{{Short description|Rite or cultural event, especially in the Caribbean and Africa}}
thumb|Replica of Neolithic mask. A '''masquerade ceremony''' (or masked rite, festival, procession or dance) is a cultural or religious event involving the wearing of masks. The practice has been seen throughout history from the prehistoric era to present day. These events are deeply connected in the spiritual and social lives of people. These performances can have variety of themes, music, costumes and rituals<ref name=":2" />. Their meanings can range from anything including life, death, and fertility. For example, in the Dogon religion, the traditional beliefs of the Dogon people of Mali, incorporates several mask dances, including the ''Sigi'' festival.<ref>Bruijn, Mirjam de; & Dijk, Rijk van, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ag4wLii-_1wC&pg=PA250 ''The Social Life of Connectivity in Africa''], Palgrave Macmillan (2012), pp. 250, 264, {{ISBN|9781137278012}}. Retrieved March 3, 2020.</ref><ref>Adjaye, Joseph K., [https://books.google.com/books?id=PQMlpbxkp_MC&pg=PA92 ''Time in the Black Experience''] (Issue 167 of Contributions in Afro-American and African studies, {{ISSN|0069-9624}}), Greenwood Publishing Group (1994), p. 92, {{ISBN|9780313291180}}. Retrieved March 3, 2020.</ref> The Sigi festival has also entered the ''Guinness Book of Records'' as the "Longest religious ceremony".<ref name="Guinness World Records"> [https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/longest-religious-ceremony/ "Longest religious ceremony : Sigui Mask Festival"], ''Guinness World Records''. Retrieved March 13, 2020.</ref>
Among other examples are West African and African diaspora masquerades such as Egungun masquerades, Eyo masquerades, Northern Edo masquerades, the Omabe festival of Nsukka, the Akatakpa festival of Obollo-Afor, Caribbean Carnival (which is called "Mas"), Jonkonnu, and Mardi Gras Indians.
==History==
[[File:John Canoe Dancers Jamaica 1975 Dec ver06.jpg|thumb|John Canoe Dancers Jamaica 1975 December]]
There has been evidence of masks linked to rituals since the Neolithic era. Some of the earliest masks are from the Southern Levantine dated to the mid-ninth and eighth millennia BC. These masks were located amongst various artifacts linked to ancient ceremonies. Items found include modeled skulls, gypsum, beads of wood, textiles, flint, basketry, bone, anthropomorphic, and zoomorphic figurines. Figurines also included miniature stone masks that represent what masks, made of organic materials, possibly resembled. Most masks from that era were made of less durable materials like wood, fibers, textiles, and feathers. Because of this, they were lost to time. Masks made of longer lasting material are rare leaving mostly these miscellaneous articles. Archaeologists concur with the use of masks in religious ceremonies but because of their rarity, they are unable to study masks further to uphold their preservation. Archaeologists have also recovered cave marking depictions that show cranes with human legs but other birds anatomically correct. Experts have linked these depictions to prehistoric masked ceremonies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dietrich |first1=Oliver |last2=Notroff |first2=Jens |last3=Dietrich |first3=Laura |date=2018-01-02 |title=Masks and masquerade in the Early Neolithic: a view from Upper Mesopotamia |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/1751696X.2018.1433354 |journal=Time and Mind |language=en |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=3–21 |doi=10.1080/1751696X.2018.1433354 |issn=1751-696X|url-access=subscription }}</ref> thumb|Makishi Dancer During the era of enslavement in the Americas, free and enslaved Black people fused African religions with carnivals to continue practicing their culture under the Code Noir. The Code Noir in French colonies forbid all non-Catholic religions and required free and enslaved people to convert to Catholicism. As an act of resistance and to outsmart their enslavers, Africans syncretized their masking culture with European parading traditions.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Williams |first1=Nikesha |title=Mardi Gras Indians |date=2022 |publisher=Louisiana State University Press |isbn=9780807179123 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tsJpEAAAQBAJ&dq=code+of+noir+mardi+gras+indians&pg=PA1962}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Flint |first1=Jade |title=Carnival!: A Black Diasporic Tradition |url=https://thehilltoponline.com/2020/02/27/carnival-a-black-diasporic-tradition/ |access-date=16 October 2024 |agency=The Hilltop |date=2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Carnival Exhibit Introduction |url=https://ecda.northeastern.edu/carnival-an-act-of-opposition-introduction/ |website=Northeastern University |publisher=Early Caribbean Digital Archive |access-date=16 October 2024}}</ref>
