{{short description|Spirits in Japanese classical literature and folk religion}} {{other uses}} {{Italic title|reason=:Category:Japanese words and phrases}} {{Nihongo|'''''Mononoke'''''|{{linktext|物の怪}}}} are vengeful spirits (onryō), dead spirits (shiryō), live spirits (ikiryō), or spirits in Japanese classical literature and folk religion that were said to do things like possess individuals and make them suffer, cause disease, or even cause death.<ref name="小林">{{Harvnb|小林|1986|p=696}}</ref><ref name="朝倉">{{Harvnb|朝倉|1963|p=434}}</ref> It is also a word sometimes used to refer to ''yōkai'' or ''henge'' ("changed beings").<ref>{{cite book|author=北原保雄他編|script-title=ja:日本国語大辞典|edition=第2版|year=1976|publisher=小学館|volume=第12巻|isbn=978-4-09-522012-3|page=1361}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=松村明編|title=大辞林|script-title=ja:大辞林|edition=第3版|year=2006|publisher=三省堂|isbn=978-4-385-13905-0|page=2531}}</ref>
==Summary== [[File:Hokusai_Aoinoue.jpg|right|thumb|Lady Rokujō depicted as an ''ikiryō'' in the work titled "Aoi no Ue" (葵上) from the ''Hokusai Manga'' by Katsushika Hokusai]]
''Mononoke'' can be often seen in literature of the Heian period.<ref name="大藤">{{Harvnb|大藤|1988|pp=5–6}}</ref> As a famous example, in the 9th volume of the ''Genji Monogatari'', "Aoi" is the ikiryō of Lady Rokujo, who possessed Aoi no Ue.<ref name="朝倉" /><ref name="服部">{{Harvnb|服部|1975|pp=32–54}}</ref> Other than that, there are also statements about ''mononoke'' in publications like ''Ōkagami'' and ''Masukagami''.<ref name="大藤" />
In those times, when medical knowledge had not been fully developed, people like monks and shugensha would perform incantations and prayers against diseases caused by ''mononoke'', and by temporarily moving the ''mononoke'' into a different person called the "yorimashi" (usually servants, apprentices, etc.) they would perform exorcisms on the ''mononoke'' to heal the illness. Statements on this practice can be found in detail in works like ''The Pillow Book'' and ''The Diary of Lady Murasaki''.<ref name="大藤" /><ref name="服部" /> Also, according to the ''Shoku Nihon Kōki'', it told of once when a monk chanted a sutra to 60 people within the imperial residence.<ref>{{Harvnb|多田|1990|p=300}}</ref>
==History== right|thumb|260px|{{Nihongo|"Mononoke Kikyo no Koto"|物怪帰去の事}} from the {{Nihongo|"Totei Bukkairoku"|稲亭物怪録}} The first appearance of the term in Japanese literature is seen to be in the Nihon Kōki, and according to a quotation of this book from the Nihon Kiryaku of the same time period, in the article of Uruu 12th month of the year Tenchō 7 (830), there is the statement: "Five monks were invited to recite the Diamond Sutra. With some difficulty, the Jingi-kan relieved it. It was the work of a {{lang|ja|物恠}}," and there are also statements about ''mononoke'' in the articles in the 8th month Jinshin of the same year, and of year 10 in the 5th month.<ref name="服部" /> In the old language of those times, the word "mono" was used to refer to oni, spirits, or Ara-mitama among other things,<ref name="小林" /><ref name="池田">{{Harvnb|池田|1959|pp=205–210}}</ref> or things that were not felt to be clearly real,<ref>{{Harvnb|多田|1990|p=57}}</ref> and in the Taihō Code, epidemic diseases were written about as {{Nihongo|"toki no ke"|時気}}, using the word "ke" to refer to "diseases", and so it is seen that a "mono no ke" (a "ke" of a "mono") was used to refer to diseases caused by these "mono".<ref name="小林" /><ref name="池田" /> "The Pillow Book" as well, there are names for diseases such as "mune no ke" ("ke" of the chest), "ashi no ke" ("ke" of the feet), and "mono no ke" ("ke" of "mono").<ref name="小林" />
