}{{fcn|date=April 2026}}<ref name="Iga Musokunin; Todo Takatora" />
===Shimabara rebellion=== thumb|Ninja historic illustration, Meiwa era, {{Circa|1770}}
A final but detailed record of ninja employed in open warfare occurred during the Shimabara Rebellion (1637–1638). The Kōga ninja were recruited by ''shōgun'' Tokugawa Iemitsu against Christian rebels led by Amakusa Shirō, who made a final stand at Hara Castle, in Hizen Province. A diary kept by a member of the Matsudaira clan, the ''Amakusa Gunki'', relates: "Men from Kōga in Ōmi Province who concealed their appearance would steal up to the castle every night and go inside as they pleased."{{cn|date=April 2026}}
The Ukai diary, written by a descendant of Ukai Kanemon, has several entries describing the reconnaissance actions taken by the Kōga.{{cn|date=April 2026}}
{{blockquote|They [the Kōga] were ordered to reconnoitre the plan of construction of Hara Castle, and surveyed the distance from the defensive moat to the ''ni-no-maru'' (second bailey), the depth of the moat, the conditions of roads, the height of the wall, and the shape of the loopholes.<ref name="Turnbull 2003 51">{{Harvnb|Turnbull|2003|p=51}}</ref>|Entry: 6th day of the 1st month}}
[[File:Remains of Hara castle.jpg|thumb|The ruins of Hara Castle]] Suspecting that the castle's supplies might be running low, the siege commander Matsudaira Nobutsuna ordered a raid on the castle's provisions. Here, the Kōga captured bags of enemy provisions, and infiltrated the castle by night, obtaining secret passwords. Days later, Nobutsuna ordered an intelligence gathering mission to determine the castle's supplies.{{cn|date=April 2026}} Several Kōga ninja—some apparently descended from those involved in the 1562 assault on an Imagawa clan castle—volunteered despite being warned that chances of survival were slim. A volley of shots was fired into the sky, causing the defenders to extinguish the castle lights in preparation. Under the cloak of darkness, ninja disguised as defenders infiltrated the castle, capturing a banner of the Christian cross. The Ukai diary writes,{{cn|date=April 2026}}
{{blockquote|We dispersed spies who were prepared to die inside Hara castle. ... those who went on the reconnaissance in force captured an enemy flag; both Arakawa Shichirobei and Mochizuki Yo'emon met extreme resistance and suffered from their serious wounds for 40 days.|Entry: 27th day of the 1st month}}
As the siege went on, the extreme shortage of food later reduced the defenders to eating moss and grass. This desperation would mount to futile charges by the rebels, where they were eventually defeated by the shogunate army. The Kōga would later take part in conquering the castle:
{{blockquote|More and more general raids were begun, the Kōga ninja band under the direct control of Matsudaira Nobutsuna captured the ''ni-no-maru'' and the ''san-no-maru'' (outer bailey)|Entry: 24th day of the 2nd month}}
With the fall of Hara Castle, the Shimabara Rebellion came to an end, and Christianity in Japan was forced underground.<ref name="Morton Olenik 2004 122">{{Harvnb|Morton|Olenik|2004|p=122}}</ref> These written accounts are the last mention of ninja in war.<ref name="Crowdy 2006 52">{{Harvnb|Crowdy|2006|p=52}}</ref>
===Edo period=== After the Shimabara Rebellion, there were almost no major wars or battles until the ''bakumatsu'' era. To earn a living, ninja had to be employed by the governments of their ''Han'' (domain), or change their profession. Many lords still hired ninja, not for battle but as bodyguards or spies. Their duties included spying on other domains, guarding the daimyō, and fire patrol.<ref>{{Harvnb|Yamada|2019|pp=176–177}}</ref> A few domains like Tsu, Hirosaki and Saga continued to employ their own ninja into the ''bakumatsu'' era, although their precise numbers are unknown.<ref>{{Harvnb|Yamada|2019|pp=188–189}}</ref><ref name=Benkei/>
A number of ''shinobi'' manuals, often based on Chinese military philosophy, were written in the 17th and 18th centuries, most notably the ''Bansenshūkai'' (1676).<ref name="Green 2001 358">{{Harvnb|Green|2001|p=358}}; based on different readings, ''Ninpiden'' is also known as ''Shinobi Hiden'', and ''Bansenshukai'' can also be ''Mansenshukai''.</ref>
