{{Short description|Social and legal category in early modern Iberia}} {{Use British English|date=May 2026}} {{Use dmy dates|date=May 2026}} {{other uses|New Christian (disambiguation)}} [[File:Zurbarán (atribuido)-John of the Cross-1656.jpg|thumb|right|230px|St. John of the Cross (1542–1591), a notable Carmelite friar, Christian mystic, and New Christian of ''Converso'' ancestry]]
'''New Christian''' ({{langx|la|Novus Christianus}}; {{langx|es|Cristiano Nuevo}}; {{langx|pt|Cristão-Novo}}; {{langx|ca|Cristià Nou}}; {{langx|lad|Kristiano Muevo}}; {{langx|ar|المسيحيون الجدد}}) was a socio-religious designation and legal distinction referring to the population of former Jewish and Muslim converts to Christianity in the Spanish and Portuguese empires, and their respective colonies in the New World.{{refn|<ref name="Farnsworth 2024">{{cite book |author-last=Farnsworth |author-first=Cacey B. |year=2024 |chapter=Keeping Lisbon Catholic |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z_ASEQAAQBAJ&pg=PT72 |title=Atlantic Crossroads in Lisbon's New Golden Age, 1668–1750 |location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |publisher=Pennsylvania State University Press |series=Iberian Encounter and Exchange, 475–1755 |pages=72–96 |doi=10.5325/jj.17842211.9 |isbn=978-0-271-09886-9}}</ref><ref name="García-Sanjuán">{{cite journal |author-last=García-Sanjuán |author-first=Alejandro |date=August 2024 |title=La conquista cristiana de al-Andalus, los ulemas y el destino de la población musulmana en las fuentes árabes (siglos XI–XIII) |journal=Journal of Medieval Iberian Studies |volume=16 |issue=3 |location=Abingdon-on-Thames, Oxfordshire |publisher=Taylor & Francis |language=es |pages=320–341 |doi=10.1080/17546559.2024.2379810 |issn=1754-6567}}</ref><ref name="López-Juan">{{cite journal |author-last=López Juan |author-first=Guillermo |date=July 2024 |title=''Converso'' evangelisation, funerary practices, and social integration in Valencia, 1391–1482 |journal=Journal of Medieval Iberian Studies |volume=16 |issue=3 |location=Abingdon-on-Thames, Oxfordshire |publisher=Taylor & Francis |pages=389–415 |doi=10.1080/17546559.2024.2369999 |issn=1754-6567}}</ref><ref name="Szlajfer 2023">{{cite book |author-last=Szlajfer |author-first=Henryk |year=2023 |chapter=Chapter 1: Terminology as Differentiation |title=Jews and New Christians in the Making of the Atlantic World in the 16th–17th Centuries: A Survey |location=Leiden and Boston |publisher=Brill Publishers |series=Studies in Critical Social Sciences |volume=269 |pages=1–21 |doi=10.1163/9789004686441_002 |isbn=978-90-04-68644-1 |issn=1573-4234 |lccn=2023043705 |s2cid=259313511}}</ref>}} The term was used from the 15th century onwards primarily to describe the descendants of the Sephardic Jews and Andalusian Muslims that were baptized into the Catholic Church following the Alhambra Decree of 1492.{{refn|<ref name="Farnsworth 2024"/><ref name="Szlajfer 2023"/><ref name="Saraiva 2001"/>}} The Alhambra Decree, also known as the Edict of Expulsion, was an anti-Jewish law made by the Catholic Monarchs upon the Christian ''Reconquista'' of the Iberian Peninsula.{{refn|<ref name="Farnsworth 2024"/><ref name="Saraiva 2001"/><ref name="Tarver 2016"/>}} It required both Jews and Muslims to convert to Roman Catholicism or be expelled from Spain and Portugal.{{refn|<ref name="Farnsworth 2024"/><ref name="Szlajfer 2023"/><ref name="Saraiva 2001"/>}} Most of the history of the "New Christians" refers to the Jewish converts,<ref name="Saraiva 2001"/> who were generally known as ''Conversos'' (or in a more derogatory fashion ''Marranos''),{{refn|<ref name="Szlajfer 2023"/><ref name="Saraiva 2001"/>}} while the Muslim converts were called ''Moriscos''.<ref name="Szlajfer 2023"/>
Because these conversions were achieved in part through coercion and also with the threat of expulsion, especially when it came to the Jews, the Catholic Inquisition and Iberian monarchs suspected a number of the "New Christians" of being crypto-Jews.{{refn|<ref name="Farnsworth 2024"/><ref name="Szlajfer 2023"/><ref name="Saraiva 2001"/>}} Subsequently, the Spanish Inquisition first and then the Portuguese Inquisition was created to enforce Catholic orthodoxy and to investigate allegations of heresy.{{refn|<ref name="Farnsworth 2024"/><ref name="Szlajfer 2023"/><ref name="Saraiva 2001"/>}} This became a political issue in the kingdoms of the Portuguese–Spanish Union itself,{{refn|<ref name="Farnsworth 2024"/><ref name="Szlajfer 2023"/><ref name="Saraiva 2001"/>}} and their respective empires abroad, particularly in Spanish America, Portuguese America, and the Caribbean.