Rigidity (psychology)

{{Short description|Mechanisms of overcoming risky behaviors}} {{missing|date=September 2025|the level of scientific evidence and academic consensus supporting the claim that this is a real or coherent or durable personality trait}} {{Infobox concept|name=Rigid thinking |synonyms=Mental rigidity, cognitive rigidity, behavioral rigidity, cognitive inflexibility |field=Psychology|origin=19th century|purpose=To describe a difficulty experienced by people who have trouble switching from one mental thought pattern to another}}

In psychology, '''rigidity''', or '''mental rigidity''', refers to an obstinate inability to yield or a refusal to appreciate another person's viewpoint or emotions and the tendency to perseverate, which is the inability to change habits and modify concepts and attitudes once developed.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Aquilar |first1=Francesco |title=Psychological Processes in International Negotiations: Theoretical and Practical Perspectives |last2=Galluccio |first2=Mauro |date=2007 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-0-387-71378-6 |location=New York |pages=92}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Stewin |first1=Len |date=September 1983 |title=The concept of rigidity: an enigma |journal=International Journal for the Advancement of Counselling |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=227–232 |doi=10.1007/BF00124273 |s2cid=145255372 |issn=0165-0653 }}</ref> The opposite of rigidity is cognitive flexibility.

A specific example of rigidity is functional fixedness, which is a difficulty conceiving new uses for familiar objects.<ref>{{cite book|last=Davis|first=Stephen F.|url=https://archive.org/details/psychology0000davi_p3a3|title=Psychology|author2=Palladino, Joseph J.|date=2007|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall|isbn=978-0-13-220840-6|page=[https://archive.org/details/psychology0000davi_p3a3/page/331 331]|url-access=registration}}</ref>

Different things have been called rigid thinking, including dogmatism, a strong desire for closure (e.g., needing an explanation for why something bad happened, even when no explanation is possible), the type of rigid thinking identified by the cognitive reflection test, and cognitive inflexibility.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Kteily |first1=Nour S. |last2=Brandt |first2=Mark J. |date=2025-01-17 |title=Ideology: Psychological Similarities and Differences Across the Ideological Spectrum Reexamined |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-psych-020124-115253 |journal=Annual Review of Psychology |language=en |volume=76 |issue=1 |pages=501–529 |doi=10.1146/annurev-psych-020124-115253 |pmid=39481018 |issn=0066-4308|doi-access=free }}</ref>

== History == Rigidity is an ancient part of our human cognition.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last1=Johnson|first1=David W.|last2=Johnson|first2=Roger T.|date=November 2005|title=New Developments in Social Interdependence Theory|journal=Genetic, Social, and General Psychology Monographs|volume=131|issue=4|pages=285–358|doi=10.3200/mono.131.4.285-358|pmid=17191373|s2cid=12237349|issn=8756-7547}}</ref> Systematic research on rigidity can be found tracing back to Gestalt psychologists, going as far back as the late 19th to early 20th century with Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler, and Kurt Koffka in Germany.<ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D51jFkXYFf4C&q=gestalt+psychology|title=Gestalt Psychology in German Culture, 1890-1967: Holism and the Quest for Objectivity|last=Ash|first=Mitchell G.|date=1998-10-13|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-64627-7|language=en}}</ref> In the early stages of approaching the idea of rigidity, it is treated as "a unidimensional continuum ranging from rigid at one end to flexible at the other.” This idea dates back to the 1800s and was later articulated by Charles Spearman, who described it as mental inertia. Prior to 1960, many definitions for the term rigidity were afloat. One example includes Kurt Goldstein's, which he stated, "adherence to a present performance in an inadequate way" Others have simplified rigidity down to stages for easy defining.<ref name=":2" /> Generally, it is agreed upon that it is evidenced by the identification of mental or behavioral sets.<ref name=":3" />

Lewin and Kounin also proposed a theory of cognitive rigidity (also called Lewin-Kounin formulation) based on a Gestalt perspective, using it to explain particular behavior in people with intellectual disability that is inflexible, repetitive, and unchanging.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=MacLean Jr|first=William|title=Ellis' Handbook of Mental Deficiency, Psychological Theory and Research, Third Edition|date=2012|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-48078-2|location=Oxon|pages=175–176}}</ref> The theory proposed that it is caused by a greater "stiffness," or impermeability between inner-personal regions of individuals, which influence behavior.<ref name=":0" /> Rigidity was particularly explored in Lewin's views regarding the degree of differentiation among children. He posited that an intellectually disabled child can be distinguished from the typically developing child due to the smaller capacity for dynamic rearrangement in terms of his psychical systems.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Zigler|first1=E.|title=Mental Retardation: The Developmental-difference Controversy|last2=Balla|first2=D.|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0898591705|location=Hillsdale, NJ|pages=62}}</ref>