Many former ninja were employed as security guards by the Tokugawa shogunate, though the role of espionage was transferred to newly created organizations like the ''onmitsu'' and the ''oniwaban''.<ref>{{Harvnb|Yamada|2019|pp=174–175}}</ref> Others used their ''ninjutsu'' knowledge to become doctors, medicine sellers, merchants, martial artists, and fireworks manufacturers.<ref>{{Harvnb|Yamada|2019|pp=178–179}}</ref> Some unemployed ninja were reduced to banditry, such as Fūma Kotarō and Ishikawa Goemon.<ref>{{Harvnb|Yamada|2019|p=180}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable" |- | colspan="2" | '''Ninja employed in each domain, Edo period'''<ref>{{Harvnb|Yamada|2019|p=176}}</ref> |- ! ''Han'' (domain) ! Number of ninja |- |Kishū Domain |200+ |- |Kishiwada Domain |50 |- |Kawagoe Domain |50 |- |Matsue Domain |30 |- |Hirosaki Domain |20 |- |Fukui Domain |12 |- |Hikone Domain |10 |- |Okayama Domain |10 |- |Akō Domain |5 |}
====Ninja stereotypes in theatre==== {{multiple image | total_width=350 | image1 = 005-1134.jpg | alt1 = | caption1 = In ''Sakura doki onna gyoretsu'', this {{Transliteration|ja|onnagata}} is attended by three {{Transliteration|ja|kuroko}}. | image2 = Ninja-and-Prince-Genji-Ukiyoe-Utagawa-Kunisada.png | alt2 = | caption2 = In ''Nise Murasaki Inaka Genji'', Ashikaga Mitsuuji is approached unknowingly by a ninja. | footer = Two prints depicting kabuki plays. In Japanese theatre, ninja are often dressed as {{Transliteration|ja|kuroko}}, stagehands in black suits, to make their attacks seem more surprising. This practice gave rise to their stereotypical black outfits.<ref name=Kamm />}} Many ubiquitous stereotypes about ninjas were developed within Edo theatre. These include their black clothing, which was supposed to imitate the outfits worn by {{Transliteration|ja|kuroko}}, stagehands meant to be ignored by the audience; and their use of {{Transliteration|ja|shuriken}}, which was meant to contrast with the use of swords by onstage samurai. In kabuki theatre, ninja were "dishonorable and often sorcerous counterparts" to samurai, and possessed "almost, if not outright, magical means of camouflage."<ref name=Kamm>{{cite journal|author-last=Kamm|author-first=Björn-Ole|title=Reenacting Japan's Past That Never Was: The Ninja in Tourism and Larp|journal=Reenactment Case Studies: Global Perspectives on Experiential History|pages=146–170|date=2022|access-date=7 March 2023|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iMKZEAAAQBAJ&dq=info:hYmMz5CJDXsJ:scholar.google.com/&pg=PT174|doi=10.4324/9780429445668-10|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
===Contemporary=== thumb|upright=1.5|A copy of the legendary 40-page book called ''Kanrinseiyo'' made in 1748
Between 1960 and 2010 artifacts dating to the Siege of Odawara (1590) were uncovered which experts say are ninja weapons.<ref name="livescience"/> Ninja were spies and saboteurs and likely participated in the siege.<ref name="livescience"/> The Hojo clan failed to save the castle from Toyotomi Hideyoshi forces.<ref name="livescience"/> The uncovered flat throwing stones are likely predecessors of the shuriken.<ref name="livescience"/> The clay caltrops preceded makibishi caltrops.<ref name="livescience">{{cite web |title=430-year-old ninja weapons possibly identified |date=February 14, 2022 |author=Owen Jarus |website=Live Science |url=https://www.livescience.com/ancient-ninja-weapons-discovered |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220311011334/https://www.livescience.com/ancient-ninja-weapons-discovered |archive-date=March 11, 2022}}</ref> Archeologist Iwata Akihiro of Saitama Prefectural Museum of History and Folklore said the flat throwing stones "were used to stop the movement of the enemy who was going to attack [a soldier] at any moment, and while the enemy freezed the soldier escaped".<ref name="livescience"/> The clay caltrops could "stop the movement of the enemy who invaded the castle," These weapons were hastily constructed yet effective and used by a "battle group which can move into action as ninjas".<ref name="livescience"/>
