{{Infobox medical condition (new) | name = | synonym = | image = Medical complications of obesity.png | image_size = | alt = | caption = Obesity may cause a number of medical complications which negatively impact peoples' quality of life. | pronounce = | specialty = Endocrinology (other specialties) | symptoms = | complications = | onset = | duration = | types = | causes = | risks = | diagnosis = | differential = | prevention = | treatment = | medication = | prognosis = | frequency = | deaths = }} {{Human body weight}} thumb|Death rate from obesity, 2019 Obesity is a risk factor for many chronic physical and mental illnesses.
Health risks for those who are overweight may be decreasing because of improvements in medical care.<ref name="Malnick2006" /> Some obesity-associated medical conditions may be the result of stress caused by medical discrimination against people who are obese, rather than the direct effects of obesity, and some may be exacerbated by the relatively poor healthcare received by people who are obese.<ref name="auto1">{{Cite journal |last=Muennig |first=P |date=2008 |title=The body politic: the relationship between stigma and obesity-associated disease. |journal=BMC Public Health |volume=8 |article-number=128 |doi=10.1186/1471-2458-8-128 |pmc=2386473 |pmid=18426601 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
== Medical discrimination == {{Main|Social stigma of obesity#In healthcare}}
Because of the social stigma of obesity, people who are obese may receive poorer healthcare than people within the normal BMI weight range, potentially contributing to the relationship between obesity and poor health outcomes.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Phelan |first=S. M. |last2=Burgess |first2=D. J. |last3=Yeazel |first3=M. W. |last4=Hellerstedt |first4=W. L. |last5=Griffin |first5=J. M. |last6=van Ryn |first6=M. |date=April 2015 |title=Impact of weight bias and stigma on quality of care and outcomes for patients with obesity |journal=Obesity Reviews |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=319–326 |doi=10.1111/obr.12266 |pmc=4381543 |pmid=25752756}}</ref><ref name="auto">{{Cite journal |last=Puhl |first=Rebecca M. |last2=Heuer |first2=Chelsea A. |date=May 2009 |title=The Stigma of Obesity: A Review and Update |journal=Obesity |volume=17 |issue=5 |pages=941–964 |doi=10.1038/oby.2008.636 |pmid=19165161}}</ref> People who experience weight-related discrimination, irrespective of their actual weight status, similarly have poorer health outcomes than those who do not experience weight-related discrimination.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last=Schafer |first=Markus H. |last2=Ferraro |first2=Kenneth F. |date=March 2011 |title=The Stigma of Obesity: Does Perceived Weight Discrimination Affect Identity and Physical Health? |journal=Social Psychology Quarterly |volume=74 |issue=1 |pages=76–97 |doi=10.1177/0190272511398197}}</ref> People who are obese are also less likely to seek medical care than people who are not obese,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Puhl |first=Rebecca M. |last2=King |first2=Kelly M. |year=2013 |title=Weight discrimination and bullying |journal=Best Practice & Research Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=117–127 |doi=10.1016/j.beem.2012.12.002 |pmid=23731874}}</ref> even if the weight gain is caused by medical problems. Peter Muennig, a professor in the Department of Health Policy and Management at Columbia University,<ref name="muennig-bio">{{Cite web |last=Muennig |first=Peter |date=7 August 2018 |title=Policy - Peter Muennig |url=https://www.publichealth.columbia.edu/research/precision-prevention/policy-peter-muennig |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220521041042/https://www.publichealth.columbia.edu/research/precision-prevention/policy-peter-muennig |archive-date=21 May 2022 |access-date=22 May 2022 |website=www.publichealth.columbia.edu |publisher=Columbia University}}</ref> has proposed that obesity-associated medical conditions may be caused "not from adiposity alone, but also from the psychological stress induced by the social stigma associated with being obese".<ref name="auto1" />
==Cardiological risks== {{See also|Cardiology}} thumb|left|Heart attack (myocardial infarction) Body weight is not considered to be an independently predictive risk factor for cardiovascular disease by current (as of 2014) risk assessment tools.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Morris |date=2014 |title=Review of Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Management of LDL-Related Risk |journal=Journal of the American College of Cardiology |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=196–206 |doi=10.1016/j.jacc.2014.05.015 |pmid=25011724 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Mortality from cardiovascular disease has decreased despite increases in obesity,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Flegal |last2=Carroll |last3=Kit |last4=Ogden |date=2012 |title=Prevalence of obesity and trends in the distribution of body mass index among US adults, 1999–2010 |journal=JAMA |volume=307 |issue=5 |pages=491–497 |doi=10.1001/jama.2012.39 |pmid=22253363 |s2cid=7396422}}</ref> and at least one clinical trial was stopped early because the weight loss intervention being tested did not reduce cardiovascular disease.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=The Look AHEAD Research Group |date=2013 |title=Cardiovascular effects of intensive lifestyle intervention in type 2 diabetes |journal=New England Journal of Medicine |volume=369 |issue=2 |pages=145–154 |doi=10.1056/NEJMoa1212914 |pmc=3791615 |pmid=23796131}}</ref>
