{{short description|Major deity in Hinduism}} {{about|the Hindu deity}} {{Redirect|Krsna|other uses|Krsna (disambiguation)}} {{good article}} {{protection padlock|small=yes}} {{Use Indian English|date=February 2015}} {{Use dmy dates|date=July 2019}} {{Infobox deity | type = Hindu | gender = Male | name = Krishna | image = Krishna Holds Up Mount Govardhan (MET 70694) cropped.png | member_of = Dashavatara | caption = Krishna lifting Govardhan Hill; folio from the ''Harivamsa'' (Mughal, c. 1590). | avatar_birth = Mathura, Surasena (present-day Uttar Pradesh, India)<ref name="Raychaudhuri 1972124">{{harvnb|Raychaudhuri|1972|p=124}}</ref> | Sanskrit_transliteration = {{IAST|Kṛṣṇa}} | Devanagari = कृष्ण | affiliation = *Svayam Bhagavan<ref name="KK"/> (Krishnaism-Vaishnavism) *Avatar of Vishnu *Dashavatara *Radha Krishna | weapon = {{unbulleted list|Sudarshana Chakra|Kaumodaki}} | day = Wednesday | battles = Kurukshetra War (Mahabharata) | mount = Garuda | abode = {{hlist|Goloka|Vrindavan|Gokul|Mathura|Dvaraka|Vaikuntha}} | mantra = *हरे कृष्ण <br/>Hare Krishna *ॐ नमो भगवते वासुदेवाय <br/>Om Namo Bhagavate Vāsudevāya | texts = ''{{unbulleted list|Mahabharata (incl. Bhagavad Gita)|Harivamsa| Bhagavata Purana| Brahma Vaivarta Purana| Vishnu Purana| Garuda Purana| |Padma Purana| Garga Samhita| Brahma Samhita| }}'' | parents = {{unbulleted list|Devaki (mother)|Vasudeva (father)|Yashoda (foster-mother)|Nanda (foster-father)|Rohini and the other wives of Vasudeva (step-mothers)}} | siblings = {{unbulleted list|Balarama (elder brother)|Subhadra (half-sister)|other children of Vasudeva}} | consorts = {{hlist|Radha|Rukmini|Satyabhama|Jambavati| other 5 chief queens| 16,000 – 16,100 Junior queens<ref name=hawley12>{{cite book |title=The Divine Consort: Rādhā and the Goddesses of India|author=John Stratton Hawley, Donna Marie Wulff |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |date=1982 |isbn=978-0-89581-102-8 |page=12}}</ref>}}{{refn|group=note|Radha is seen as Krishna's lover-consort (although in some beliefs Radha is considered to be Krishna's married consort). On the other hand, Rukmini and others are already married to him. Krishna had eight chief wives, known as Ashtabharyas. Regional texts vary in the identity of Krishna's wives (consorts), some presenting them as Rukmini, some as Radha, all gopis, and some identifying all as different aspects or manifestations of the goddess Lakshmi.<ref name=hawley12 />{{sfn|Bryant|2007|p=443}}}} | festivals = {{hlist|Krishna Janmashtami |Gita Mahotsav| |Gopashtami|Govardhan Puja|Kartik Purnima|Sharad Purnima|Lathmar Holi| Holi}} | children = {{hlist|Pradyumna|Samba|Charudeshna and other children<ref>{{Cite book|last=Naravane|first=Vishwanath S.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zZTXAAAAMAAJ&q=+eighty+sons+|title=A Companion to Indian Mythology: Hindu, Buddhist & Jaina|date=1987|publisher=Thinker's Library, Technical Publishing House|language=en|lccn=89906064}}</ref>}}{{refn|group=note|The number of Krishna's children varies from one interpretation to another. According to the ''Bhagavata Purana'', Krishna had 10 sons from each of his 8 chief wives (80 sons) and 1 daughter, Charumati, from Rukmini.{{sfn|Mani|1975|pp=426-427}}<ref>{{Cite book|last=Sinha|first=Purnendu Narayana|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OveYh2v-1roC&q=sons+of+krishna&pg=PT691|title=A Study of the Bhagavata Purana: Or, Esoteric Hinduism|date=1950|publisher=Library of Alexandria|isbn=978-1-4655-2506-2|language=en}}</ref>}} | god_of = God of Protection, Compassion, Tenderness, and Love,{{sfn|Bryant|Ekstrand|2004|pp=22-24, quote: "Three Dimensions of Krishna's Divinity (...) divine majesty and supremacy; (...) divine tenderness and intimacy; (...) compassion and protection.; (..., p. 24) Krishna as the God of Love"}} Lord of Yogis<ref>{{cite news|title=Krishna the Yogeshwara|url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/religion/religious-discourse-krishna-the-yogeshwara/article6405504.ece|work=The Hindu|date=2014-09-12|access-date=2026-05-23}}</ref> <br>The Supreme Being (Krishnaism-Vaishnavism) | avatar_end = Bhalka, Saurashtra (present-day Veraval, Gujarat, India)<ref name=eck380 /> | other_names = Achyuta, Damodara, Gopala, Gopinath, Govinda, Keshava, Madhava, Radha Ramana, Shyam, Vāsudeva, Krishnan, Kannan | dynasty = Yaduvamsha – Chandravamsha }} {{Infobox royalty | name = Dashavatara Sequence | predecessor = Rama | successor = Buddha }} {{Contains special characters|Sanskrit}} '''Krishna''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|r|ɪ|ʃ|n|ə}};<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=KRISHNA Definition & Meaning {{!}} Dictionary.com |url=https://www.dictionary.com/browse/krishna |access-date=2026-05-21 |website=Dictionary.com}}</ref> Sanskrit: कृष्ण, {{IAST3|Kṛṣṇa}} {{IPA|sa|ˈkr̩ʂɳɐ|lang|audio=Krishna.ogg}}) <!--Do not remove, WP:INDICSCRIPT doesn't apply to WikiProject Hinduism--> also known as Govinda, Keev, Gopala and other names and titles is a major deity in Hinduism. He is worshipped as the eighth avatar of Vishnu and also as the Supreme God in his own right. He is the God of Love and widely revered for his divine qualities of compassion, protection and tenderness.{{sfn|Bryant|Ekstrand|2004|pp=22-24}} Krishna's birthday is celebrated every year by Hindus on Krishna Janmashtami according to the lunisolar Hindu calendar, which falls in late August or early September of the Gregorian calendar.