== Mental set == Mental sets represent a form of rigidity in which an individual behaves or believes in a certain way due to prior experience.<ref name="The neural basis of breaking mental">{{cite journal |title=The neural basis of breaking mental set: an event-related potential study |journal=Experimental Brain Research |pages=181–187 |volume=208 |issue=2 |doi=10.1007/s00221-010-2468-z |pmid=21046365 |first1=Yufang |last1=Zhao |first2=Shen |last2=Tu |first3=Ming |last3=Lei |first4=Jiang |last4=Qiu |first5=Oscar |last5=Ybarra |first6=Qinglin |last6=Zhang|year=2011 |s2cid=18608834 }}</ref> The opposite of this is termed cognitive flexibility. These mental sets may not always be consciously recognized by the bearer.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Juola|first1=James F.|last2=Hergenhahn|first2=B. R.|date=July 1968|title=Effects of Training Level, Type of Training, and Awareness on the Establishment of Mental Set in Anagram Solving|journal=The Journal of Psychology|language=en|volume=69|issue=2|pages=155–159|doi=10.1080/00223980.1968.10543460|pmid=5667447|issn=0022-3980}}</ref> In the field of psychology, mental sets are typically examined in the process of problem solving,<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Beeman|first1=Mark Jung|title=Right Hemisphere Language Comprehension: Perspectives From Cognitive Neuroscience|last2=Chiarello|first2=Christine|date=1998|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=0805819258|location=Mahwah, NJ|pages=354}}</ref> with an emphasis on the process of breaking away from particular mental sets into formulation of insight. Breaking mental sets in order to successfully resolve problems fall under three typical stages: a) tendency to solve a problem in a fixed way, b) unsuccessfully solving a problem using methods suggested by prior experience, and c) realizing that the solution requires different methods.<ref name="The neural basis of breaking mental"/>

Components of high executive functioning, such as the interplay between working memory and inhibition, are essential to effective switching between mental sets for different situations.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Mental set shifting in childhood: The role of working memory and inhibitory control. |last=Brocki |first=Karin |date=November–December 2014 |journal=Infant and Child Development |volume=23 |issue=6 |pages=588–604 |doi=10.1002/icd.1871 }}</ref> Individual differences in mental sets vary, with one study producing a variety of cautious and risky strategies in individual responses to a reaction time test.<ref>{{cite journal |title=The influence of risky and conservative mental sets on cerebral activations of cognitive control |journal=International Journal of Psychophysiology |pmc=3511622 |pmid=22922525 |pages=254–261 |volume=87 |issue=3 |doi=10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2012.08.010 |first1=Alissa D. |last1=Winkler |first2=Sien |last2=Hu |first3=Chiang-shan R. |last3=Li|year=2013 }}</ref>

== Causes == Rigidity can be a learned behavioral trait; for example, if the subject has a parent, boss, or teacher who demonstrated the same form of behavior towards them.{{Citation needed|date=November 2022}}

Rigidity also has a genetic component and is commonly associated with{{quantify|date=September 2025}} autism.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bralten |first1=J. |last2=van Hulzen |first2=K. J. |last3=Martens |first3=M. B. |last4=Galesloot |first4=T. E. |last5=Arias Vasquez |first5=A. |last6=Kiemeney |first6=L. A. |last7=Buitelaar |first7=J. K. |last8=Muntjewerff |first8=J. W. |last9=Franke |first9=B. |last10=Poelmans |first10=G. |date=May 2018 |title=Autism spectrum disorders and autistic traits share genetics and biology |journal=Molecular Psychiatry |volume=23 |issue=5 |pages=1205–1212 |doi=10.1038/mp.2017.98 |issn=1476-5578 |pmc=5984081 |pmid=28507316}}</ref>

Temporary increases in mental rigidity can be caused by sleep deprivation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sun |first1=Xuefeng |last2=Qu |first2=Zihan |last3=Zhang |first3=Xiaotu |last4=Zhang |first4=Ye |last5=Zhang |first5=Xinye |last6=Zhao |first6=Haifeng |last7=Zhang |first7=Hongshi |date=2025 |title=The effects of sleep deprivation on cognitive flexibility: a scoping review of outcomes and biological mechanisms |journal=Frontiers in Neuroscience |volume=19 |article-number=1626309 |doi=10.3389/fnins.2025.1626309 |doi-access=free |issn=1662-4548 |pmc=12321868 |pmid=40766906}}</ref>

== Stages == Rigidity has three different main "stages" of severity, although it never has to move to further stages.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=LEACH|first=PENELOPE JANE|date=February 1967|title=A Critical Study of the Literature Concerning Rigidity|journal=British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology|volume=6|issue=1|pages=11–22|doi=10.1111/j.2044-8260.1967.tb00494.x|pmid=5341255|issn=0007-1293}}</ref> The first stage is a strict perception that causes one to persist in their ways and be close-minded to other things.<ref name=":2" /> The second involves a motive to defend the ego.<ref name=":2" /> The third stage is that it is a part of one's personality and you can see it in their perception, cognition, and social interactions.<ref name=":2" />