===Ischemic heart disease=== Abdominal obesity is associated with cardiovascular diseases including angina and myocardial infarction.<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Poirier P, Giles TD, Bray GA, etal |date=May 2006 |title=Obesity and cardiovascular disease: pathophysiology, evaluation, and effect of weight loss |journal=Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology |volume=26 |issue=5 |pages=968–976 |citeseerx=10.1.1.508.7066 |doi=10.1161/01.ATV.0000216787.85457.f3 |pmid=16627822 |s2cid=6052584}}</ref><ref name="Yusuf2004">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Yusuf S, Hawken S, Ounpuu S, etal |year=2004 |title=Effect of potentially modifiable risk factors associated with myocardial infarction in 52 countries (the INTERHEART study): case-control study |journal=The Lancet |volume=364 |issue=9438 |pages=937–952 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(04)17018-9 |hdl=10983/21615 |pmid=15364185 |s2cid=30811593 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> However, overall obesity (as measured by BMI) may lead to false diagnoses of myocardial infarction and may decrease mortality after acute myocardial infarction.<ref name="Yusuf2004" />
In 2008, European guidelines concluded that 35% of ischemic heart disease among adults in Europe is due to obesity.<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Tsigos C, Hainer V, Basdevant A, etal |year=2008 |title=Management of obesity in adults: European clinical practice guidelines |journal=Obesity Facts |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=106–116 |doi=10.1159/000126822 |pmc=6452117 |pmid=20054170}} as [http://easo.org/documents/OMTFManagementofObesityinAdults2008.pdf PDF] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151017084222/http://easo.org/documents/OMTFManagementofObesityinAdults2008.pdf |date=2015-10-17 }}</ref>
===Congestive heart failure=== Having obesity is associated to about 11% of heart failure cases in males and 14% in females.<ref name="HaslamJames">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Haslam DW, James WP |date=October 2005 |title=Obesity |journal=The Lancet |volume=366 |issue=9492 |pages=1197–209 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(05)67483-1 |pmid=16198769 |s2cid=208791491}}</ref>{{verify source|date=February 2022|reason=these 11 and 14 percent values do not seem to appear in the Kenchaiah paper that this source refers to}}
===High blood pressure=== More than 85% of those with hypertension have a BMI greater than 25, although diet is probably a more important factor than body weight.<ref name=HaslamJames/> Risk estimates indicate that at least two-thirds of people with hypertension can be directly attributed to obesity.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Narkiewicz |first=Krzysztof |date=February 2006 |title=Obesity and hypertension—the issue is more complex than we thought |journal=Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=264–267 |doi=10.1093/ndt/gfi290 |pmid=16311261 |doi-access=free}}</ref> The association between obesity and hypertension has been found in animal and clinical studies,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hall |first=John E. |date=2003 |title=The kidney, hypertension, and obesity |journal=Hypertension |volume=41 |issue=3 Pt 2 |pages=625–633 |doi=10.1161/01.HYP.0000052314.95497.78 |pmid=12623970 |doi-access=free}}</ref> which have suggested that there are multiple potential mechanisms for obesity-induced hypertension. These mechanisms include the activation of the sympathetic nervous system as well as the activation of the renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system.<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Rahmouni K, Correia ML, Haynes WG, Mark AL |date=January 2005 |title=Obesity-associated hypertension: new insights into mechanisms |journal=Hypertension |volume=45 |issue=1 |pages=9–14 |doi=10.1161/01.HYP.0000151325.83008.b4 |pmid=15583075}}</ref> As of 2007, it was unclear whether there is an association between hypertension and obesity in children, but there is little direct evidence that blood pressure has increased despite increases in pediatric overweight.<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Chiolero A, Bovet P, Paradis G, Paccaud F |date=March 2007 |title=Has blood pressure increased in children in response to the obesity epidemic? |journal=Pediatrics |volume=119 |issue=3 |pages=544–553 |doi=10.1542/peds.2006-2136 |pmid=17332208 |s2cid=46223377}}</ref>
===Abnormal cholesterol levels=== Obesity is associated with increased levels of LDL cholesterol and lower levels of HDL cholesterol in the blood.<ref name=HaslamJames/><ref name="Malnick2006">{{Cite journal |last=Malnick |first=S.D.H. |last2=Knobler |first2=H |date=12 August 2006 |title=The medical complications of obesity |journal=QJM |volume=99 |issue=9 |pages=565–579 |doi=10.1093/qjmed/hcl085 |pmid=16916862 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
===Deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism=== Obesity increases one's risk of venous thromboembolism by approximately 2.3 fold.<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Ageno W, Becattini C, Brighton T, Selby R, Kamphuisen PW |date=January 2008 |title=Cardiovascular risk factors and venous thromboembolism: a meta-analysis |journal=Circulation |volume=117 |issue=1 |pages=93–102 |doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.709204 |pmid=18086925 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Darvall KA, Sam RC, Silverman SH, Bradbury AW, Adam DJ |date=February 2007 |title=Obesity and thrombosis |journal=European Journal of Vascular and Endovascular Surgery |volume=33 |issue=2 |pages=223–33 |doi=10.1016/j.ejvs.2006.10.006 |pmid=17185009 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
==Dermatological risks== {{See also|Dermatology}} Obesity is associated with the incidence of stretch marks, acanthosis nigricans, lymphedema, cellulitis, hirsutism, and intertrigo.<ref name="derm2007">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Yosipovitch G, DeVore A, Dawn A |date=June 2007 |title=Obesity and the skin: skin physiology and skin manifestations of obesity |journal=Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology |volume=56 |issue=6 |pages=901–16; quiz 917–20 |doi=10.1016/j.jaad.2006.12.004 |pmid=17504714}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hahler B |date=June 2006 |title=An overview of dermatological conditions commonly associated with the obese patient |journal=Ostomy Wound Management |volume=52 |issue=6 |pages=34–6, 38, 40 passim |pmid=16799182}}</ref>