{{refn|<ref name="Farnsworth 2024"/><ref name="Szlajfer 2023"/><ref name="Tarver 2016">{{cite book |editor1-first=Micheal |editor1-last=Tarver |editor2-first=Emily |editor2-last=Slape |year=2016 |title=The Spanish Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1LCJDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA210 |location=Santa Barbara, California |publisher=ABC-CLIO |volume=1 |isbn=978-1-4408-4570-3 |pages=210–212}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Bernardini|first1=Paolo|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m0JAGMuePO0C&pg=PA371|title=The Jews and the Expansion of Europe to the West, 1450 to 1800|last2=Fiering|first2=Norman|date=2001|page=371|publisher=Berghahn Books|isbn=978-1-57181-430-2}}</ref>}} Sometimes "New Christians" travelled to territories controlled by Protestant enemies of Spain, such as the Dutch Empire, the early English Empire, or Huguenot-influenced areas of the Kingdom of France such as Bordeaux, and openly practiced Judaism, which furthered suspicion of Jewish crypsis. Nevertheless, a significant number of those "New Christians" of ''Converso'' ancestry were deemed by Spanish society as sincerely Catholic and they still managed to attain prominence, whether religious (St. John of the Cross, St. Teresa of Ávila, St. John of Ávila, St. Joseph of Anchieta, Tomás Luis de Victoria, Tomás de Torquemada, Diego Laynez, Francisco de Vitoria, Francisco Suárez, and others) or political (Juan de Oñate, Luis de Carvajal y de la Cueva, Hernán Pérez de Quesada, Luis de Santángel, and others).
According to António José Saraiva, a Portuguese historian and professor of Portuguese literature, "When Ferdinand of Aragon (1452–1516) and Isabella of Castile (1451–1504) married in 1469 they ascended the throne of a united and almost wholly reconquered Spain. Among their roughly 7,000,000 subjects, some 150,000 were remote descendants of converted Jews, known as New Christians, ''Conversos'' or, pejoratively, ''Marranos''; a still sizeable minority estimated at 90,000 were Jews and another estimated 150,000 Muslims. Between the New Christian bourgeoisie of recent vintage and the old Jewish bourgeoisie there was intense rivalry. In fact, the most energetic and relentless anti-Jewish propagandists were New Christians."<ref name="Saraiva 2001">{{cite book |author-last=Saraiva |author-first=António José |year=2001 |chapter=Introduction: The Iberian Inquisitions and the Judaic Heresy |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6bBxEQAAQBAJ&pg=PAxxiii |translator1-last=Salomon |translator1-first=H. P. |translator2-last=Sassoon |translator2-first=I. S. D. |title=The Marrano Factory: The Portuguese Inquisition and Its New Christians, 1536–1765 |location=Leiden and Boston |publisher=Brill Publishers |pages=xxiii–lvi |doi=10.1163/9789047400868_005 |doi-access=free |isbn=978-90-47-40086-8 |quote=The influence and prestige of the New Christian class began to wane before the middle of the 15th century. In 1449 the first "Cleanness of Blood" laws were enacted, putting out of bounds for Spanish Christians of Jewish ancestry certain posts, professions, honors; certain religious houses and orders of knighthood. When Ferdinand of Aragon (1452–1516) and Isabella of Castile (1451–1504) married in 1469 they ascended the throne of a united and almost wholly reconquered Spain. Among their roughly 7,000,000 subjects, some 150,000 were remote descendants of converted Jews, known as New Christians, ''Conversos'' or, pejoratively, ''Marranos''; a still sizeable minority estimated at 90,000 were Jews and another estimated 150,000 Moslems. Between the New Christian bourgeoisie of recent vintage and the old Jewish bourgeoisie there was intense rivalry. In fact, the most energetic and relentless anti-Jewish propagandists were New Christians. On the other hand many New Christians, well integrated into the Christian majority (or so they thought), saw no necessity of severing family and social ties with Jews.}}</ref> By law, the category of New Christians included recent converts and their known baptized descendants with any fraction New Christian blood up to the third generation, the fourth generation being exempted. In Phillip II's reign, it included any person with any fraction of New Christian blood "from time immemorial".<ref>{{cite web |year=1995 |title=Jewish Folklore and Ethnology Review, Volumes 17-18 |publisher=Simon Bronner |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D2rYAAAAMAAJ&q=fourth&pg=RA1-PA79}}</ref> In Portugal, in 1772, Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, 1st Marquess of Pombal decreed an end to the legal distinction between New Christians and Old Christians.