Ritual masquerades are primarily known for and understood to be within indigenous African religious context and to uphold specific protocol that is unchanging and very strict.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Strother |first=Z. S. |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/jj.36309101 |title=African Masks and Emotions: In Theory and in Practice |date=2025-12-23 |publisher=J. Paul Getty Trust, The |isbn=978-1-60606-994-3 |chapter=Chapter 4, How Do Masks Make You Feel? |doi=10.2307/jj.36309101.7}}</ref> In different cultures the men masqueraders are known for playing integral and vital parts of society in generating perpetual wealth. In Salu Mpasu, men would perform certain deeds and paid expensive fees to the me already performing in the masquerades. These masquerades would happen in a territory marked out by white flour and they would perform within the restricted area, creating minimal interaction with the crowd, as they watch from they other side of the line. without crossing it.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cameron |first=Elisabeth L. |date=2004 |title=Dancing a New Face: Contemporary Sala Mpasu Masquerades |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3337965 |journal=African Arts |volume=37 |issue=2 |pages=74–96 |issn=0001-9933}}</ref>
== Choreography == Masquerade choreography is an important part of the ritual, performance and storytelling. With dance being Arica's most popular form of recreation, the choreography movements are designed to express identity, spirit, or of the masquerader, often blending with rhythm, symbolism, and tradition into a strong visual expression. <ref name=":2">{{Cite web |date=2025-04-13 |title=Unmasking West Africa: The Profound Meaning Behind Masquerades |url=https://toxigon.com/behind-the-mask-the-meaning-of-masquerade-in-west-africa |access-date=2025-04-26 |website=Toxigon |language=en}}</ref> The dancers play important roles in many spiritual and communal ceremonies, with their performances deeply tied to symbolic roles. In many cultures, masked performers represent divine beings, nature spirits, or revered ancestors. Others take on the task of calming spiritual forces through movement, while some entertain crowds during festivals and public events. <ref>{{Cite web |title=African dance {{!}} History, Styles, Culture, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/art/African-dance |access-date=2025-04-26 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>
In West African masquerade ceremonies, choreography is deeply influenced by gender divisions, with masked dancing traditionally performed by men due to spiritual, cultural, and ritual significance. These male dancers often belong to secret societies and embody ancestral spirits, deities, or natural forces through physically demanding, rapid, or even forceful symbolically telling movements. Women dancers are to play vital roles by singing, and guiding the ceremony's rhythm, especially in inspiration or initiation rituals.<ref>{{Cite web |title=African dance - Gender Roles, Rituals, Traditions {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/art/African-dance/Division-between-the-sexes |access-date=2025-04-26 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>
These masquerades uses rhythm and movement to push a narrative to help retell stories that are impactful to their specific culture. In areas like Guinea and surrounding places the Sòmonò masquerades use puppet characters to help push a story and remind the communities of the importance of the Niger River.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Njoku |first=Raphael Chijioke |title=West African Masking Traditions and Diaspora Masquerade Carnivals: History, Memory, and Transnationalism |publisher=University of Rochester Press |year=2020 |pages=185-198 |chapter=Chapter 8, Memory and Masquerade Narratives: The Art of Remembering |jstor=j.ctv114c79k.13 |chapter-url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv114c79k.13}}</ref>
==In religion== thumb|Gélédé costume Multiple cultures and religions throughout history have used masks as an important staple of their ceremonies or rites. The Dogon believe their masks are the connection from this world and the celestial. They believe the masks, through dance, link them to the divine. In their religion, living beings such as trees, plants, and creatures are occupied by spirits. These spirits are held in high regard and the Dogon offer blood sacrifices to prevent reprisal when these materials are used to make masks. The Dogon have over 70 masks representing animals and mythical beings.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Bontadi |first1=Jarno |last2=Bernabei |first2=Mauro |date=2016-03-01 |title=Inside the Dogon Masks: The Selection of Woods for Ritual Objects |url=https://brill.com/view/journals/iawa/37/1/article-p84_6.xml |journal=IAWA Journal |language=en |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=84–97 |doi=10.1163/22941932-20160122 |issn=0928-1541|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