==Endocrine risks== {{further|Endocrinology}} [[File:Adipomastia 001.jpg|thumb|Gynecomastia in an obese male]]
===Diabetes mellitus=== {{main|Diabesity}} The link between obesity and type 2 diabetes is so strong that researchers in the 1970s started calling it "diabesity".<ref name=HaslamJames/> Excess weight is behind 64% of cases of diabetes in males and 77% of cases in females.<ref name="Kopelman2005">{{Cite book |last=Kopelman |first=Peter G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u7RvldSr5M0C |title=Clinical Obesity in Adults and Children |last2=Caterson |first2=Ian D. |last3=Stock |first3=Michael J. |last4=Dietz |first4=William H. |publisher=Blackwell |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-4051-1672-5 |page=493 |access-date=2017-09-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230112133458/https://books.google.com/books?id=u7RvldSr5M0C |archive-date=2023-01-12 |url-status=live}}</ref>
===Gynecomastia=== In some individuals, obesity can be associated with elevated peripheral conversion of androgens into estrogens.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Ruth E. |last2=Murad |first2=M. Hassan |date=November 2009 |title=Gynecomastia: Pathophysiology, Evaluation, and Management |journal=Mayo Clinic Proceedings |volume=84 |issue=11 |pages=1010–1015 |doi=10.1016/S0025-6196(11)60671-X |pmc=2770912 |pmid=19880691}}</ref>
==Gastrointestinal risks== {{See also|Human digestive system}}
===Gastroesophageal reflux disease=== Several studies have shown that the frequency and severity of GERD symptoms increase with BMI, such that people who are underweight have the fewest GERD symptoms,<ref name="GERD2008">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Anand G, Katz PO |year=2008 |title=Gastroesophageal reflux disease and obesity |url=http://www.medreviews.com/pubmed.cfm?j=3&v=8&i=4&p=233 |url-status=live |journal=Reviews in Gastroenterological Disorders |volume=8 |issue=4 |pages=233–239 |pmid=19107097 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160918092414/http://www.medreviews.com/pubmed.cfm?j=3&v=8&i=4&p=233 |archive-date=2016-09-18 |access-date=2009-01-14}}</ref> and people who are severely obese have the most GERD symptoms.<ref name="GERD2008" /><ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Ayazi S, Hagen JA, Chan LS, etal |date=August 2009 |title=Obesity and gastroesophageal reflux: quantifying the association between body mass index, esophageal acid exposure, and lower esophageal sphincter status in a large series of patients with reflux symptoms |journal=Journal of Gastrointestinal Surgery |volume=13 |issue=8 |pages=1440–1447 |doi=10.1007/s11605-009-0930-7 |pmc=2710497 |pmid=19475461}}</ref> However, most studies find that GERD symptoms are not improved by nonsurgical weight loss.<ref name=GERD2008/><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kjellin |last2=Ramel |last3=Rössner |last4=Thor |date=1996 |title=Gastroesophageal reflux in obese patients is not reduced by weight reduction |journal=Scandinavian Journal of Gastroenterology |volume=31 |issue=11 |pages=1047–1051 |doi=10.3109/00365529609036885 |pmid=8938895}}</ref>
===Cholelithiasis (gallstones)=== Obesity causes the amount of cholesterol in bile to rise, in turn the formation of stone can occur <ref name=HaslamJames/><ref>{{Cite web |title=Gallstones |url=http://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/health-topics/digestive-diseases/gallstones/Pages/facts.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161016215523/https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/health-topics/digestive-diseases/gallstones/Pages/facts.aspx |archive-date=16 October 2016 |access-date=13 May 2016 |publisher=National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases |location=United States}}</ref>
==Reproductive system (or genital system)== {{See also|Human reproductive system}}
===Polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS)=== Due to its association with insulin resistance, the risk of obesity increases with polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS). In the US approximately 60% of patients with PCOS have a BMI greater than 30. It remains uncertain whether PCOS contributes to obesity, or the reverse.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Samer El Hayek |last2=Lynn Bitar |last3=Layal H. Hamdar |last4=Fadi G. Mirza |last5=Georges Daoud |date=5 April 2016 |title=Poly Cystic Ovarian Syndrome: An Updated Overview |journal=Frontiers in Physiology |volume=7 |page=124 |doi=10.3389/fphys.2016.00124 |pmc=4820451 |pmid=27092084 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kamangar |last2=Okhovat |last3=Schmidt |last4=Beshay |last5=Pasch |last6=Cedars |last7=Huddleston |last8=Shinkai |date=2015 |title=Polycystic Ovary Syndrome: Special Diagnostic and Therapeutic Considerations for Children |journal=Pediatric Dermatology |volume=32 |issue=5 |pages=571–578 |doi=10.1111/pde.12566 |pmid=25787290 |s2cid=2132971}}</ref>
===Infertility=== Obesity can lead to infertility in both males and females. This is primarily due to excess estrogen interfering with normal ovulation in females<ref name=HaslamJames/> and altering spermatogenesis in males.<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Hammoud AO, Gibson M, Peterson CM, Meikle AW, Carrell DT |date=October 2008 |title=Impact of male obesity on infertility: a critical review of the current literature |journal=Fertility and Sterility |volume=90 |issue=4 |pages=897–904 |doi=10.1016/j.fertnstert.2008.08.026 |pmid=18929048 |doi-access=free}}</ref> It is believed to cause 6% of primary infertility.<ref name=HaslamJames/><ref name="OBGYN2008">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Arendas K, Qiu Q, Gruslin A |date=June 2008 |title=Obesity in pregnancy: pre-conceptional to postpartum consequences |journal=Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology Canada |volume=30 |issue=6 |pages=477–488 |doi=10.1016/s1701-2163(16)32863-8 |pmid=18611299}}</ref> A review in 2013 came to the result that obesity increases the risk of oligospermia and azoospermia in males, with an of odds ratio 1.3.<ref name="Sermondade">{{Cite journal |last=Sermondade |first=N. |last2=Faure |first2=C. |last3=Fezeu |first3=L. |last4=Shayeb |first4=A. G. |last5=Bonde |first5=J. P. |last6=Jensen |first6=T. K. |last7=Van Wely |first7=M. |last8=Cao |first8=J. |last9=Martini |first9=A. C. |display-authors=3 |year=2012 |title=BMI in relation to sperm count: An updated systematic review and collaborative meta-analysis |url=http://humupd.oxfordjournals.org/content/19/3/221 |url-status=live |journal=Human Reproduction Update |volume=19 |issue=3 |pages=221–231 |doi=10.1093/humupd/dms050 |pmc=3621293 |pmid=23242914 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151223094830/http://humupd.oxfordjournals.org/content/19/3/221 |archive-date=2015-12-23}}</ref> Being morbidly obese increases the odds ratio to 2.0.<ref name=Sermondade/>