As groundwork for how ''mononoke'' were thought of as, in Japan from the beginning of the Heian Period, various societal malaises and illnesses were thought to be due to curses ("tatari") of vengeful spirits (onryō). Starting with how the succession of emperors dying to diseases and the spread of epidemics in the Enryaku years was said to be the curse of Prince Sawara, there is a tale in the Nihonkoku Genpō Zen'aku Ryōiki in which the grudge of Prince Nagaya is said to have led many people to their deaths. In the Shoku Nihongi, there is a statement about Fujiwara no Hirotsugu's vengeful spirit (onryō). However, this kind of thought still wasn't very influential at that time, and even Emperor Saga stated in a caution, "in this society, some would attribute any and all ''mononoke'' to a spirit's curse. These are very baseless assertions,"<ref>{{cite book|author=大江篤 |script-title=ja:日本古代の神と霊|year=2007|publisher=臨川書店|isbn=978-4-653-03967-9|page=18}}</ref> thus strongly denying the relation between ''mononoke'' and vengeful spirits.<ref name="服部" />
Afterwards, in the Shoku Nihon Kōki, the author, Harusumi no Yoshitada, reflecting knowledge of onmyōdō, strongly adopted the concept of ''mononoke''.<ref name="服部" /> In the Jōwa years, the aristocratic society received strong influence from onmyōdō, and the spread of onmyōdō planted in many people the general concept of vengeful spirits. Just at that time, after Sugawara no Michizane died in Engi 3 (903), the deaths one after another that followed of members of the imperial and noble families, as well as the spread of epidemic diseases, were feared as the work of a curse of Michizane, and thus the belief that ''mononoke'' were caused by vengeful spirits' curses grew even stronger.<ref name="服部" />
Afterwards, in the era of the Fujiwara sekke, as opposed to how noble families at that time boasted of glory, they had delicate personalities, and so due to fear of the grudges and revenges of the era's defeated ones, and due to misgivings about the future, fear of ''mononoke'' became more aroused.<ref name="服部" /> The locked-in lifestyle of the imperial society at that time also fostered in the nobles' minds fear of ''mononoke''.<ref name="大藤" /> In this way, ''mononoke'' themselves were thought to be vengeful spirits, and eventually in addition to epidemic diseases, individual deaths, illnesses, and pain were all seen to be due to ''mononoke'', and the illnesses itself also became called ''mononoke''.<ref name="服部" /> Furthermore, due to the concept of the fear of "mono", the things that were said to be the origin of the illnesses, the ikiryō and shiryō themselves, were also thought to have been called ''mononoke''.<ref name="小林" />
==Notes== {{Reflist}}
==See also== * Shodoshima Yokai Art Museum
==References== * {{cite book|author=朝倉治彦他編|script-title=ja:神話伝説辞典|year=1963|publisher=東京堂出版|isbn=978-4-490-10033-4|ref={{SfnRef|朝倉|1963}}}} * {{cite book|author=池田彌三郎|script-title=ja:日本の幽霊|orig-year=1959|year=1978|publisher=中央公論社|series=中公文庫|isbn=978-4-12-200127-5|ref={{SfnRef|池田|1959}}}} * {{cite book|author=大藤時彦他|editor=相賀徹夫編|script-title=ja:日本大百科全書|year=1988|publisher=小学館|volume=23|isbn=978-4-09-526023-5|ref={{SfnRef|大藤|1988}}}} * {{cite book|author=小林茂美他|editor=乾克己他編|script-title=ja:日本伝奇伝説大事典|year=1986|publisher=角川書店|isbn=978-4-04-031300-9|ref={{SfnRef|小林|1986}}}} * {{cite book|author=多田克己|title=幻想世界の住人たち Iv 日本編|script-title=ja:幻想世界の住人たち|volume=IV|year=1990|publisher=新紀元社|series=Truth In Fantasy|isbn=978-4-915146-44-2|ref={{SfnRef|多田|1990}}}} * {{cite book|author=服部敏良|title=王朝貴族の病状診断|script-title=ja:王朝貴族の病状診断|orig-year=1975|year=2006|publisher=吉川弘文館|series=歴史文化セレクション|isbn=978-4-642-06300-5|ref={{SfnRef|服部|1975}}}}
{{Japanese folklore long}}
Category:Japanese folklore Category:Japanese ghosts Category:Yōkai