== Associated traits == Behaviors which often accompany rigidity include:<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/making-sense-autistic-spectrum-disorders/201608/cognitive-rigidity-the-8-ball-hell|title=Cognitive Rigidity: The 8-Ball from Hell|website=Psychology Today|language=en-US|access-date=2020-04-10}}</ref>

* Insistently repetitious behavior (perseveration) * Difficulty with unmet expectations * Perfectionism * Compulsions (as in OCD)

== Associated conditions == Cognitive rigidity is associated with many psychological and psychiatric conditions, including eating disorders,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Krug |first1=Isabel |last2=Dang |first2=An Binh |last3=Lu |first3=Evonne |last4=Ooi |first4=Wenn Lynn |last5=Portingale |first5=Jade |last6=Miles |first6=Stephanie |date=2024-12-23 |title=A Narrative Review on the Neurocognitive Profiles in Eating Disorders and Higher Weight Individuals: Insights for Targeted Interventions |journal=Nutrients |volume=16 |issue=24 |pages=4418 |doi=10.3390/nu16244418 |doi-access=free |issn=2072-6643 |pmc=11677587 |pmid=39771039}}</ref> and schizophrenia.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Suprunowicz |first1=Maria |last2=Zwierz |first2=Mateusz |last3=Konarzewska |first3=Beata |last4=Waszkiewicz |first4=Napoleon |date=2025-07-10 |title=Autistic Traits in Schizophrenia: Immune Mechanisms and Inflammatory Biomarkers |journal=International Journal of Molecular Sciences |volume=26 |issue=14 |pages=6619 |doi=10.3390/ijms26146619 |doi-access=free |issn=1422-0067 |pmc=12294702 |pmid=40724876}}</ref>

=== Cognitive closure === Mental rigidity often features a high need for cognitive closure, meaning that the person may prematurely assign explanations to things.<ref name=":4" /> People with a high need for closure find that resolution of the uncertainty and ambiguity is as reassuring as finding the truth.<ref name=":4" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://exploringyourmind.com/mental-rigidity/|title=Mental Rigidity|date=2016-07-12|website=Exploring your mind|language=en-US|access-date=2020-04-10}}</ref>

=== Autism === Cognitive rigidity is one feature of autism spectrum disorder (ASD). It is included in what's called the Broader Autism Phenotype, where a collection of autistic traits still fail to reach the level of ASD. This is one example of how rigidity does not show up as a single trait, but comes with a number of related traits.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Poljac|first1=Edita|last2=Hoofs|first2=Vincent|last3=Princen|first3=Myrthe M.|last4=Poljac|first4=Ervin|date=March 2017|title=Understanding Behavioural Rigidity in Autism Spectrum Conditions: The Role of Intentional Control|journal=Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders|language=en|volume=47|issue=3|pages=714–727|doi=10.1007/s10803-016-3010-3|pmid=28070785|s2cid=38180833|issn=0162-3257}}</ref>

=== Obsessive–compulsive disorder === {{Empty section|date=September 2024}}

== Effects ==

=== Ethnocentrism === Rigidity may be a cause of ethnocentrism. In one study, M. Rokeach tested for ethnocentrism's relatedness to mental rigidity by using the California Ethnocentrism Scale (when measuring American college students' views) and the California Attitude Scale (when measuring children's views) before they were given what is called by cognitive scientists the water-jar problem. This problem teaches students a set pattern for how to solve each mathematical question. Those that scored higher in ethnocentrism also showed attributes of rigidity, such as persistence of mental sets and more complicated thought processes.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rokeach|first=Milton|date=1948|title=Generalized mental rigidity as a factor in ethnocentrism.|journal=The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology|language=en|volume=43|issue=3|pages=259–278|doi=10.1037/h0056134|pmid=18878208|issn=0096-851X}}</ref>

=== Limited relationship to political views === Rigid thinking has been ascribed to political conservatism since at least 1950, when ''The Authoritarian Personality'' was published.<ref name=":4" /> However, the ideological asymmetry perspective is only a partial explanation of the facts, and the actual difference is both small and depends upon the measurement used and the beliefs being studied.<ref name=":4" /> Social conservatism is associated with self-reported dogmatism, but less so with other measures of rigid thinking.<ref name=":4" /> There is no correlation between economic conservatism and behavioral measures (as opposed to self-reports) of cognitive rigidity.<ref name=":4" /> Political extremism on both left and right is associated with more rigidity than political moderates.<ref name=":4" />

=== Consequences of unfulfillment === If a person with cognitive rigidity does not fulfill their rigidly held expectations, they may feel agitated, behave aggressively, or engage in self-injurious behavior.<ref name=":1" /> They might also experience depression, anxiety, or suicidality.<ref name=":1" />

==References== {{Reflist}}

Category:Cognitive psychology Category:Personality traits