===Complications of pregnancy=== Obesity is related to many complications in pregnancy including: haemorrhage, infection, increased hospital stays for the mother, and increased NICU requirements for the infant.<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Heslehurst N, Simpson H, Ells LJ, etal |date=November 2008 |title=The impact of maternal BMI status on pregnancy outcomes with immediate short-term obstetric resource implications: a meta-analysis |url=https://tees.openrepository.com/tees/handle/10149/91713 |journal=Obesity Reviews |volume=9 |issue=6 |pages=635–683 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-789X.2008.00511.x |pmid=18673307 |s2cid=32714616 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190401144341/https://tees.openrepository.com/tees/handle/10149/91713 |archive-date=2019-04-01 |access-date=2018-11-07}}</ref> Obese females also have increased risk of preterm births and low birth weight infants.<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=McDonald SD, Han Z, Mulla S, Beyene J |year=2010 |title=Overweight and obesity in mothers and risk of preterm birth and low birth weight infants: systematic review and meta-analyses |journal=BMJ |volume=341 |article-number=c3428 |doi=10.1136/bmj.c3428 |pmc=2907482 |pmid=20647282}}</ref>
Obese females have more than twice the rate of C-sections compared to females of "normal" weight.<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Poobalan AS, Aucott LS, Gurung T, Smith WC, Bhattacharya S |date=January 2009 |title=Obesity as an independent risk factor for elective and emergency caesarean delivery in nulliparous women—systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies |journal=Obesity Reviews |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=28–35 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-789X.2008.00537.x |pmid=19021871 |s2cid=11750524}}</ref> Some have suggested that this may be due in part to the social stigma of obesity.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=DeJoy |last2=Bittner |date=2015 |title=Obesity stigma as a determinant of poor birth outcomes in women with high BMI: a conceptual framework. |journal=Maternal and Child Health Journal |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=693–699 |doi=10.1007/s10995-014-1577-x |pmid=25047786 |s2cid=24804448}}</ref>
===Birth defects=== Those who are obese during pregnancy have a greater risk of having a child with a number of congenital malformations including: neural tube defects such as anencephaly and spina bifida, cardiovascular anomalies, including septal anomalies, cleft lip and palate, anorectal malformation, limb reduction anomalies, and hydrocephaly.<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Stothard KJ, Tennant PW, Bell R, Rankin J |date=February 2009 |title=Maternal overweight and obesity and the risk of congenital anomalies: a systematic review and meta-analysis |journal=JAMA |volume=301 |issue=6 |pages=636–650 |doi=10.1001/jama.2009.113 |pmid=19211471}}</ref>
===Intrauterine fetal death=== Maternal obesity is associated with an increased risk of intrauterine fetal death.<ref name=OBGYN2008/>
===Buried penis=== {{See also|Buried penis}} Excess body fat in morbid obesity can, in some cases, completely obscure or "bury" the penis.<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Pestana IA, Greenfield JM, Walsh M, Donatucci CF, Erdmann D |date=2009 |title=Management of 'Buried' Penis in Adulthood: An Overview |journal=Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery |volume=124 |issue=4 |pages=1186–1195 |doi=10.1097/PRS.0b013e3181b5a37f |pmid=19935302 |s2cid=36775257}}</ref>
==Neurological risks== {{See also|Neurology}} thumb|MCA territory infarct (stroke)
===Stroke=== Ischemic stroke is increased in both men and women who are obese,<ref name=HaslamJames/> however the increase in risk is due to other metabolic health issues such as hypertension, increased blood pressure, decreased high-density lipoprotein, triglycerides or glucose, or diabetes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Horn |first1=Jens W. |last2=Feng |first2=Tingting |last3=Mørkedal |first3=Bjørn |last4=Strand |first4=Linn Beate |last5=Horn |first5=Julie |last6=Mukamal |first6=Kenneth |last7=Janszky |first7=Imre |date=November 2021 |title=Obesity and Risk for First Ischemic Stroke Depends on Metabolic Syndrome: The HUNT Study |url=https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/STROKEAHA.120.033016 |journal=Stroke |volume=52 |issue=11 |pages=3555–3561 |doi=10.1161/STROKEAHA.120.033016 |pmid=34281375 |access-date=6 November 2025}}</ref>
===Meralgia paresthetica=== Meralgia paresthetica is a neuropathic pain or numbness of the thighs, sometimes associated with obesity.<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Patijn J, Mekhail N, Hayek S, Lataster A, van Kleef M, Van Zundert J |date=May–June 2011 |title=Meralgia Paresthetica |journal=Pain Practice |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=302–308 |doi=10.1111/j.1533-2500.2011.00458.x |pmid=21435164 |s2cid=31291517}}</ref>