The anecdotes and narratives of Krishna's life are known as Krishna Lila. He is a central figure in the ''Mahabharata'', the ''Bhagavata Purana'', the ''Brahma Vaivarta Purana,'' and the ''Bhagavad Gita'', and is mentioned in many Hindu philosophical, theological, and mythological texts.<ref name="Thompson">{{cite web |author=Thompson, Ph.D. | date = December 1994 | title = Reflections on the Relation Between Religion and Modern Rationalism | url = http://content.iskcon.com/icj/1_2/12thompson.html | access-date = 12 April 2008 | url-status=dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110104040530/http://content.iskcon.com/icj/1_2/12thompson.html | archive-date = 4 January 2011 | df = dmy-all|website=International Society of Krishna Consciousness|first=Richard}}</ref> They portray him in various perspectives: as a god-child, a prankster, a model lover, a divine hero, and the universal supreme being.<ref name="Mahony1987">{{cite journal | author = Mahony, W. K. | year = 1987 | title = Perspectives on Krsna's Various Personalities | journal = History of Religions | volume = 26 | issue = 3 | pages = 333–335 | jstor = 1062381 | doi=10.1086/463085| s2cid = 164194548 | issn = 0018-2710}} Quote: "Krsna's various appearances as a divine hero, alluring god child, cosmic prankster, perfect lover, and universal supreme being (...)".</ref> His iconography reflects these legends and shows him in different stages of his life, such as an infant eating butter, a young boy playing a flute, a handsome youth with Radha or surrounded by female devotees, or a friendly charioteer giving counsel to Arjuna.<ref name=Knott2000>{{Harvnb|Knott|2000|pp=15, 36, 56}}</ref>
Krishna was born in Mathura to Devaki and Vasudeva, but was raised by Nanda and Yashoda in Gokul to escape his maternal uncle, the tyrant king Kamsa. He later killed Kamsa and restored order in Mathura. He established the city of Dvaraka and played an important role in the Kurukshetra War, serving as Arjuna’s charioteer and delivering the philosophical teachings of the ''Bhagavad Gita''. His life ended after being struck by an arrow of a hunter named Jara due to the curse of Gandhari. After the incident, he forgave Jara and returned to his abode, Vaikuntha.
The name and synonyms of Krishna have been traced to 1st{{nbsp}}millennium{{nbsp}}BCE literature and cults.<ref name="Cultofgopal" /> In some sub-traditions, like Krishnaism, Krishna is worshipped as the Supreme God and ''Svayam Bhagavan'' (God Himself). These sub-traditions arose in the context of the medieval era Bhakti movement.{{sfn|Hardy|1987|pp=387–392}}<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Gupta |first1=Ravi M. |url=https://cup.columbia.edu/book/the-bhagavata-purana/9780231169011/ |title=The Bhāgavata Purāna: Selected Readings |last2=Valpey |first2=Kenneth R. |date=November 2016 |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=2016 |isbn=978-0-231-54234-0 |pages=185–200}}</ref> Krishna-related literature has inspired numerous performance arts such as Bharatanatyam, Kathakali, Kuchipudi, Odissi, and Manipuri dance.{{sfn|Bryant|2007|page=118}}{{sfn|Varadpande|1987|pp=98-99}} He is a pan-India god, but is particularly revered in some locations, such as Vrindavan in Uttar Pradesh,{{sfn|Hawley|2020}} Dwarka and Junagadh in Gujarat, the Jagannatha aspect in Odisha, Mayapur in West Bengal,{{sfn|Hardy|1987|pp=387–392}}{{sfn|Miśra|2005}}{{sfn|Melton|2011|pp=330–331}} and other places. He is also worshipped in different forms across India.{{refn|group=note|Such as, in the form of Vithoba in Pandharpur, Maharashtra, Shrinathji at Nathdwara in Rajasthan,{{sfn|Hardy|1987|pp=387–392}}<ref>{{cite book|author=Cynthia Packert|title=The Art of Loving Krishna: Ornamentation and Devotion|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SyTgMt4AQl4C&pg=PA181 |year=2010|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0-253-22198-8|pages=5, 70–71, 181–187}}</ref> Udupi Krishna in Karnataka,{{sfn|Bryant|2007|p=3}} Parthasarathy in Tamil Nadu, Aranmula and Guruvayoorappan (Guruvayoor) in Kerala.<ref>{{cite book|author=Lavanya Vemsani |title=Krishna in History, Thought, and Culture |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4fw2DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA112|year=2016|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-61069-211-3|pages=112–113}}</ref>}}
Since the 1960s, the worship of Krishna has also spread to the Western world, largely due to the work of the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON).