==''New Christian'' as a legal category== Although the category of New Christian is meaningless in Christian theology and ecclesiology, it was introduced by the Old Christians who claimed that "pure unmixed" Christian bloodlines (''Limpieza de sangre'') distinguish them as a unique group, separated from ethnic Jews and Iberian Muslims.<ref name="Tarver 2016"/>
The Old Christians wanted to legally and socially distinguish themselves from the ''Conversos'' (new converts to Christianity),<ref name="Tarver 2016"/> whom they considered being tainted by their non-Spanish bloodlines—even though the overwhelming majority of Spain's Muslims were also indigenous Iberians, descendants of native Iberians who earlier converted to Islam under Muslim rule.<ref name="Hughes2007">{{Cite book|last=Hughes|first=Bethany|title=When the Moors Ruled Europe|publisher=Princeton University|year=2007|isbn=|location=|pages=|quote=the people who were being thrust out were native (sic) to the peninsula as the Christian Kings.}}</ref>
In practice, for the New Christians of Jewish origins, the concept of ''New Christian'' was a legal mechanism and manifestation of racial antisemitism, rather than Judaism as a religion, while for those of Moorish origins it was a manifestation of racial anti-Berberism and/or anti-Arabism.{{Citation needed|reason=This claim needs a reliable source.|date=April 2026}} Portuguese New Christians were alleged to have been partners with an English factor in Italy, as reported in a notable 17th-century marine insurance swindle.<ref>Kadens, Emily. "A Marine Insurance Fraud in the Star Chamber." ''Star Chamber Matters: An Early Modern Court and Its Records'', edited by K. J. Kesselring and Natalie Mears, University of London Press, 2021, pp. 155–174. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv24w62j4.14 JSTOR website] Retrieved 29 Apr. 2023.</ref>
===Cleanliness of blood and related concepts=== {{further|Limpieza de sangre}} The related Spanish development of an ideology of ''limpieza de sangre'' ("cleanliness of blood") also excluded New Christians from society—universities, emigration to the New World, many professions—regardless of their sincerity as converts.{{Citation needed|reason=This claim needs a reliable source.|date=April 2026}}
Other derogatory terms applied to each of the converting groups included ''marranos'' (i.e. "pigs") for New Christians of Jewish origin,<ref name="Tarver 2016"/> and ''moriscos'' (a term which carried pejorative connotations) for New Christians of Andalusian origin.<ref name="Tarver 2016"/>
==Discrimination and persecution== [[File:Maimon-Marrans.jpg|thumb|''Marranos: A secret Passover Seder in Spain during the times of Inquisition'', an 1893 painting by Moshe Maimon]]
Aside from social stigma and ostracism, the consequences of legal or social categorization as a New Christian included restrictions of civil and political rights, abuses of those already-limited civil rights, social and sometimes legal restrictions on whom one could marry (anti-miscegenation laws), social restrictions on where one could live, legal restrictions of entry into the professions and the clergy, legal restrictions and prohibition of immigration to and settlement in the newly colonized Spanish territories in the Americas, deportation from the colonies.{{Citation needed|reason=This claim needs a reliable source.|date=April 2026}}
In addition to the above restrictions and discrimination endured by New Christians, the Spanish Crown and Church authorities also subjected New Christians to persecution, prosecution, and capital punishment for actual or alleged practice of the family's former religion.{{Citation needed|reason=This claim needs a reliable source.|date=April 2026}} After the Alhambra Decree of the expulsion of the Jewish population from Spain in 1492 and a similar Portuguese decree in 1497, the remaining Jewish population in Iberia became officially Christian by default.{{Citation needed|reason=This claim needs a reliable source.|date=April 2026}} The New Christians, especially those of Jewish origin, were always under suspicion of being ''judaizantes'' ("judaizers"); that is, apostatizing from the Christian religion and being active crypto-Jews.<ref name="Szlajfer 2023"/>
==Emigration== ===Jewish "New Christian" emigration=== {{Further|Spanish and Portuguese Jews|Sephardic Bnei Anusim}} {{Unreferenced section|date=April 2026}}
Despite the discrimination and legal restrictions, many Jewish-origin New Christians found ways of circumventing these restrictions for emigration and settlement in the Iberian colonies of the New World by falsifying or buying ''limpieza de sangre'' ("cleanliness of blood") documentation or attaining perjured ''affidavit'' attesting to untainted Old Christian pedigrees. The descendants of these, who could not return to Judaism, became the modern-day Christian-professing Sephardic Bnei Anusim of Latin America.