===Migraines=== Migraine (and headaches in general) is comorbid with obesity.<ref name="Chai2014" /> The risk of migraine rises 50% by BMI of 30 kg/m<sup>2</sup> and 100% by BMI of 35 kg/m<sup>2</sup>.<ref name="Chai2014">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Chai NC, Scher AI, Moghekar A, Bond DS, Peterlin BL |date=February 2014 |title=Obesity and headache: part I—a systematic review of the epidemiology of obesity and headache |journal=Headache |volume=54 |issue=2 |pages=219–234 |doi=10.1111/head.12296 |pmc=3971380 |pmid=24512574}}</ref> The causal connection remains unclear.<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Peterlin BL, Sacco S, Bernecker C, Scher AI |date=April 2016 |title=Adipokines and Migraine: A Systematic Review |journal=Headache |volume=56 |issue=4 |pages=622–644 |doi=10.1111/head.12788 |pmc=4836978 |pmid=27012149}}</ref>
===Carpal tunnel syndrome=== The risk of carpal tunnel syndrome is estimated to rise 7.4% for each 1 kg/m<sup>2</sup> increase of body mass index.<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Shiri R, Pourmemari MH, Falah-Hassani K, Viikari-Juntura E |date=December 2015 |title=The effect of excess body mass on the risk of carpal tunnel syndrome: a meta-analysis of 58 studies |journal=Obesity Reviews |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=1094–1104 |doi=10.1111/obr.12324 |pmid=26395787 |s2cid=11156913}}</ref>
===Dementia=== One review found that those who are obese do not have a significantly higher rate of dementia than those with "normal" weight.<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Beydoun MA, Beydoun HA, Wang Y |date=May 2008 |title=Obesity and central obesity as risk factors for incident dementia and its subtypes: A systematic review and meta-analysis |journal=Obesity Reviews |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=204–218 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-789X.2008.00473.x |pmc=4887143 |pmid=18331422}}</ref>
===Idiopathic intracranial hypertension=== Idiopathic intracranial hypertension, or unexplained high pressure in the cranium, is a rare condition that can cause visual impairment, frequent severe headache, and tinnitus. It is most commonly seen in obese women, and the incidence of idiopathic intracranial hypertension is increasing along with increases in the number of people who are obese.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wall M |date=March 2008 |title=Idiopathic intracranial hypertension (pseudotumor cerebri) |journal=Current Neurology and Neuroscience Reports |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=87–93 |doi=10.1007/s11910-008-0015-0 |pmid=18460275 |s2cid=17285706}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Julayanont P, Karukote A, Ruthirago D, Panikkath D, Panikkath R |date=19 February 2016 |title=Idiopathic intracranial hypertension: ongoing clinical challenges and future prospects |journal=Journal of Pain Research |volume=9 |pages=87–99 |doi=10.2147/JPR.S60633 |pmc=4767055 |pmid=26929666 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
===Multiple sclerosis=== Obese female individuals at 18 years of age have a greater than twofold increased risk of multiple sclerosis compared to females with a BMI between 18.5 and 20.9.<ref name="Munger2009">{{Cite journal |last=Munger |first=KL |last2=Chitnis |first2=T |last3=Ascherio |first3=A. |name-list-style=vanc |year=2009 |title=Body size and risk of MS in two cohorts of US women |journal=Neurology |volume=73 |issue=19 |pages=1543–1550 |doi=10.1212/WNL.0b013e3181c0d6e0 |pmc=2777074 |pmid=19901245}}</ref> Female individuals who are underweight at age 18 have the lowest risk of multiple sclerosis. However, body weight as an adult was not associated with risk of multiple sclerosis.<ref name="Munger2009" />
==Cancer== {{Main|Obesity and cancer}} thumb|Hepatocellular carcinoma 1 Many cancers occur at increased frequency in those who are overweight or obese. A study from the United Kingdom found that approximately 5% of cancer is due to excess weight.<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Reeves GK, Pirie K, Beral V, Green J, Spencer E, Bull D |date=2016 |title=Cancer incidence and mortality in relation to body mass index in the Million Women Study: cohort study |journal=BMJ |volume=335 |issue=7630 |page=1134 |doi=10.1136/bmj.39367.495995.AE |pmc=2099519 |pmid=17986716}}</ref> These cancers include:<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Calle EE, Rodriguez C, Walker-Thurmond K, Thun MJ |date=April 2003 |title=Overweight, obesity, and mortality from cancer in a prospectively studied cohort of U.S. adults |journal=New England Journal of Medicine |volume=348 |issue=17 |pages=1625–1638 |doi=10.1056/NEJMoa021423 |pmid=12711737 |s2cid=22714795 |doi-access=free}}</ref> * breast cancer * ovarian cancer * esophageal cancer * colorectal cancer * hepatocellular carcinoma * pancreatic cancer * gallbladder cancer * stomach cancer * endometrial cancer * cervical cancer * prostate cancer * renal cell carcinoma * non-Hodgkin's lymphoma * multiple myeloma
A high body mass index (BMI) is associated with a higher risk of developing ten common cancers including 41% of uterine cancers and at least 10% of gallbladder, kidney, liver and colon cancers in the UK.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lyford |first=Joanna |date=August 2014 |title=Rising obesity levels in UK could result in 4,000 extra cancer cases each year |url=http://www.pharmaceutical-journal.com/news-and-analysis/news/rising-obesity-levels-in-uk-could-result-in-4000-extra-cancer-cases-each-year/20066178.article |journal=The Pharmaceutical Journal |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170905092751/http://www.pharmaceutical-journal.com/news-and-analysis/news/rising-obesity-levels-in-uk-could-result-in-4000-extra-cancer-cases-each-year/20066178.article |archive-date=2017-09-05 |access-date=2014-08-17}}</ref> For those undergoing surgery for cancer, obesity is also associated with an increased risk of major postoperative complications compared with those of "normal" weight.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=STARSurg Collaborative<!--i.e. too many to list--> |year=2016 |title=Multicentre prospective cohort study of body mass index and postoperative complications following gastrointestinal surgery |journal=British Journal of Surgery |volume=103 |issue=9 |pages=1157–1172 |doi=10.1002/bjs.10203 |pmc=4973675 |pmid=27321766}}</ref>