== Names and epithets == {{See also|List of titles and names of Krishna}} The name "Krishna" originates from the Sanskrit word ''{{IAST|kṛṣṇa}}'', which means "black", "dark" or "dark blue".<ref name="dictionaries">*[http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/cgi-bin/monier/serveimg.pl?file=/scans/MWScan/MWScanjpg/mw0306-kRzanAvat.jpg Monier Williams Sanskrit–English Dictionary (2008 revision)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191018224028/https://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/cgi-bin/monier/serveimg.pl?file=%2Fscans%2FMWScan%2FMWScanjpg%2Fmw0306-kRzanAvat.jpg |date=18 October 2019 }} *[http://dsalsrv02.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.2:1:1423.apte Apte Sanskrit–English Dictionary] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180916122511/http://dsalsrv02.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.2:1:1423.apte |date=16 September 2018 }}</ref> The term is also associated with the Krishna Paksha, waning phrase of the moon which carring it's adjective meaning "darkening".<ref name="dictionaries" />
As a name of Vishnu, Krishna is appears as the 57th name in the ''Vishnu Sahasranama''. In accordance with meaning of the name, Krishna is often depicted in idols ''(murti)'' with black or blue skinn.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cummins |first=Joan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F-8FfAEACAAJ |title=Vishnu: Hinduism's Blue-skinned Savior |date=2011 |publisher=Grantha Corporation |isbn=978-1-935677-08-6 |language=en}}</ref>
Krishna is also known by various other names, epithets, and titles that reflecting his diverse associations and attributes. Among the most common names are ''Mohan,'' meaning "enchanter"; ''Govinda'' meaning "chief herdsman",<ref>{{Cite book |last=Monier-Williams |first=Monier |title=A Sanskrit English Dictionary |url=https://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/mw/0000/mw__0001.html |access-date=2026-05-18 |website= |date=1995 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780198643081|page=[https://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/mw/0300/mw__0399.html 336]|via=Ibiblio}}</ref> ''Keev'' meaning "prankster", and ''Gopala'' meaning "protector of the go", where go may signify either "soul" or "cows".<ref>{{Harvnb|Bryant|2007|p=17}}</ref><ref name="Hilt">{{cite book|author = Hiltebeitel|title = Rethinking the Mahābhārata: a reader's guide to the education of the dharma king|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=jch6VZHb07QC&q=Rethinking+the+Mah%C4%81bh%C4%81rata%3A+a+reader%27s+guide+to+the+education+of+the+dharma+king|url-access = limited|publisher = University of Chicago Press|location = |year = 2001|pages = |isbn = 978-0-226-34054-8|first=Alf|language=en|archive-url=https://archive.org/details/rethinkingmahabh0000hilt|archive-date=February 9, 2023|url-status=live|author-link=Alf Hiltebeitel}}</ref> Certain names of Krishna hold regional importance. Jagannatha, associated with the Jagannath Temple, Puri, is a popular incarnation of Krishna in Odisha state and nearby regions of eastern India.<ref>{{cite book|author = B. M. Misra|title = Orissa: Shri Krishna Jagannatha: the Mushali parva from Sarala's Mahabharata|year = 2007|publisher = Oxford University Press|isbn = 978-0-19-514891-6}}</ref>{{sfn|Bryant|2007|p=139}}<ref>For the historic Jagannath temple in Ranchi, Jharkhand see: {{cite book|author=Francis Bradley Bradley-Birt|title=Chota Nagpur, a Little-known Province of the Empire|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W0x74TZB3eoC&pg=PA61|year=1989|publisher=Asian Educational Services (Orig: 1903) |isbn= 978-81-206-1287-7|pages=61–64}}</ref>
== Role and significance in religion == '''Krishna''' is the eighth avatar of Vishnu and a major deity in Hinduism. He is worshipped as a full incarnation of Vishnu and Supreme God in his own right.<ref name="EB">{{cite encyclopedia |title= Krishna |url= https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/323556/Krishna |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online|date= 26 June 2023 }}</ref> He is also referred as "''Swayam Bhagavan''" (God Himself) particularly in Krishnaism and Vaishnavism traditions.<ref name="KK" />
He is the god of protection, compassion, tenderness, and love<ref name=":1" /><ref name="Scharfstein1993p166">{{cite book|author=Ben-Ami Scharfstein|title=Ineffability: The Failure of Words in Philosophy and Religion |url=https://archive.org/details/ineffabilityfail0000scha |url-access=registration|year=1993|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-7914-1347-0|page=[https://archive.org/details/ineffabilityfail0000scha/page/166 166]}}</ref>{{sfn|Bryant|Ekstrand|2004|pp=20–25, quote: "Three Dimensions of Krishna's Divinity (...) divine majesty and supremacy; (...) divine tenderness and intimacy; (...) compassion and protection.; (..., p. 24) Krishna as the God of Love"}} and widely revered among Hindu divinities.{{Sfn|Matchett|2001|p=199}} He struck down his maternal uncle Kamsa,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chaturvedi |first=B.K |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ygNq9KaawdQC&pg=PA86 |title=Shrimad Bhagawat Puran |publisher=Diamond Pocket Books |year=2006 |isbn=81-7182-831-0 |pages=85–86|author-link=|location=Delhi|language=en|quote=(pp.86), Kansa was eventually killed, to the great delight of gods and noble persons.....}}</ref> established the ancient city of ''Dwarka,''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Yagnik, Achyut; Sheth, Suchitra |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wmKIiAPgnF0C&pg=PA4 |title=The Shaping of Modern Gujarat: Plurality, Hindutva, and Beyond |publisher=Penguin Books India |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-14-400038-8 |access-date=2026-05-02 }}</ref> and played a pivotal role in ''Mahabharata'' epic by fighting for Pandavas and concluding the war.<ref name="Hilt" />