Mie University founded the world's first research centre devoted to the ninja in 2017. A graduate master course opened in 2018. It is located in Iga (now Mie Prefecture). There are approximately 3 student enrollments per year. Students must pass an admission test about Japanese history and be able to read historical ninja documents.<ref name="Mie-University-Ninja">{{Cite web |date=2020-06-26 |title=Japan university awards first-ever ninja studies degree |url=https://www.france24.com/en/20200626-japan-university-awards-first-ever-ninja-studies-degree |access-date=2025-05-03 |website=France 24}}</ref> Scientific researchers and scholars of different disciplines study ancient documents and how it can be used in the modern world.<ref name="Telangana">{{cite web |title=Japan university to set up ninja research facilities |url=https://telanganatoday.com/japan-university-ninja-research-facilities |access-date=26 June 2020|date=11 May 2017 |publisher= Telangana Today |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200626191748/https://telanganatoday.com/japan-university-ninja-research-facilities |archive-date=26 June 2020|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref>
On June 19, 2022, Kōka city in Shiga Prefecture announced that a written copy of "Kanrinseiyo", which is the original source of a famous book on the art of ninja called "Bansenshukai" (1676) from the Edo period was discovered in a warehouse of Kazuraki Shrine.<ref name="kanrinseiyo"/> The handwritten reproduction was produced in 1748.<ref name="sora1">{{cite web |title=First copy of centuries-old ninja training manual discovered, doesn't understand dogs |website=Soranews 24 |author=Casey Baseel |url=https://soranews24.com/2022/06/26/first-copy-of-centuries-old-ninja-training-manual-discovered-doesnt-understand-dogs%E3%80%90video%E3%80%91/ |date=June 27, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220628203338/https://soranews24.com/2022/06/26/first-copy-of-centuries-old-ninja-training-manual-discovered-doesnt-understand-dogs%E3%80%90video%E3%80%91/ |archive-date=June 28, 2022}}</ref> The book describes 48 types of ninjutsu.<ref name="kanrinseiyo"/> It has information about specific methods such as attaching layers of cotton to the bottom of straw sandals to prevent noise when sneaking around, attacking to the right when surrounded by a large number of enemies, throwing charred owl and turtle powder when trying to hide, and casting spells.<ref name="kanrinseiyo"/> It also clarified methods and how to manufacture and use ninjutsu tools, such as cane swords and "makibishi" (Japanese caltrop).<ref name="kanrinseiyo">{{cite news |newspaper=Mainichi Daily News |date=June 21, 2022 |title=Copy of legendary book on art of ninja found at shrine in west Japan city |url=https://mainichi.jp/english/articles/20220621/p2a/00m/0na/025000c |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220621091201/https://mainichi.jp/english/articles/20220621/p2a/00m/0na/025000c | archive-date=June 21, 2022}}</ref>
==Roles== ===Espionage=== Espionage was the chief role of the ninja. With the aid of disguises, the ninja gathered information on enemy terrain and building specifications, as well as obtaining passwords and communiques. The aforementioned supplement to the ''Nochi Kagami'' briefly describes the ninja's role in espionage:
{{blockquote|Concerning ninja, they were said to be from Iga and Kōga, and went freely into enemy castles in secret. They observed hidden things, and were taken as being friends.}}
Later in history, the Kōga ninja would become regarded as agents of the Tokugawa ''bakufu'', at a time when the ''bakufu'' used the ninja in an intelligence network to monitor regional ''daimyōs'' as well as the Imperial court.<ref name="ratti 1991 327" />
===Sabotage=== {{More citations needed section|date=November 2025}}
Arson was the primary form of sabotage practiced by the ninja, who targeted castles and camps.