==Psychiatric risks== {{See also|Psychiatry}} [[File:Relationship between bmi and suicide.png|thumb|Risk of death from suicide decreases with increased body mass index in the United States.<ref name="Mukamal KJ, Rimm EB, Kawachi I, O'Reilly EJ, Calle EE, Miller M 2009">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Mukamal KJ, Rimm EB, Kawachi I, O'Reilly EJ, Calle EE, Miller M |date=November 2009 |title=Body Mass Index and Risk of Suicide Among One Million US Adults |journal=Epidemiology |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=82–86 |doi=10.1097/EDE.0b013e3181c1fa2d |pmid=19907331 |s2cid=10646644 |doi-access=free}}</ref>]]
===Depression===
Obesity has been associated with depression, likely due to social factors rather than physical effects of obesity.<ref name=HaslamJames/> However, it is possible that obesity is caused by depression (due to reduced physical activity or, in some people, increases in appetite).<ref name="Dixon2003" /> Obesity-related disabilities may also lead to depression in some people.<ref name="Dixon2003" /> Repeated failed attempts at weight loss might also lead to depression.<ref name="Dixon2003" />
The association between obesity and depression is strongest in those who are more severely obese, those who are younger, and in women.<ref name="Dixon2003">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Dixon JB, Dixon ME, O'Brien PE |date=September 2003 |title=Depression in association with severe obesity: changes with weight loss |journal=Archives of Internal Medicine |volume=163 |issue=17 |pages=2058–2065 |doi=10.1001/archinte.163.17.2058 |pmid=14504119}}</ref> Suicide rate however decreases with increased BMI.<ref name="Mukamal KJ, Rimm EB, Kawachi I, O'Reilly EJ, Calle EE, Miller M 2009" /> Similarly, weight loss through bariatric surgery is associated with increased risk of suicide.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tindle |last2=Omalu |last3=Courcoulas |last4=Marcus |last5=Hammers |last6=Kuller |date=2010 |title=Risk of suicide after long-term follow-up from bariatric surgery |journal=The American Journal of Medicine |volume=123 |issue=11 |pages=1036–1042 |doi=10.1016/j.amjmed.2010.06.016 |pmc=4296730 |pmid=20843498}}</ref>
===Social stigmatization=== {{main|Social stigma of obesity}} Obese people draw negative reactions from others, and people are less willing to help obese individuals in any situation due to social stigmatization.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sikorski |first=Claudia |last2=Luppa |first2=Melanie |last3=Kaiser |first3=Marie |last4=Glaesmer |first4=Heide |last5=Schomerus |first5=Georg |last6=König |first6=Hans-Helmut |last7=Riedel-Heller |first7=Steffi G |date=December 2011 |title=The stigma of obesity in the general public and its implications for public health - a systematic review |journal=BMC Public Health |volume=11 |issue=1 |page=661 |doi=10.1186/1471-2458-11-661 |pmc=3175190 |pmid=21859493 |doi-access=free}}</ref> People who are obese also experience fewer educational and career opportunities, on average earn a lesser income,<ref name="Süddeutsche1">{{Cite news |date=August 11, 2008 |title=Dicke sind faul und dumm |trans-title=Fat people are lazy and stupid |url=http://www.sueddeutsche.de/leben/adipositas-dicke-sind-faul-und-dumm-1.598030 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180613210548/http://www.sueddeutsche.de/leben/adipositas-dicke-sind-faul-und-dumm-1.598030 |archive-date=June 13, 2018 |access-date=March 8, 2011 |work=Süddeutsche Zeitung |language=de}}</ref> and generally receive poorer health care and treatment<ref name="auto" /> than individuals of "normal" weight.
==Respiratory system== {{See also|Respiratory system}}
===Obstructive sleep apnea=== Obesity is a risk factor for obstructive sleep apnea.<ref name=HaslamJames/><ref name="Poulain">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Poulain M, Doucet M, Major GC, etal |date=April 2006 |title=The effect of obesity on chronic respiratory diseases: pathophysiology and therapeutic strategies |journal=CMAJ |volume=174 |issue=9 |pages=1293–1299 |doi=10.1503/cmaj.051299 |pmc=1435949 |pmid=16636330}}</ref>
===Obesity hypoventilation syndrome=== [[File:Cpap-example.jpg|thumb|CPAP machine commonly used in OHS]] Obesity hypoventilation syndrome is defined as the combination of obesity, hypoxia during sleep, and hypercapnia during the day, resulting from hypoventilation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Olson |first=Amy L. |last2=Zwillich |first2=Clifford |date=September 2005 |title=The obesity hypoventilation syndrome |journal=The American Journal of Medicine |volume=118 |issue=9 |pages=948–956 |doi=10.1016/j.amjmed.2005.03.042 |pmid=16164877}}</ref>
===Chronic lung disease=== Obesity is associated with a number of chronic lung diseases, including asthma and COPD.<ref name=Poulain/> It is believed that a systemic pro-inflammatory state induced by some causes of obesity may contribute to airway inflammation, leading to asthma.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sutherland ER |date=August 2008 |title=Obesity and asthma |journal=Immunology and Allergy Clinics of North America |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=589–602, ix |doi=10.1016/j.iac.2008.03.003 |pmc=2504765 |pmid=18572109}}</ref>
===Complications during general anaesthesia=== Obesity significantly reduces and stiffens the functional lung volume, requiring specific strategies for respiratory management under general anesthesia.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hodgson |first=Luke E. |last2=Murphy |first2=Patrick B. |last3=Hart |first3=Nicholas |date=May 2015 |title=Respiratory management of the obese patient undergoing surgery |journal=Journal of Thoracic Disease |volume=7 |issue=5 |pages=943–952 |doi=10.3978/j.issn.2072-1439.2015.03.08 |pmc=4454851 |pmid=26101653}}</ref>