Krishna is depicted in several Hindu texts including the ''Mahabharata'' and the ''Bhagavata Puran'', where he is a central character and preaches many of his philosophical ideas.<ref name=":2" /> ''Bhagavad Gita,'' considered part of the epic, ''Mahabharata'',<ref name="Juanxxvi" /> serves as an independent spiritual guide. It allegorically raises the ethical and moral dilemmas of human life through the conversation of Krishna and Arjuna during the Kurukshetra War.<ref name="Juanxxvi" /><ref name="feuersteinix" /> The text presents answers, addressing the ideological questions on human freedoms, choices, and responsibilities ''(dharma)'' towards self and others.<ref name="feuersteinix" /> These teachings then become a prominent feature of Bhakti movement in medieval India.<ref name="Kennedy1925" />
== Origins and early sources == The tradition of Krishna appears to be an amalgamation of several independent deities of ancient India, the earliest of whom to be attested being Vāsudeva.<ref name="GDF119">{{harvnb|Flood|1996|pp=[https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000floo/page/119 119]–120}}</ref> Vāsudeva was a hero-god of the tribe of the Vrishnis, belonging to the Vrishni heroes, whose worship is attested from the 5th–6th century BCE in the writings of Pāṇini, and from the 2nd century BCE in epigraphy with the Heliodorus pillar.<ref name="GDF119" /> At one point in time, it is thought that the tribe of the Vrishnis fused with the tribe of the Yadavas, whose own hero-god was named Krishna.<ref name="GDF119" /> Vāsudeva and Krishna fused to become a single deity, which appears in the ''Mahabharata'', and they started to be identified with Vishnu in the ''Mahabharata'' and the ''Bhagavad Gita''.<ref name="GDF119" /> Around the 4th century CE, another tradition, the cult of Gopala-Krishna of the Ābhīras, the protector of cattle, was also absorbed into the Krishna tradition.<ref name="GDF119" />
===Early epigraphic sources=== {{main|Vāsudeva-Krishna}}
====Depiction in coinage (2nd century BCE)==== [[File:Vasudeva Krishna on a coin of Agathocles of Bactria circa 180 BCE.jpg|thumb|upright|{{center|Vāsudeva-Krishna, on a coin of Agathocles of Bactria, {{circa}}{{nbsp}}180{{nbsp}}BCE.<ref name="US">{{cite book |last1=Singh |first1=Upinder |title=A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century |date=2008 |publisher=Pearson Education India |isbn=978-81-317-1120-0 |pages=436–438 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC&pg=PA437 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Allchin |first1=Raymond |title=The Archaeology of Afghanistan from earliest times to the Timurid period |date=1978 |publisher=London; New York : Academic Press |isbn=978-0-12-050440-4 |page=209, Fig. 4.13 |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.pahar.3525/page/209/mode/1up}}</ref> This is "the earliest unambiguous image" of the deity.<ref name="BRILL">{{cite book |last1=Srinivasan |first1=Doris |title=Many Heads, Arms, and Eyes: Origin, Meaning, and Form of Multiplicity in Indian Art |date=1997 |publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-10758-8 |page=215 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vZheP9dIX9wC&pg=PA215 |language=en}}</ref>}}]] Around 180 BCE, the Indo-Greek king Agathocles issued some coinage (discovered in Ai-Khanoum, Afghanistan) bearing images of deities that are now interpreted as being related to Vaisnava imagery in India.<ref name="US"/><ref>Audouin, Rémy, and Paul Bernard, "[http://www.persee.fr/doc/numi_0484-8942_1974_num_6_16_1062 Trésor de monnaies indiennes et indo-grecques d'Aï Khanoum (Afghanistan). II. Les monnaies indo-grecques.]" Revue numismatique{{nbsp}}6, no.{{nbsp}}16 (1974), pp.{{nbsp}}6–41 (in French).</ref> The deities displayed on the coins appear to be Saṃkarṣaṇa-Balarama with attributes consisting of the gada mace and the plow, and Vāsudeva-Krishna with attributes of the shankha (conch) and the sudarshana chakra wheel.<ref name="US"/><ref>Nilakanth Purushottam Joshi, Iconography of Balarāma, Abhinav Publications, 1979, [https://books.google.com/books?id=5vd-lKzyFg0C&pg=PA22 p. 22]</ref>