Also as a result of the unceasing trials and persecutions by the Spanish and Portuguese Inquisition, other Jewish-origin New Christians opted to migrate out of the Iberian Peninsula in a continuous flow between the 1600s to 1800s towards Amsterdam, and also London, whereupon in their new tolerant environment of refuge outside the Iberian cultural sphere they eventually returned to Judaism. The descendants of these became the Spanish and Portuguese Jews.
===Muslim "New Christian" emigration=== {{Further|Apostasy in Islam|Arab migrations to the Maghreb}} {{Unreferenced section|date=April 2026}}
Although Iberian Muslims were protected in the treaty signed at the fall of Granada, and the New Christian descendants of former Muslims weren't expelled until over a century later. Even so, in the meantime, different waves of Andalusian Muslims and New Christians of Moorish origin left the Iberian Peninsula and settled across North Africa and in the provinces of the Ottoman Empire.
==History of New Christian conversions== [[File:The Moorish Proselytes of Archbishop Ximenes, Granada, 1500.jpg|thumb|''The Moorish Proselytes of Archbishop Ximenes, Granada, 1500'', by Edwin Long (1829–1891), depicting a mass baptism of former Muslims in the city of Granada, Spain]]
Over a hundred thousand Iberian Jews converted to Catholicism in Spain as a result of pogroms in 1391.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lea|first=Henry Charles|date=January 1896|title=Ferrand Martinez and the Massacres of 1391|url=https://doi.org/10.2307/1833647|journal=The American Historical Review|volume=1|issue=2|pages=209–219|doi=10.2307/1833647|jstor=1833647 |issn=0002-8762|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Those remaining practicing Jews were expelled by the Catholic monarchs Ferdinand and Isabella in the Alhambra Decree in 1492, following the Christian ''Reconquista'' of the Iberian Peninsula. As a result of the Alhambra Decree and persecution in prior years, over 200,000 Jews converted to Catholicism and between 40,000 and 100,000 were expelled.<ref>{{Cite book|title=History of a Tragedy. p. 17.|last=Pérez|first=Joseph|year=2012}}</ref> Following the ''Reconquista'', 200,000 of the 500,000 Muslims had been converted to Christianity.<ref>{{cite book|last=Carr|first=Matthew|title=Blood and Faith: The Purging of Muslim Spain|year=2009|publisher=New Press|place=New York|isbn=978-1-59558-361-1|page=40}}</ref> There is no universally agreed figure of Moorish population, but Christiane Stallaert put the number at around one million ''Moriscos'' (New Christians and their descendants) at the beginning of the 16th century.<ref>{{cite book|last=Stallaert|first=Christiane |title=Etnogénesis y etnicidad en España: una aproximación histórico-antropológica al casticismo|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VL3t5uEW6nsC|year=1998|publisher=Proyecto a Ediciones|location=Barcelona|isbn=978-8492233571|page=17}}</ref>
==Catholic Inquisition== The governments of Spain and Portugal created the Spanish Inquisition in 1478 and the Portuguese Inquisition, including the Goa Inquisition, in 1536 as a way of dealing with social tensions, supposedly justified by the need to fight heresy. Communities believed correctly that many New Christians were secretly practising their former religions to any extent possible, becoming crypto-Jews and crypto-Muslims.<ref>Stephen Gilman, ''The Spain of Fernando de Rojas; the intellectual and social landscape of "La Celestina"'', Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1972, {{ISBN|0691062021}}.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Childers|first=William|date=2005|title=The Quintanar of Persiles y Sigismunda and the Archival Record|url=http://users.ipfw.edu/JEHLE/cervante/csa/articf04/childers.pdf|journal=Journal of the Cervantes Society of America|volume=24|issue=2 |pages=5–41|doi=10.3138/Cervantes.24.2.005 |s2cid=160282260 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100705071410/http://users.ipfw.edu/JEHLE/cervante/csa/articf04/childers.pdf|archive-date=2010-07-05|via=}}</ref>