The Yoruba are another African group from southwestern Nigeria. They celebrate Gélédé, a masquerade ceremony commemorating the importance of women. To the Yoruba, Gélédé is meant to honor their ancestors, earthly spirits, and their earth goddess.<ref>Njoku, Raphael Chijioke. West African Masking Traditions and Diaspora Masquerade Carnivals. History, Memory, and Transnationalism. Boydell & Brewer Ltd, 2020.</ref>
In Slavic cultures, Svyatki was celebrated. An old pagan holiday with christian roots where masks were used to hide the wearers' identity. Svyatki is also a holiday intended to worship a sun deity and the Virgin Mary. It was typical for participants of this holiday to "Christmas dress." Christmas dressing involved cross-dressing, turning clothes inside out, or dressing as a monster or animal. The participant would soil their clothes with dirt, paint, or blood, as a representation of the evil of the world. The masks and costumes served as a symbology of sinning or sinners. They would then be baptized, cleaning themselves in reservoirs would symbolically wash away their portrayed characters sins.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sokolova |first=Alla |date=2020-09-28 |title=The Traditions of Mummers, Court Masquerades, and Secular Balls |url=http://kutaksam.karabuk.edu.tr/index.php/ilk/article/view/2753 |journal=Journal of History Culture and Art Research |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=297 |doi=10.7596/taksad.v9i3.2753 |issn=2147-0626|doi-access=free }}</ref>
These cultures use masks to further connect themselves with the traditions of their ancestors and serve symbolically in many aspects of their religions. Among the Eastern Pende, preparing and holding a masquerade required specific tasks such as renewal of alters, cleaning of community fires, and more. In other cultures masquerades are held popularly during funerals to celebrate and honor the deceased. During this time the masquerade can be from 2-7 days long, but not a person can remain inside. Instead it is shared with others by expressing gratitude and joy. <ref>{{Cite web |title=Chapter 4 How Do Masks Make You Feel? from African Masks and Emotions: In Theory and in Practice on JSTOR |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/jj.36309101.7 |access-date=2026-04-30 |website=www.jstor.org |language=en}}</ref>
==Masks== thumb|"Kanaga" mask. Double cross depicting hands of god. Masks used in masquerade ceremonies vary from culture, ceremony, and point in history. Some of the oldest masks found in the Neolithic period are much older than the invention of writing.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2014-03-11 |title=Ancient masks go on display in Jerusalem |url=https://apnews.com/general-news-2a317e8ba28d4d1c944310e28ed64aff |access-date=2024-01-26 |website=AP News |language=en}}</ref> Pictographs traced to be older than twenty-five thousand years old show humans wearing masks of animals but, like many other masks from this era, these masks were believed to be made of bio-gradable material and unable to stand the test of time.<ref name=":0" /> Masks for current ceremonies include those of the Dogon Tribe. The Dogon Masks are made of wood. They depict antelopes, hunters, ostrich, hornbills, and some carry a "double cross" representing the hands of god.<ref name=":1" /> In relation to masquerade ceremonies, the mask can be seen as a vessel for spirits and ancestors. When worn, it becomes a link between the human and spirit worlds.
== Contemporary traditions == thumb|Day of the Dead skull mask As ancient of a tradition that masquerading is, it can still be seen today in nearly every culture. Hiding one's identity behind a mask has transcended time. Today, Day of the Dead is celebrated in Mexico. It's a celebration of remembrance of the living's departed loved ones. It's celebrated with close family, involving the decorating of their tombs with photos, flowers, and offerings such as food, liquor, and cigars.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-10-30 |title=In Mexico, Day of the Dead is actually a celebration of life |url=https://apnews.com/article/religion-mexico-city-day-of-the-dead-67dd5af8d22db161c50044eed28bf014 |access-date=2024-01-26 |website=AP News |language=en}}</ref> People dress with make-up, costumes, and animal masks used to symbolize the nine levels of the underworld, known in Mexico as Mictlan.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-11-02 |title=Skulls, masks and dancers as Mexico fetes Day of the Dead |url=https://apnews.com/article/e4137ac08ac34f758f9a60a48c635d48 |access-date=2024-01-26 |website=AP News |language=en}}</ref> South of Mexico, in Brazil, Carnival is celebrated in the beginning of March. The celebration of Carnival allows the people of Brazil to freely express themselves through all kinds of costumes, representing anything from their aspirations to fantasies.