====Inscriptions==== [[File:Heliodorus pillar.jpg|thumb|upright|Heliodorus Pillar, Madhya Pradesh, c. 120 BCE; inscription identifies Heliodorus as a ''Bhagvatena'', and paraphrases a Sanskrit verse from the ''Mahabharata''.<ref name=allchin309>{{cite book|author1=F. R. Allchin|author2=George Erdosy|title=The Archaeology of Early Historic South Asia: The Emergence of Cities and States |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q5kI02_zW70C&pg=PA309 |year=1995| publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-37695-2|pages=309–310}}</ref><ref>L. A. Waddell (1914), Besnagar Pillar Inscription{{nbsp}}B Re-Interpreted, ''The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland'', Cambridge University Press, pp.{{nbsp}} 1031–1037</ref>]] The Heliodorus Pillar, a stone pillar with a Brahmi script inscription, was discovered by colonial era archaeologists in Besnagar (Vidisha, in the central Indian state of Madhya Pradesh). Based on the internal evidence of the inscription, it has been dated to between 125 and 100{{nbsp}}BCE and is now known as Heliodorus Pillar, named after Heliodorus – an Indo-Greek who served as an ambassador of the Greek king Antialcidas to a regional Indian king, Kasiputra Bhagabhadra.<ref name="Bopearachchi" /><ref name=allchin309 /> The Heliodorus pillar inscription is a private religious dedication of Heliodorus to "Vāsudeva", an early deity and another name for Krishna in the Indian tradition.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E2xDAAAAYAAJ&q=bhagabhadra |title=Journal of Indian History |date=1973 |publisher=Department of Modern Indian History |language=en}}</ref> It states that the column was constructed by "the ''Bhagavata'' Heliodorus" and that it is a "''Garuda'' pillar" (both Vishnu-Krishna-related terms). Additionally, the inscription includes a Krishna-related verse from chapter{{nbsp}}11.7 of the ''Mahabharata'' stating that the path to immortality and heaven is to correctly live a life of three virtues: self-temperance (''damah''), generosity (''cagah'' or ''tyaga''), and vigilance (''apramadah'').<ref name=allchin309 /><ref name=salomon265>{{cite book|author=Richard Salomon|title=Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other Indo-Aryan Languages|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XYrG07qQDxkC|year=1998|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-535666-3|pages=265–267}}</ref>{{sfn|Preciado-Solís|1984|p=34}} The Heliodorus pillar site was fully excavated by archaeologists in the 1960s. The effort revealed the brick foundations of a much larger ancient elliptical temple complex with a sanctum, ''mandapas'', and seven additional pillars.{{sfn|Khare|1967}}{{sfn|Irwin|1974|pp=169–176 with Figure 2 and 3}} The Heliodorus Pillar inscription and the temple are among the earliest known evidence of Krishna-Vasudeva devotion and Vaishnavism in ancient India.{{sfn|Susan V Mishra|Himanshu P Ray|2017|p=5}}<ref name="Bopearachchi">{{cite web|author=Osmund Bopearachchi| year= 2016| url=https://www.academia.edu/25807197|title= Emergence of Viṣṇu and Śiva Images in India: Numismatic and Sculptural Evidence|access-date=2026-05-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Burjor Avari|title=India: The Ancient Past: A History of the Indian Subcontinent from C. 7000 BCE to CE 1200|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WTaTDAAAQBAJ |year=2016|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-23673-3|pages=165–167}}</ref>
[[File:Rama Krishna at Chilas.jpg|thumb|Balarama and Krishna with their attributes at Chilas. The Kharoshthi inscription nearby reads ''Rama [kri]ṣa''. 1st century CE.<ref name="BRILL"/>]]
The Heliodorus inscription is not isolated evidence. The Hathibada Ghosundi Inscriptions, all located in the state of Rajasthan and dated by modern methodology to the 1st{{nbsp}}century{{nbsp}}BCE, mention Saṃkarṣaṇa and Vāsudeva,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Salomon |first=Richard |title=Indian epigraphy: a guide to the study of inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other Indo-Aryan languages |date=1998 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-509984-3 |series=South Asia research |location=New York}}</ref> and state that the structure was built for their worship in association with the supreme deity Narayana.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Srinivasan |first=Doris |date=1979 |title=Early Vaiṣṇava Imagery: Caturvyūha and Variant Forms |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20111096 |journal=Archives of Asian Art |volume=32 |pages=39–54 |jstor=20111096 |issn=0066-6637}}</ref> These four inscriptions are known for being some of the oldest-known Sanskrit inscriptions.<ref>{{cite book|author=Richard Salomon|title=Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the Other Indo-Aryan Languages |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=t-4RDAAAQBAJ |year= 1998|publisher= Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-509984-3|pages=86–87}}</ref> However, historians argue that the Hathibada-Ghosundi inscription is associated with Jainism, as it explicitly mentions the Jina.<ref>Bühler, Georg (1886). "The Ghosundi and Hāthibāḍā Inscriptions". ''Epigraphia Indica''. Vol. I. Archaeological Survey of India. pp. 7–12.</ref>
A Mora stone slab found at the Mathura-Vrindavan archaeological site in Uttar Pradesh, now held in the Mathura Museum, has a Brahmi inscription.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Vemsani |first=Lavanya |title=Krishna in history, thought, and culture: an encyclopedia of the Hindu lord of many names |date=2016 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-61069-211-3 |location=Santa Barbara, Calif}}</ref> It is dated to the 1st{{nbsp}}century{{nbsp}}CE and mentions the five Vrishni heroes, otherwise known as Saṃkarṣaṇa, Vāsudeva, Pradyumna, Aniruddha, and Samba.{{sfn|Varadpande|1987|pp=6-7}}<ref>{{cite book |title= Hindu Gods and Heroes: Studies in the History of the Religion of India|last= Barnett|first= Lionel David|year= 1922 |publisher= J. Murray|page= [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.173123/page/n92 93]|url= https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.173123}}</ref><ref name=Puri1968>{{cite book|author = Puri, B. N.|year = 1968|title = India in the Time of Patanjali|publisher = Bhartiya Vidya Bhavan}} p. 51: The coins of Rajuvula have been recovered from the Sultanpur District...the Brahmi inscription on the Mora stone slab, now in the Mathura Museum,</ref>