==See also== {{Portal|Catholicism|Judaism|Islam|Law|Middle Ages|Portugal|Spain}} {{div col|colwidth=25em}} * Apostasy in Christianity * Apostasy in Islam * Apostasy in Judaism ** ''Baal teshuva'' ** Jewish outreach ** Jewish schisms ** Proselytization and counter-proselytization of Jews * Black Propaganda against Portugal and Spain * ''Converso'' * Crypto-Islam ** ''Taqiyya'' * Crypto-Judaism ** Sabbateanism *** Dönmeh *** Frankism ** Sephardic Bnei Anusim * Heresy in Christianity ** ''Limpieza de sangre'' ** ''Marrano'' ** ''Morisco'' * Jewish assimilation * Jewish emancipation ** ''Aliyah'' ** Homeland for the Jewish people ** Napoleon and the Jews ** Ottoman–Jewish ''millet'' * Jewish identity ** Israelites ** Jewish peoplehood ** Twelve Tribes of Israel * Old Christian * "Who is a Jew?" ** Matrilineality in Judaism ** Patrilineality in Judaism {{div col end}}
==References== {{Reflist}}
==Further reading== {{div col|colwidth=30em}} * {{cite book |author=António José Saraiva |title=The Marrano Factory: The Portuguese Inquisition and Its New Christians 1536-1765|publisher=BRILL|location=Netherlands |year=2001 }} * {{cite book |author=J. Lúcio de Azevedo |title=História dos Cristãos Novos Portugueses |publisher=Clássica Editora |location=Lisboa |year=1989 }} *Böhm, Günter. "Crypto-Jews and New Christians in Colonial Peru and Chile." In ''The Jews and the Expansion of Europe to the West, 1450-1800'', edited by Paolo Bernardini and Norman Fiering, 203–212. New York: Berghahn Books, 2001. *Costigan, Lúcia Helena. ''Through Cracks in the Wall: Modern Inquisitions and New Christian Letrados in the Iberian Atlantic World''. Leiden: Brill, 2010. *{{cite book |author=David M. Gitlitz |title=Secrecy and deceit: the religion of the crypto-Jews |publisher=Jewish Publication Society |location=Philadelphia |year=1996 |isbn=0-8276-0562-5 }} *Novinsky, Anita. "A Historical Bias: The New Christian Collaboration with the Dutch Invaders of Brazil (17th Century)." In ''Proceedings of the 5th World Congress of Jewish Studies'', II.141-154. Jerusalem: World Union of Jewish Studies, 1972. *Novinsky, Anita. "Some Theoretical Considerations about the New Christian Problem," in ''The Sepharadi and Oriental Jewish Heritage Studies'', ed. Issachar Ben-Ami. Jerusalem: The Magnes Press, 1982 *{{cite book |author=Jorun Poettering |title=Migrating Merchants. Trade, Nation, and Religion in Seventeenth-Century Hamburg and Portugal|publisher=De Gruyter Oldenbourg |location=Berlin |year=2019 }} *Pulido Serrano, Juan Ignacio. "Plural Identities: The Portuguese New Christians." ''Jewish History'' 25 (2011): 129–151. *Quiroz, Alfonso W. "The Expropriation of Portuguese New Christians in Spanish America, 1635-1649." ''Ibero-Amerikanisches Archiv'' 11 (1985): 407–465. *Rivkin, Ellis. "How Jewish Were the New Christians?," in ''Hispania Judaica: Studies on the History, Language, and Literature of the Jews in the Hispanic World'', vol. 1: ''History'', eds. Josep M. Solà-Solé, Samuel G. Armistead, and Joseph H. Silverman. Barcelona: Puvil-Editor, 1980. *Rowland, Robert. "New Christian, Marrano, Jew." In ''The Jews and the Expansion of Europe to the West, 1450-1800'', edited by Paolo Bernardini and Norman Fiering, 125–148. New York: Berghahn Books, 2001. *Salomon, H.P. ''Portrait of a New Christian: Fernão Álvares Melo (1569-1632)''. Paris: Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian, 1982 *Uchmany, Eva Alexandra. "The Participation of New Christians and Crypto-Jews in the Conquest, Colonization, and Trade of Spanish America, 1521-1660." In ''The Jews and the Expansion of Europe to the West, 1450-1800'', edited by Paolo Bernardini and Norman Fiering, 186–202. New York: Berghahn Books, 2001. {{div col end|2}}