===Obesity and asthma=== The low grade systemic inflammation of obesity has been shown to worsen lung function in asthma and increase the risk of developing an asthma exacerbation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Peters |first=Michael C. |last2=McGrath |first2=Kelly Wong |last3=Hawkins |first3=Gregory A. |last4=Hastie |first4=Annette T. |last5=Levy |first5=Bruce D. |last6=Israel |first6=Elliot |last7=Phillips |first7=Brenda R. |last8=Mauger |first8=David T. |last9=Comhair |first9=Suzy A. |last10=Erzurum |first10=Serpil C. |last11=Johansson |first11=Mats W. |last12=Jarjour |first12=Nizar N. |last13=Coverstone |first13=Andrea M. |last14=Castro |first14=Mario |last15=Holguin |first15=Fernando |display-authors=6 |date=July 2016 |title=Plasma interleukin-6 concentrations, metabolic dysfunction, and asthma severity: a cross-sectional analysis of two cohorts |journal=The Lancet Respiratory Medicine |volume=4 |issue=7 |pages=574–584 |doi=10.1016/S2213-2600(16)30048-0 |pmc=5007068 |pmid=27283230 |last16=Wenzel |first16=Sally E. |last17=Woodruff |first17=Prescott G. |last18=Bleecker |first18=Eugene R |last19=Fahy |first19=John V.}}</ref>
===COVID-19=== A study in England found a linear increase in severe COVID-19 resulting in hospitalisation and death for those whose BMI is above 23, and a linear increase in admission to an intensive care unit across the whole BMI spectrum. The difference in COVID-19 risk from having a high BMI was most pronounced in people aged under 40, or who were black.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gao |first=Min |last2=Piernas |first2=Carmen |last3=Astbury |first3=Nerys M. |last4=Hippisley-Cox |first4=Julia |author-link4=Julia Hippisley-Cox |last5=O'Rahilly |first5=Stephen |last6=Aveyard |first6=Paul |last7=Jebb |first7=Susan A. |date=1 June 2021 |title=Associations between body-mass index and COVID-19 severity in 6·9 million people in England: a prospective, community-based, cohort study |journal=The Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology |volume=9 |issue=6 |pages=350–359 |doi=10.1016/S2213-8587(21)00089-9 |pmc=8081400 |pmid=33932335}}</ref> A study from Mexico found that obesity alone was responsible for a 2.7 times increased risk of death from COVID-19, while comorbidities with diabetes, immunosuppression or high blood pressure increased the risk further.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Vera-Zertuche |first=J. M. |last2=Mancilla-Galindo |first2=J. |last3=Tlalpa-Prisco |first3=M. |last4=Aguilar-Alonso |first4=P. |last5=Aguirre-García |first5=M. M. |last6=Segura-Badilla |first6=O. |last7=Lazcano-Hernández |first7=M. |last8=Rocha-González |first8=H. I. |last9=Navarro-Cruz |first9=A. R. |last10=Kammar-García |first10=A. |last11=Vidal-Mayo |first11=J. de J. |date=2021 |title=Obesity is a strong risk factor for short-term mortality and adverse outcomes in Mexican patients with COVID-19: a national observational study |journal=Epidemiology & Infection |volume=149 |article-number=e109 |doi=10.1017/S0950268821001023 |pmc=8134888 |pmid=33913410 |s2cid=233446019}}</ref> A study from the United States found that there was an inverse correlation between age and BMI of COVID patients; the younger the age group, the higher its BMI.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kass |first=David A. |last2=Duggal |first2=Priya |last3=Cingolani |first3=Oscar |date=16 May 2020 |title=Obesity could shift severe COVID-19 disease to younger ages |journal=The Lancet |volume=395 |issue=10236 |pages=1544–1545 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(20)31024-2 |pmc=7196905 |pmid=32380044}}</ref>
==Rheumatological and orthopedic risks== {{See also|Rheumatology|}} thumb|Gout
===Gout=== Compared to men with a BMI of 21–22.9, men with a BMI of 30–34.9 have 2.33 times more gout, and men with a BMI ≥ 35 have 2.97 times more gout. Weight loss decreases these risks.<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Choi HK, Atkinson K, Karlson EW, Curhan G |date=April 2005 |title=Obesity, weight change, hypertension, diuretic use, and risk of gout in men: the health professionals follow-up study |journal=Archives of Internal Medicine |volume=165 |issue=7 |pages=742–748 |doi=10.1001/archinte.165.7.742 |pmid=15824292 |s2cid=12201127}}</ref>
===Poor mobility=== There is a strong association between obesity and musculoskeletal pain and disability.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tukker |first=A. |last2=Visscher |first2=T. L. S. |last3=Picavet |first3=H. S. J. |date=March 2009 |title=Overweight and health problems of the lower extremities: osteoarthritis, pain and disability |journal=Public Health Nutrition |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=359–368 |doi=10.1017/S1368980008002103 |pmid=18426630 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
===Osteoarthritis=== Increased rates of arthritis are seen in both weight-bearing and non-weight-bearing joints.<ref name=HaslamJames/> Weight loss and exercise act to reduce the risk of osteoarthritis.<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Yu SP, Hunter DJ |date=August 2015 |title=Managing osteoarthritis |journal=Australian Prescriber |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=115–119 |doi=10.18773/austprescr.2015.039 |pmc=4653978 |pmid=26648637}}</ref>
===Low back pain=== Obese individuals are twice to four times more likely to have lower back pain than their "normal" weight peers.<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Molenaar EA, Numans ME, van Ameijden EJ, Grobbee DE |date=November 2008 |title=Aanzienlijke comorbiditeit bij volwassenen met overgewicht: resultaten uit het 'Leidsche Rijn Gezondheidsproject' |trans-title=Considerable comorbidity in overweight adults: results from the Utrecht Health Project |journal=Nederlands Tijdschrift voor Geneeskunde |language=nl |volume=152 |issue=45 |pages=2457–63 |pmid=19051798}}</ref>