The inscriptional record for Vāsudeva starts in the 2nd century BCE with the coinage of Agathocles and the Heliodorus Pillar, but the name of Krishna appears rather later in epigraphy. At the Chilas II archaeological site dated to the first half of the 1st-century CE in northwest Pakistan, near the Afghanistan border, two male figures are engraved, along with many Buddhist images nearby.<ref name="BRILL" /> The larger of the two male figures holds a plough and club in his two hands. The artwork also has an inscription with it in Kharosthi script, which has been deciphered by scholars as ''Rama-Krsna'', and interpreted as an ancient depiction of the two brothers, Balarama and Krishna.<ref>{{cite book|author=Doris Srinivasan|title=Many Heads, Arms, and Eyes: Origin, Meaning, and Form of Multiplicity in Indian Art|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vZheP9dIX9wC |year=1997|publisher=Broll Academic|isbn=90-04-10758-4|pages=214–215 with footnotes}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Jason Neelis|title=Early Buddhist Transmission and Trade Networks: Mobility and Exchange Within and Beyond the Northwestern Borderlands of South Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GB-JV2eOr2UC |year=2010|publisher=Btill Academic|isbn=978-90-04-18159-5|pages=271–272}}</ref>
The first known depiction of the life of Krishna himself comes relatively late, with a relief found in Mathura dated to the 1st–2nd century CE.<ref name="KCIA">{{cite book |last1=Bhattacharya |first1=Sunil Kumar |title=Krishna-cult in Indian Art |date=1996 |publisher=M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd. |isbn=978-81-7533-001-6 |page=27 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SyyNIL7Ug2kC&pg=PA27 |language=en}}</ref> This fragment seems to show Vasudeva, Krishna's father, carrying baby Krishna in a basket across the Yamuna.<ref name="KCIA"/> The relief shows at one end a seven-hooded Naga crossing a river, where a ''makara'' crocodile is thrashing around, and at the other end a person seemingly holding a basket over his head.<ref name="KCIA"/>
===Literary sources=== ==== Mahabharata ==== {{See also|Krishna in the Mahabharata|Bhagavad Gita}} [[File:Krishna advising Pandavas.jpg|thumb|Krishna advising Pandavas]] The earliest text containing detailed descriptions of Krishna as a personality is the epic ''Mahabharata'', which depicts Krishna as an incarnation of Vishnu.<ref name=":2">{{cite encyclopedia |url= https://www.britannica.com/eb/topic-357806/Mahabharata|title= Britannica: Mahabharata|access-date=2008-10-13 |encyclopedia = encyclopedia|publisher= Encyclopædia Britannica Online |year= 2008|author = Wendy Doniger}}</ref> Krishna is central to many of the main stories of the epic. The eighteen chapters of the sixth book (''Bhishma Parva'') of the epic that constitute the ''Bhagavad Gita'' contain the advice of Krishna to Arjuna on the battlefield.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Mahabharata, Book 6: Bhishma Parva: Bhagavat-Gita Parva: Section XXV (Bhagavad Gita Chapter I) |url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m06/m06025.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120521235153/http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m06/m06025.htm |archive-date=2012-05-21 |access-date=2026-05-08 |website=www.sacred-texts.com}}</ref>
At the time the ''Bhagavad Gita'' was composed, Krishna was widely seen as an avatar of Vishnu rather than an individual deity, yet he was immensely powerful and almost everything in the universe other than Vishnu was "somehow present in the body of Krishna". Krishna had "no beginning or end", "fill[ed] space", and every god but Vishnu was seen as ultimately him, including Brahma, "storm gods, sun gods, bright gods", light gods, and gods of ritual." Other forces also existed in his body, such as "hordes of varied creatures" that included "celestial serpents." He is also "the essence of humanity."<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Armstrong |first=Karen |title=A History of God: The 4000-year Quest of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam |publisher=Alfred A. Knopf Inc |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-679-42600-4 |location=New York |pages=85–86 |author-link=Karen Armstrong}}</ref>
The ''Harivamsa'', a later appendix to the ''Mahabharata,'' contains a detailed version of Krishna's childhood and youth.<ref>Maurice Winternitz (1981), ''History of Indian Literature'', Vol. 1, Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-0836408010}}, pp. 426–431</ref>