The ''Tamon-in Nikki'' (16th century)—a diary written by abbot Eishun of Kōfuku-ji temple—describes an arson attack on a castle by men of the Iga clans.
{{blockquote|This morning, the sixth day of the 11th month of Tenbun 10 [1541], the Iga-''shu ''entered Kasagi castle in secret and set fire to a few of the priests' quarters. They also set fire to outbuildings in various places inside the ''San-no-maru''. They captured the ''ichi-no-maru'' (inner bailey) and the ''ni-no-maru'' (second bailey).}}
In 1558, Rokkaku Yoshikata employed a team of ninjas to set fire to Sawayama Castle. A ''chūnin'' captain led a force of 48 ninja into the castle by means of deception. In a technique dubbed ''bakemono-jutsu'' ("ghost technique"), his men stole a lantern bearing the enemy's family crest (''mon''), and proceeded to make replicas with the same ''mon''. By wielding these lanterns, they were allowed to enter the castle without a fight. Once inside, the ninja set fire to the castle, and Yoshitaka's army would later emerge victorious. The mercenary nature of the ''shinobi'' is demonstrated in another arson attack soon after the burning of Sawayama Castle. In 1561, commanders acting under Kizawa Nagamasa hired three Iga ninja of ''genin'' rank to assist the conquest of a fortress in Maibara. Rokkaku Yoshitaka, the same man who had hired Iga ninja just years earlier, was the fortress holder—and target of attack. The ''Asai Sandaiki'' writes of their plans: "We employed ''shinobi-no-mono'' of Iga... They were contracted to set fire to the castle". However, the mercenary ''shinobi'' were unwilling to take commands. When the fire attack did not begin as scheduled, the Iga men told the commanders, who were not from the region, that they could not possibly understand the tactics of the ''shinobi''. They then threatened to abandon the operation if they were not allowed to act on their own strategy. The fire was eventually set, allowing Nagamasa's army to capture the fortress in a chaotic rush.
===Countermeasures=== A variety of countermeasures were taken to prevent the activities of the ninja. Precautions were often taken against assassinations, such as weapons concealed in the lavatory, or under a removable floorboard. Buildings were constructed with traps and trip wires attached to alarm bells.<ref name="draeger smith 1981 128-129">{{Harvnb|Draeger|Smith|1981|pp=128–129}}</ref>
Japanese castles were designed to be difficult to navigate, with winding routes leading to the inner compound. Blind spots and holes in walls provided constant surveillance of these labyrinthine paths, as exemplified in Himeji Castle. Nijō Castle in Kyoto is constructed with long "nightingale" floors, which rested on metal hinges (''uguisu-bari'') specifically designed to squeak loudly when walked over. Grounds covered with gravel also provided early notice of unwanted intruders, and segregated buildings allowed fires to be better contained.<ref name="fieve 2003 116">{{Harvnb|Fiévé|Waley|2003|p=116}}</ref>
==Famous people== [[File:Kumawakamaru by kuniyoshi - 24 paragons of filial piety.jpg|thumb|upright|Kumawakamaru escapes his pursuers by swinging across the moat on a bamboo.<ref name="McCullough 2004 49">{{Harvnb|McCullough|2004|p=49}}</ref> Woodblock print on paper. Kuniyoshi, 1842–1843.]]
Many famous people in Japanese history have been associated or identified as ninja, but their status as ninja is difficult to prove and may be the product of later imagination. Rumors surrounding famous warriors, such as Kusunoki Masashige or Minamoto no Yoshitsune sometimes describe them as ninja, but there is little evidence for these claims.