==External links== * {{cite web |author-last=de Epalza Ferrer |author-first=Mikel |author-link=Mikel de Epalza |date=1992 |title=Los moriscos antes y después de la expulsión |url=https://www.cervantesvirtual.com/obra-visor/los-moriscos-antes-y-despues-de-la-expulsion--0/html/ff53f196-82b1-11df-acc7-002185ce6064_21.html#I_0_ |url-status=live |website=www.cervantesvirtual.com |location=San Vicente del Raspeig/Sant Vicent del Raspeig, Valencian Community, Spain |publisher=Centro Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes (Universidad de Alicante) |language=es |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180127131556/https://www.cervantesvirtual.com/obra-visor/los-moriscos-antes-y-despues-de-la-expulsion--0/html/ff53f196-82b1-11df-acc7-002185ce6064_21.html#I_0_ |archive-date=27 January 2018 |access-date=9 April 2026}} * {{cite encyclopedia |author-last=Faria de Assis |author-first=Angelo A. |date=23 February 2018 |title=Judeus e Cristãos Novos |url=https://historialuso.an.gov.br/index.php/historia-luso-brasileira/assuntos/listadetemas/judeus-cristaos-novos |url-status=live |editor-last=Santos Pérez |editor-first=José M. |encyclopedia=Arquivo Nacional |location=Rio de Janeiro, Brasil |publisher=Ministério da Gestão e da Inovação em Serviços Públicos |series=História Luso-Brasileira |language=pt |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260409022319/https://historialuso.an.gov.br/index.php/historia-luso-brasileira/assuntos/listadetemas/judeus-cristaos-novos |archive-date=9 April 2026 |access-date=9 April 2026}} * {{cite encyclopedia |author-last=Guimarães |author-first=Janaina |date=2024 |title=Cristãos Novos |url=https://brasilhisdictionary.usal.es/pt/cristianos-nuevos-2/ |url-status=live |editor-last=Santos Pérez |editor-first=José M. |encyclopedia=BRASILHIS Dictionary: Dicionário Biográfico e Temático do Brasil na Monarquia Hispânica (1580–1640) |location=Salamanca, Castilla y León, Spain |publisher=Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca |language=pt |issn=2952-0401 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240225125203/https://brasilhisdictionary.usal.es/pt/cristianos-nuevos-2/ |archive-date=25 February 2024 |access-date=9 April 2026}} * {{cite web |author-last=Mira Caballos |author-first=Esteban |date=1 October 2008 |title=Los moriscos de Hornachos: Una revisión histórica a la luz de nueva documentación |url=https://chdetrujillo.com/los-moriscos-de-hornachos-una-revision-historica-a-la-luz-de-nueva-documentacion/ |url-status=live |website=chdetrujillo.com |location=Trujillo, Extremadura, Spain |publisher=Coloquios Históricos de Extremadura |language=es |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180119210851/https://chdetrujillo.com/los-moriscos-de-hornachos-una-revision-historica-a-la-luz-de-nueva-documentacion/ |archive-date=19 January 2018 |access-date=9 April 2026}} * [https://archive.org/details/episdiosdram01baiuoft Dramatic episodes of the Portuguese Inquisition, volume 1, by Antonio Baião, in Portuguese] * [https://archive.org/details/episdiosdram02baiuoft Dramatic episodes of the Portuguese Inquisition, volume 2, by Antonio Baião, in Portuguese] * [https://archive.org/details/trialofgabrielde00granuoft Trial of Gabriel de Granada by the Inquisition in Mexico, 1642–1645] (according to Cecil Roth, "it gives a remarkably graphic impression of a typical Inquisitional case")
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