==== Other sources ==== thumb|Krishna is celebrated in the Vaishnava tradition in various stages of his life. The ''Chandogya Upanishad'' (Verse III.xvii.6) mentions Krishna in ''Krishnaya Devakiputraya'' as a student of the sage Ghora of the Angirasa family. Ghora is identified with Neminatha, the twenty-second ''tirthankara'' in Jainism, by some scholars.{{sfn|Natubhai Shah|2004|p=23}} This phrase, which means "To Krishna the son of Devaki", has been mentioned by scholars such as Max Müller<ref name=maxmuller316>Max Müller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads01ml#page/48/mode/2up Chandogya Upanishad 3.16–3.17], The Upanishads, Part{{nbsp}}I, Oxford University Press, pp. 50–53 with footnotes</ref> as a potential source of fables and Vedic lore about Krishna in the ''Mahabharata'' and other ancient literature{{snd}} only potential because this verse could have been interpolated into the text,<ref name=maxmuller316 /> or the Krishna Devakiputra, could be different from the deity Krishna.{{sfn|Bryant|Ekstrand|2004|pp=20-25}} These doubts are supported by the fact that the much later age ''Sandilya Bhakti Sutras'', a treatise on Krishna,<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/ShandilyaBhaktiSutra/shandilya_bhakti_sutras#page/n0/mode/2up Sandilya Bhakti Sutra] SS Rishi (Translator), Sree Gaudia Math (Madras)</ref> cites later age compilations such as the ''Narayana Upanishad'' but never cites this verse of the Chandogya Upanishad. Other scholars disagree that the Krishna mentioned along with Devaki in the ancient Upanishad is unrelated to the later Hindu god of the ''Bhagavad Gita'' fame. For example, Archer states that the coincidence of the two names appearing together in the same Upanishad verse cannot be dismissed easily.<ref>WG Archer (2004), ''The Loves of Krishna in Indian Painting and Poetry'', Dover, {{ISBN|978-0486433714}}, p. 5</ref>
Yāska's ''Nirukta'', an etymological treatise published around the 6th{{nbsp}}century{{nbsp}}BCE, contains a reference to the Shyamantaka jewel in the possession of Akrura, a motif from the well-known Puranic story about Krishna.<ref name = bryant4>{{Harvnb|Bryant|2007|p=4}}</ref> Shatapatha Brahmana and ''Aitareya-Aranyaka'' associate Krishna with his Vrishni origins.<ref>Sunil Kumar Bhattacharya ''Krishna-cult in Indian Art''. 1996 M. D. Publications Pvt. Ltd. {{ISBN|81-7533-001-5}} p. 128: Satha-patha-brahmana and Aitareya-Aranyaka with reference to first chapter.</ref>
In ''Ashṭādhyāyī'', authored by the ancient grammarian Pāṇini (probably belonged to the 5th or 6th{{nbsp}}century{{nbsp}}BCE), ''Vāsudeva'' and ''Arjuna'', as recipients of worship, are referred to together in the same ''sutra''.<ref name="kurukshetra.nic.in">[http://kurukshetra.nic.in/museum-website/archeologicaltreasure.html] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120217161420/http://kurukshetra.nic.in/museum-website/archeologicaltreasure.html|date=17 February 2012}}</ref><ref>Pâṇ. IV. 3. 98, Vâsudevârjunâbhyâm vun. See Bhandarkar, Vaishnavism and Śaivism, p.{{nbsp}}3 and J.R.A.S. 1910, p.{{nbsp}}168. Sûtra{{nbsp}}95, just above, appears to point to bhakti, faith or devotion, felt for this Vâsudeva.</ref><ref>Sunil Kumar Bhattacharya ''Krishna-cult in Indian Art''. 1996 M. D. Publications Pvt. Ltd. {{ISBN|81-7533-001-5}} p. 1</ref> [[File:Dancing Krishna, India, Tanjore, Tamil Nadu, Chola dynasty, 14th century, bronze, HAA.JPG|thumb|upright|Bala Krishna dancing, 14th{{nbsp}}century{{nbsp}}CE Chola sculpture, Tamil Nadu, in the Honolulu Academy of Arts.]] Megasthenes, a Greek ethnographer and an ambassador of Seleucus I to the court of Chandragupta Maurya towards the end of 4th{{nbsp}}century{{nbsp}}BCE, made reference to Herakles in his famous work Indica. This text is now lost to history, but was quoted in secondary literature by later Greeks such as Arrian, Diodorus, and Strabo.{{sfn|Bryant|2007|p=5}} According to these texts, Megasthenes mentioned that the Sourasenoi tribe of India, who worshipped Herakles, had two major cities named Methora and Kleisobora, and a navigable river named the Jobares.{{Sfn|Bryant|2007|p=5}} According to Edwin Bryant, "there is little doubt that the Sourasenoi refers to the Shurasenas, a branch of the Yadu dynasty to which Krishna belonged".{{sfn|Bryant|2007|p=5}} The word Herakles, states Bryant, is likely a Greek phonetic equivalent of Hari-Krishna, as is Methora of Mathura, Kleisobora of Krishnapura, and the Jobares of Jamuna. Later, when Alexander the Great launched his campaign in the northwest Indian subcontinent, his associates recalled that the soldiers of Porus were carrying an image of Herakles.{{sfn|Bryant|2007|p=5}}
The Buddhist Pali canon and the Ghata-Jâtaka (No. {{nbsp}}454) polemically mention the devotees of Vâsudeva and Baladeva. These texts have many peculiarities and may be a garbled and confused version of the Krishna legends.{{sfn|Bryant|2007|pp=5–6}} Jain texts also mention Krishna themes, especially in works dedicated to Neminath, the twenty-second Tirthankara traditionally regarded as Krishna's cousin.{{sfn|Bryant|2007|p=256-257}} This inclusion of Krishna-related legends in ancient Buddhist and Jaina literature suggests that Krishna theology was existent and important in the religious of ancient India.{{sfn|Bryant|2007|p=6}}<ref>Hemacandra Abhidhânacintâmani, Ed. Boehtlingk and Rien, p. 128, and Barnett's translation of the Antagada Dasāo, pp.{{nbsp}}13–15, 67–82.</ref>