Some well known examples include:
* Kumawaka (the 16th century): a suppa (ninja) who served Obu Toramasa (1504– 1565), a vassal of Takeda Shingen.<ref>[http://www.syuriken.com/ninja_content/ninja-zinbutsu-kag.htm 熊若] 忍者名鑑</ref> * Hattori Hanzō (1542–1596): a samurai serving under Tokugawa Ieyasu. His ancestry in Iga province, along with ''ninjutsu'' manuals published by his descendants, has led some sources to define him as a ninja.<ref>{{Harvnb|Adams|1970|p=34}}</ref> * Fūma Kotarō (d. 1603): a ninja rumored to have killed Hattori Hanzō, with whom he was supposedly rivals. The fictional weapon ''Fūma shuriken'' is named after him. * Fujibayashi Nagato-no-kami (16th century). His descendants wrote and edited the ''Bansenshukai''. * Katō Danzō (1503–1569): a famed 16th-century ninja master during the Sengoku period who was also known as "Flying Katō".{{citation needed|date=November 2025}} * Shimotsuge no Kizaru (16th century): an influential Iga ninja who in 1560 successfully led an attack on Tōichi Castle.{{citation needed|date=November 2025}}
On February 25, 2018, Yamada Yūji, the professor of Mie University and historian Nakanishi Gō announced that they had identified three people who were successful in early modern Ureshino, including the ninja Benkei Musō (弁慶夢想).<ref name=Benkei>{{cite web|url=https://www.nishinippon.co.jp/nnp/national/article/397017/|title=嬉野に忍者３人いた！ 江戸初期－幕末 市が委託調査氏名も特定|access-date=2018-08-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180820203418/https://www.nishinippon.co.jp/nnp/national/article/397017/|archive-date=2018-08-20|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=Benkei2>{{cite web |url=https://ureshino-ninja.jimdo.com/第３回/嬉野忍者調査結果/④弁慶夢想/ |title=嬉野忍者調査結果 弁慶夢想 （べんけいむそう） 【武術家・山伏 / 江戸時代初期】|access-date= 2018-08-20|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190214123415/https://ureshino-ninja.jimdo.com/%E7%AC%AC%EF%BC%93%E5%9B%9E/%E5%AC%89%E9%87%8E%E5%BF%8D%E8%80%85%E8%AA%BF%E6%9F%BB%E7%B5%90%E6%9E%9C/%E2%91%A3%E5%BC%81%E6%85%B6%E5%A4%A2%E6%83%B3/|archive-date= 2019-02-14|url-status= live}}</ref> Musō is thought to be the same person as Denrinbō Raikei (伝林坊頼慶), the Chinese disciple of Marume Nagayoshi.<ref name=Benkei2/>
==In popular culture== {{Main|Ninjas in popular culture}}
[[File:Ogata_Shuma_vs_Python_from_Suikoden_of_Japanese_Heroes_by_Utagawa_Kuniyoshi.png|thumb|upright|Jiraiya battles a giant python with the help of his summoned toad. Woodblock print on paper. Kuniyoshi, {{Circa|1843}}.]]
The image of the ninja entered popular culture in the Edo period, when folktales and plays about ninja were conceived. Stories about the ninja are usually based on historical figures. For instance, many similar tales exist about a ''daimyō'' challenging a ninja to prove his worth, usually by stealing his pillow or weapon while he slept.<ref name="Turnbull 2003 14">{{Harvnb|Turnbull|2003|p=14}}</ref> Novels were written about the ninja, such as ''Jiraiya Gōketsu Monogatari'', which was also made into a kabuki play. Fictional figures such as Sarutobi Sasuke would eventually make their way into comics and television, where they have come to enjoy a culture hero status outside their original mediums.
Ninja appear in many forms of Japanese and Western popular media.