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Barbassa |first=Juliana |date=2013-02-06 |title=Brazil: What's behind Carnival masks and disguises |url=https://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/sdut-brazil-whats-behind-carnival-masks-and-disguises-2013feb06-story.html |access-date=2024-01-26 |website=San Diego Union-Tribune |language=en-US}}</ref> Masking traditions have been observed in New Orleans in African-American neighborhoods practiced by Mardi Gras Indians (also called Black masking Indians) during carnival season.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Williams |first1=Nikesha |title=Mardi Gras Indians |date=2022 |publisher=Louisiana State University Press |isbn=9780807179123 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tsJpEAAAQBAJ&dq=code+of+noir+mardi+gras+indians&pg=PA1962}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Louisiana Voodoo Mystery in Motion: African American Spirituality in Mardi Gras |url=https://louisianastatemuseum.org/mystery-motion-louisiana-voodoo |website=Louisiana State Museums |access-date=13 October 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Islam Mystery in Motion: African American Spirituality in Mardi Gras |url=https://louisianastatemuseum.org/mystery-motion-islam |website=Louisiana State Museums |access-date=13 October 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Turner |first1=Richard |title=Jazz Religion, the Second Line, and Black New Orleans After Hurricane Katrina |date=2016 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=9780253025128 |pages=13–14 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SJZNDQAAQBAJ&q=islam}}</ref>
The traditions of masquerades in Africa developed into a colorful way of expressing cultural identity. The Caribbean and African diaspora carnival, especially the Junkanoo, exemplifies how the performers combine historical symbols with modern ones, paying homage to their ancestors while also celebrating their modern identities. Masquerades are a bit fixed and developed according to the participant's situation. The Ouidah Voodoo Festival and Egungun provide a platform for personal expression.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gagliardi |first=Susan Elizabeth |date=November 2018 |title=Art and the individual in African masquerades Introduction |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0001972018000438/type/journal_article |journal=Africa |language=en |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=702–717 |doi=10.1017/S0001972018000438 |issn=0001-9720}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gundlach |first=Cory |last2=Youmbi |first2=Hervé |date=December 2024 |title=Invitation as Intervention: Hervé Youmbi's Bamiléké-Dogon Ku'ngang Mask and the Stanley Museum of Art |url=https://doi.org/10.1353/esp.2024.a949904 |journal=L'Esprit Créateur |volume=64 |issue=4 |pages=116–127 |doi=10.1353/esp.2024.a949904 |issn=1931-0234|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Hervé Youmbi |date=2026-03-12 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Herv%C3%A9_Youmbi&oldid=1343084442 |access-date=2026-04-05 |language=en}}</ref>
=== Contemporary masquerade artists ===
==== Hervé Youmbi ==== Hervé Youmbi is a contemporary artist working directly with masquerade traditions. Hervé works in Douala, Cameroon. He installed his works at the Institute de Formation Artisique de Mbalmayo, Cameroon, from 1993 to 1996. In 1998, he was known as one of the founding members of the art group Cercle Kapsiki. He produced his first videos from 2010 to 2011, and, as a result, his artistic process began to focus more on multimedia installations and work involving urban public spaces.
== See also == * Mask * Masquerade ball (a European dance) * Maskarada (carnival of Soule) * Traditional African masks * Hervé Youmbi
{{portal|Traditional African religion|Africa}}
==References== {{Reflist}}<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-04-13 |title=Unmasking West Africa: The Profound Meaning Behind Masquerades |url=https://toxigon.com/behind-the-mask-the-meaning-of-masquerade-in-west-africa |access-date=2025-04-26 |website=Toxigon |language=en}}</ref> <ref>Harper, Peggy, Picton, John. "African dance". ''Encyclopedia Britannica'', 29 Aug. 2022, <nowiki>https://www.britannica.com/art/African-dance</nowiki>. Accessed 25 April 2025.</ref>
==External links== {{Commons category|Masquerade ceremonies}} *[http://www.life.com/image/ugc1126921/in-gallery/48451/maske-worlds-haunting-masquerades "Maske: World's Haunting Masquerades"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101229013921/http://www.life.com/image/ugc1126921/in-gallery/48451/maske-worlds-haunting-masquerades |date=2010-12-29 }} – slideshow by ''Life'' magazine *[http://www.alawoye.com Baba Alawoye.com] Baba'Awo Awoyinfa Ifaloju, showcasing Ifa using web media 2.0 (blogs, podcasting, video & photocasting)
Category:African dances Category:Masquerade ceremonies Category:Traditional African religions Category:Masquerade ceremonies in Africa