==Traumatic injury== In females, low BMI is a risk factor for osteoporotic fractures in general.<ref name="Johansson2017">{{Cite journal |last=Johansson |first=Helena |last2=Kanis |first2=John A. |last3=Odén |first3=Anders |last4=McCloskey |first4=Eugene |last5=Chapurlat |first5=Roland D. |last6=Christiansen |first6=Claus |last7=Cummings |first7=Steve R. |last8=Diez-Perez |first8=Adolfo |last9=Eisman |first9=John A |last10=Fujiwara |first10=Saeko |last11=Glüer |first11=Claus-C. |last12=Goltzman |first12=David |last13=Hans |first13=Didier |last14=Khaw |first14=Kay-Tee |last15=Krieg |first15=Marc-Antoine |display-authors=6 |date=January 2014 |title=A Meta-Analysis of the Association of Fracture Risk and Body Mass Index in Women |journal=Journal of Bone and Mineral Research |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=223–233 |doi=10.1002/jbmr.2017 |pmid=23775829 |s2cid=44761194 |doi-access=free |last16=Kröger |first16=Heikki |last17=LaCroix |first17=Andrea Z. |last18=Lau |first18=Edith |last19=Leslie |first19=William D. |last20=Mellström |first20=Dan |last21=Melton |first21=L. Joseph |last22=O'Neill |first22=Terence W |last23=Pasco |first23=Julie A. |last24=Prior |first24=Jerilynn C. |last25=Reid |first25=David M. |last26=Rivadeneira |first26=Fernando |last27=van Staa |first27=Tjerd |last28=Yoshimura |first28=Noriko |last29=Zillikens |first29=M. Carola}}</ref> In contrast, obesity is a protective factor for most osteoporotic fractures.<ref name="Johansson2017" />
==Urological and nephrological risks== {{See also|Urology|Nephrology}}upright=0.5|thumb|Urinary system
===Urinary incontinence=== Urge, stress, and mixed incontinence all occur at higher rates in obese people.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hunskaar S |year=2008 |title=A systematic review of overweight and obesity as risk factors and targets for clinical intervention for urinary incontinence in women |journal=Neurourology and Urodynamics |volume=27 |issue=8 |pages=749–757 |doi=10.1002/nau.20635 |pmid=18951445 |s2cid=20378183 |doi-access=free}}</ref> The rates of urinary incontinence are about double that found in the "normal" weight population.<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Bart S, Ciangura C, Thibault F, etal |date=September 2008 |title=Incontinence urinaire d'effort et obésité |trans-title=Stress urinary incontinence and obesity |journal=Progrès en Urologie |language=fr |volume=18 |issue=8 |pages=493–498 |doi=10.1016/j.purol.2008.04.015 |pmid=18760738}}</ref> Urinary incontinence improves with weight loss.<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Subak LL, Wing R, West DS, etal |date=January 2009 |title=Weight loss to treat urinary incontinence in overweight and obese women |journal=New England Journal of Medicine |volume=360 |issue=5 |pages=481–490 |doi=10.1056/NEJMoa0806375 |pmc=2877497 |pmid=19179316}}</ref>
===Chronic kidney disease=== Obesity increases one's risk of chronic kidney disease by three to four times.<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Ejerblad E, Fored CM, Lindblad P, Fryzek J, McLaughlin JK, Nyrén O |year=2006 |title=Obesity and risk for chronic renal failure |journal=Journal of the American Society of Nephrology |volume=17 |issue=6 |pages=1695–1702 |doi=10.1681/ASN.2005060638 |pmid=16641153 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
===Hypogonadism=== In males, obesity and metabolic syndrome both increase estrogen and adipokine production. This reduces gonadotropin-releasing hormone, in turn reducing both luteinizing hormone and follicle stimulating hormone. The result is reduction of the testis' production of testosterone and a further increase in adipokine levels. This then feeds back to cause further weight gain.<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Corona G, Bianchini S, Sforza A, Vignozzi L, Maggi M |date=October 2015 |title=Hypogonadism as a possible link between metabolic diseases and erectile dysfunction in aging men |journal=Hormones – International Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism |volume=14 |issue=4 |pages=569–578 |doi=10.14310/horm.2002.1635 |hdl=2158/1090319 |pmid=26732155 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref>
===Erectile dysfunction=== Obese male individuals can experience erectile dysfunction, and weight loss can improve their sexual functioning.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Corona |first=Giovanni |last2=Rastrelli |first2=Giulia |last3=Filippi |first3=Sandra |last4=Vignozzi |first4=Linda |last5=Mannucci |first5=Edoardo |last6=Maggi |first6=Mario |date=2014 |title=Erectile dysfunction and central obesity: an Italian perspective |journal=Asian Journal of Andrology |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=581–591 |doi=10.4103/1008-682X.126386 |pmc=4104087 |pmid=24713832 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Chitaley |first=Kanchan |last2=Kupelian |first2=Varant |last3=Subak |first3=Leslee |last4=Wessells |first4=Hunter |date=December 2009 |title=Diabetes, Obesity and Erectile Dysfunction: Field Overview and Research Priorities |journal=Journal of Urology |volume=182 |issue=6S |pages=S45-50 |doi=10.1016/j.juro.2009.07.089 |pmc=2864637 |pmid=19846136}}</ref>
==See also== * Obesity hypoventilation syndrome * Obesity paradox
==References== {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}
==Further reading== * {{Cite journal |last=King |first=Lauren K. |last2=March |first2=Lyn |last3=Anandacoomarasamy |first3=Ananthila |date=2013-08-01 |title=Obesity & osteoarthritis |journal=The Indian Journal of Medical Research |volume=138 |issue=2 |pages=185–193 |pmc=3788203 |pmid=24056594}}Review * {{Cite journal |last=Zhao |first=Lan-Juan |last2=Jiang |first2=Hui |last3=Papasian |first3=Christopher J |last4=Maulik |first4=Dev |last5=Drees |first5=Betty |last6=Hamilton |first6=James |last7=Deng |first7=Hong-Wen |date=2008-01-01 |title=Correlation of Obesity and Osteoporosis: Effect of Fat Mass on the Determination of Osteoporosis |journal=Journal of Bone and Mineral Research |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=17–29 |doi=10.1359/jbmr.070813 |pmc=2663586 |pmid=17784844}} * {{Cite journal |last=Guh |first=Daphne P |last2=Zhang |first2=Wei |last3=Bansback |first3=Nick |last4=Amarsi |first4=Zubin |last5=Birmingham |first5=C Laird |last6=Anis |first6=Aslam H |date=25 March 2009 |title=The incidence of co-morbidities related to obesity and overweight: A systematic review and meta-analysis |journal=BMC Public Health |volume=9 |issue=1 |page=88 |doi=10.1186/1471-2458-9-88 |pmc=2667420 |pmid=19320986 |doi-access=free}} {{Nutritional pathology}} {{Medicine}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Obesity Associated Morbidity}} Category:Medical conditions related to obesity