==Gallery== <gallery widths="200" heights="200"> File:Tekko-Kagi Ninja1.jpg|''Tekko-kagi'', hand claws File:Ashiko cleats.JPG|''Ashiko'', iron climbing cleats File:Ashiko cleats 1.JPG|''Ashiko'', iron climbing cleats File:Kaginawa.JPG|''Kaginawa'', iron climbing hook File:shikomizue.JPG|''Shikomizue'', a cane sword File:Makibishi.JPG|''Makibishi'', iron caltrops File:Shuriken.JPG|''Bo-shuriken'', throwing darts File:4 bo shuriken.JPG|''Bo-shuriken'', with linen flights File:2 chigiriki.JPG|''Chigiriki'', chain and weight weapons File:Small kusarigama.JPG|''Kusarigama'', a chain and sickle File:Manriki.JPG|''Kusari-fundo'', a chain weapon File:Ninja type weapons.JPG|Various concealable weapons File:kusari katabira4.JPG|Chain mail shirt (''Kusari katabira'') </gallery>
==See also== <!-- Please respect alphabetical order --> {{Portal|Japan}} * Khevtuul * Kunoichi * Modern schools of ninjutsu * Ninja Museum of Igaryu * Order of Musashi Shinobi Samurai * Pre-modern special forces
==Notes== {{Notelist}}
==References== ===Citations=== {{Reflist}}
===Works cited=== {{div col}} * {{cite book |last=Adams |first=Andrew |title=Ninja: The Invisible Assassins |year=1970 |publisher=Black Belt Communications |isbn=978-0-89750-030-2 }} * {{cite book |last=Chamberlain |first=Basil Hall |author-link=Basil Hall Chamberlain |title=The Kojiki: records of ancient matters |year=2005 |publisher=Tuttle Publishing |isbn=978-0-8048-3675-3}} * {{cite book |last=Crowdy |first=Terry |title=The enemy within: a history of espionage |year=2006 |publisher=Osprey Publishing |isbn=978-1-84176-933-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/enemywithinhisto00crow}} * {{cite book |last=Deal |first=William E. |title=Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan |year=2007 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-533126-4}} * {{cite book |last1=Draeger |first1=Donn F. |last2=Smith |first2=Robert W. |title=Comprehensive Asian fighting arts |year=1981 |publisher=Kodansha |isbn=978-0-87011-436-6}} * {{cite book |last1=Fiévé |first1=Nicolas |last2=Waley |first2=Paul |title=Japanese capitals in historical perspective: place, power and memory in Kyoto, Edo and Tokyo |year=2003 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-7007-1409-4}} * {{cite book |last1=Friday |first1=Karl F. |author1-link=Karl Friday |title=The first samurai: the life and legend of the warrior rebel, Taira Masakado |year=2007 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-0-471-76082-5}} * {{cite book |last=Green |first=Thomas A. |title=Martial arts of the world: an encyclopedia, Volume 2: Ninjutsu |year=2001 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-57607-150-2}} * {{cite book |last=McCullough |first=Helen Craig |author-link=Helen Craig McCullough |title=The Taiheiki: A Chronicle of Medieval Japan |year=2004 |publisher=Tuttle Publishing |isbn=978-0-8048-3538-1}} * {{cite book |last1=Morton |first1=William Scott |last2=Olenik |first2=J. Kenneth |title=Japan: its history and culture, fourth edition |year=2004 |publisher=McGraw-Hill Professional |isbn=978-0-07-141280-3}} * {{cite book |last1=Ratti |first1=Oscar |last2=Westbrook |first2=Adele |title=Secrets of the samurai: a survey of the martial arts of feudal Japan |year=1991 |publisher=Tuttle Publishing |isbn=978-0-8048-1684-7}} * {{cite book |last1=Satake |first1=Akihiro |first2=Hideo |last2=Yasumada |first3=Rikio |last3=Kudō |first4=Masao |last4=Ōtani |first5=Yoshiyuki |last5=Yamazaki |title=Shin Nihon Koten Bungaku Taikei: Man'yōshū Volume 4 |publisher=Iwanami Shoten |year=2003 |isbn=4-00-240004-2}} * {{cite book |last=Souyri |first=Pierre-François |date=2001 |title=The World Turned Upside Down: Medieval Japanese Society |publisher=Columbia University Press |translator-first=Käthe |translator-last=Roth |isbn=}} * {{cite book |last1=Takagi |first1=Ichinosuke |first2=Tomohide |last2=Gomi |first3=Susumu |last3=Ōno |title=Nihon Koten Bungaku Taikei: Man'yōshū Volume 4 |publisher=Iwanami Shoten |year=1962 |isbn=4-00-060007-9}} * {{cite book |last=Turnbull |first=Stephen |author-link=Stephen Turnbull (historian) |title=Ninja AD 1460–1650 |year=2003 |publisher=Osprey Publishing |isbn=978-1-84176-525-9}} * {{citation |last=Waterhouse |first=David |editor=Peter F. Kornicki |editor2=James McMullen |title=Religion in Japan: arrows to heaven and earth, article 1: Notes on the kuji |year=1996 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-55028-4 }} * {{citation |last=Yamada |first=Yūji |editor=Yōko Ymda |title=Sengoku Shinobi no Sahō |year=2019 |publisher=G.B. |location=Chiyoda,Tokyo|isbn=978-4-906993-76-5}} * {{citation |last=Frederic |first=Louis |title=Japan Encyclopedia |year=2002 |publisher=Belknap Harvard |isbn=0-674-01753-6}} {{div col end}}
== Further reading == {{Div col}} * {{Cite journal |last1=Barducci |first1=Polina |last2=Orbach |first2=Danny |date=2020-01-01 |title=Irregular Warfare in Late Medieval Japan: Towards a Historical Understanding of the "Ninja". |url=https://www.academia.edu/45653979 |journal=Journal of Military History |volume=84 |issue=4 |pages=997–1020}} * {{cite book |last=Buckley |first=Sandra |title=Encyclopedia of contemporary Japanese culture |year=2002 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-0-415-14344-8}} * {{cite book |last1=Bunch |first1=Bryan H. |last2=Hellemans |first2=Alexander |title=The history of science and technology: a browser's guide to the great discoveries, inventions, and the people who made them, from the dawn of time to today |year=2004 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |isbn=978-0-618-22123-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780618221233}} * Fujibayashi, Masatake; Nakajima, Atsumi (1996). ''Shōninki: Ninjutsu densho''. Tokyo: Shinjinbutsu Ōraisha. {{OCLC|222455224}}. * Fujita, Seiko (2004). ''Saigo no Ninja Dorondoron''. Tokyo: Shinpūsha. {{ISBN|978-4-7974-9488-4}}. * Fukai, Masaumi (1992). ''Edojō oniwaban: Tokugawa Shōgun no mimi to me''. Tokyo: Chūō Kōronsha. {{ISBN|978-4-12-101073-5}}. * Hokinoichi, Hanawa (1923–1933). ''Buke Myōmokushō''. Tokyo: Yoshikawa Kōbunkan. {{OCLC|42921561}}. * {{cite book |last=Howell |first=Anthony |title=The analysis of performance art: a guide to its theory and practice |year=1999 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-90-5755-085-0 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/analysisofperfor0000howe}} * Ishikawa, Masatomo (1982). ''Shinobi no sato no kiroku''. Tokyo: Suiyōsha. {{ISBN|978-4-88066-110-0}}. * {{citation |last=Kawaguchi |first=Sunao |title=Super Ninja Retsuden |year=2008 |publisher=PHP Research Institute |isbn=978-4-569-67073-7 }} * {{citation |last=Kawakami |first=Jin'ichi |title=Ninja no okite |year=2016 |publisher=Kadokawa |isbn=978-4-04-082106-1}} * {{Cite journal |last=Maltsev |first=Vladimir V. |date=2022-12-01 |title=Lessons from the Japanese ninja: on achieving a higher trade equilibrium under anarchy and private constitutions |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/357115967 |journal=Constitutional Political Economy |language=en |volume=33 |issue=4 |pages=433–444 |doi=10.1007/s10602-021-09354-6 |issn=1572-9966 |s2cid=245276184 |via=ResearchGate |doi-access=free}} * {{cite book |last=Mol |first=Serge |year=2003 |title=Classical weaponry of Japan: special weapons and tactics of the martial arts |publisher=Kodansha |isbn=978-4-7700-2941-6}} * {{cite book |last=Mol |first=Serge |year=2008 |title=Invisible Armor: An Introduction to the Esoteric Dimension of Japan's Classical Warrior Arts |publisher=Eibusha |isbn=978-90-813361-0-9}} * {{cite book |last=Mol |first=Serge |year=2016 |title=Takeda Shinobi Hiden: Unveiling Takeda Shingen's Secret Ninja Legacy |publisher=Eibusha |isbn=978-90-813361-3-0}} * Nawa. Yumio (1967). ''Shinobi no buki''. Tokyo: Jinbutsu Ōraisha. {{OCLC|22358689}}. * Nawa, Yumio (1972). ''Hisshō no heihō ninjutsu no kenkyū: gendai o ikinuku michi''. Tokyo: Nichibō Shuppansha. {{OCLC|122985441}}. * {{citation |last=Nihon Hakugaku Kurabu |title=Unsolved Mysteries of Japanese History |year=2006 |publisher=PHP Research Institute |isbn=978-4-569-65652-6}} * {{citation |last=Nihon Hakugaku Kurabu |title=Zuketsu Rekishi no Igai na Ketsumatsu |year=2004 |publisher=PHP Research Institute |isbn=978-4-569-64061-7}} * Okuse, Heishichirō (1964). ''Ninpō: sono hiden to jitsurei''. Tokyo: Jinbutsu Ōraisha. {{OCLC|51008989}}. * Okuse, Heishichirō (1967). ''Ninjutsu: sono rekishi to ninja''. Tokyo: Jinbutsu Ōraisha. {{OCLC|22727254}}. * {{citation |last=Perkins |first=Dorothy |title=Encyclopedia of Japan: Japanese History and Culture, from Abacus to Zori |year=1991 |publisher=Facts on File |isbn=978-0-8160-1934-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofja00perk }} * {{cite book |last=Reed |first=Edward James |title=Japan: its history, traditions, and religions: With the narrative of a visit in 1879, Volume 2 |year=1880 |publisher=John Murray |oclc=1309476}} * {{cite book |last1=Souyri |first1=Pierre F. |title=War and State Building in Medieval Japan |date=2010 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=9780804774314 |editor1-last=Ferejohn |editor1-first=John A. |location=Stanford, California |pages=110–123 |chapter=Autonomy and War in the Sixteenth Century Iga Region and the Birth of the Ninja Phenomena |editor2-last=Rosenbluth |editor2-first=Frances McCall |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YPkYMoO0ycIC&pg=PT110}} * {{cite book |last=Tatsuya |first=Tsuji |translator-first=Harold |translator-last=Bolitho |editor-first=John Whitney |editor-last=Hall |editor-link=John Whitney Hall |title=The Cambridge history of Japan |volume=4: Early Modern Japan |year=1991 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-521-22355-3}} * {{cite book |last1=Teeuwen |first1=Mark |author-link=Mark Teeuwen |last2=Rambelli |first2=Fabio |author-link2=Fabio Rambelli |title=Buddhas and kami in Japan: honji suijaku as a combinatory paradigm |year=2002 |publisher=Routledge Curzon |isbn=978-0-415-29747-9}} * {{citation |last=Turnbull |first=Stephen |title=Warriors of Medieval Japan |year=2007 |publisher=Osprey Publishing |isbn=978-1-84603-220-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/warriorsofmediev0000turn }} * {{Cite book |last=Turnbull |first=Stephen |year=2017 |title=Ninja: Unmasking the Myth |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9cNiswEACAAJ |location=Barnsley, S. Yorkshire, UK |publisher=Frontline Books |isbn=978-1-4738-5042-2}} * Watatani, Kiyoshi (1972). ''Bugei ryūha hyakusen''. Tokyo: Akita Shoten. {{OCLC|66598671}}. * Yamaguchi, Masayuki (1968). ''Ninja no seikatsu''. Tokyo: Yūzankaku. {{OCLC|20045825}}. {{Div col end}}
==External links== {{Commons category}} * [https://ma-mags.com/showmag.php?CatCde=N ''Ninja'' magazine]
{{Japanese (samurai) weapons, armour and equipment}} {{Authority control}}
Category:Ninja Category:Combat occupations Category:Japanese warriors Category:Japanese words and phrases Category:Mercenary units and formations Category:Obsolete occupations Category:Pre-modern special forces