The ancient Sanskrit grammarian Patanjali in his ''Mahabhashya'' makes several references to Krishna and his associates found in later Indian texts. In his commentary on Pāṇini's verse 3.1.26, he also uses the word ''Kamsavadha'' or the "killing of Kamsa", an important part of the legends surrounding Krishna.{{sfn|Bryant|2007|p=5}}<ref>{{cite book|title=India through the ages|url=https://archive.org/details/indiathroughages00mada|last=Gopal|first=Madan|publisher=Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India|year=1990|editor=K.S. Gautam|page=[https://archive.org/details/indiathroughages00mada/page/73 73]}}</ref>
====Puranas==== Many Puranas tell Krishna's life story or some highlights from it. Two Puranas, the ''Bhagavata Purana'' and the ''Vishnu Purana'', contain the most elaborate telling of Krishna's story,<ref name="Elkman1986">{{cite book|author = Elkman, S. M.|author2=Gosvami, J.|year = 1986|title = Jiva Gosvamin's Tattvasandarbha: A Study on the Philosophical and Sectarian Development of the Gaudiya Vaisnava Movement|publisher = Motilal Banarsidass}}</ref> but the life stories of Krishna in these and other texts vary, and contain significant inconsistencies.{{sfn|Rocher|1986|pp=18, 49–53, 245–249}}<ref>{{cite book|author=Gregory Bailey|editor=Arvind Sharma|title=The Study of Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=npCKSUUQYEIC|year=2003|publisher=University of South Carolina Press|isbn=978-1-57003-449-7|pages=141–142}}</ref> The ''Bhagavata Purana'' consists of twelve books subdivided into 332{{nbsp}}chapters, with a cumulative total of between 16,000 and 18,000 verses depending on the version.<ref name=barbaraholdrege109>Barbara Holdrege (2015), Bhakti and Embodiment, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415670708}}, pp.{{nbsp}}109–110</ref><ref>Richard Thompson (2007), ''The Cosmology of the Bhagavata Purana 'Mysteries of the Sacred Universe'', Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120819191}}</ref> The tenth book of the text, which contains about 4,000 verses (approximately ~25% of total verses) is dedicated to legends about Krishna, has been the most popular and widely studied part of this text.{{sfn|Bryant|2007|p=112}}{{sfn|Matchett|2001|pages=127–137}}
=== Proposed dating and historicity === According to Guy Beck, most scholars of Hinduism and Indian history accept the historicity of Krishna that Krishna is a real historical figure, whether human or divine, who likely lived on Indian soil at least prior to 1000 BCE and interacted with many other historical persons included in the epic and ''puranic'' histories. Beck further notes that, however there is enormous number of contradictions and discrepancies surrounding the chronology of Krishna's life as depicted in the Sanskrit canon.{{sfn|Beck|2005|p=4-5}}
Some scholars believe that, among others, the detailed description of Krishna's peace mission in the 5th book of the ''Mahabharata'' ''(Udyoga Parvan)'' is likely to be based on real events. The epic's translator J.A.B. van Buitenen in this context assumes that there was some degree of verisimilitude in the Mahabharata’s depictions of life.<ref>J.A.B. van Buitenen, ''The Mahabharata'', vol. 3, University of Chicago 1978, p. 134</ref>
== Iconography == {{Main|Iconography of Krishna}} {{multiple image | perrow = 3 | total_width = 300 | image1 = Krishna dances in the Raslila with the Gopis.jpg | image2 = RadhaKrishnaUdaipur.JPG | image3 = Krishna and Radha dancing the Rasalila, Jaipur, 19th century.jpg | image4 = Fresco depicting Raslila, the joyful dance of Krishna with his favourite gopi, Radha, from a Hindu temple in Fateh Jang, Attock district.jpg | image5 = ShyamRai Mandir Bishnupur WB Terracotta works Ras Leela.jpg | image6 = The Hindu deity Krishna playing the flute.jpg | caption1 = Krishna dances in the Raslila with the gopis | caption2 = 14th-century fresco of Radha Krishna in Udaipur, Rajasthan | caption3 = Rasalila painting, Jaipur, {{circa|19th century}} | caption4 = Rasalila fresco of Krishna with Radha | caption5 = Rasalila terracotta, Shyam Rai Mandir, Bishnupur | caption6 = Krishna playing bansuri (Indian flute) }} Krishna is represented in the Indian traditions in many ways, but with some common features.{{sfn|Archer|2004|loc=The Krishna of Painting}} His iconography typically depicts him with black, dark, or blue skin, like Vishnu.<ref>{{cite book|author=T. Richard Blurton|title=Hindu Art|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xJ-lzU_nj_MC&pg=PA134 |year=1993|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-39189-5|pages=133–134}}</ref> But ancient and medieval reliefs and stone-based arts depict him in the natural color of the material out of which he is formed, both in India and in southeast Asia.<ref>{{cite book|author=Guy, John|title=Lost Kingdoms: Hindu-Buddhist Sculpture of Early Southeast Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vO_-AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA222|year=2014|publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art|isbn=978-1-58839-524-5|pages=222–223}}</ref><ref>[a] {{cite journal | last=Cooler | first=Richard M. | title=Sculpture, Kingship, and the Triad of Phnom Da | journal=Artibus Asiae | volume=40 | issue=1 | pages=29–40 | year=1978 | doi=10.2307/3249812 | jstor=3249812}};<br />[b] Bertrand Porte (2006), "La statue de Kṛṣṇa Govardhana du Phnom Da du Musée National de Phnom Penh." UDAYA, Journal of Khmer Studies, Volume 7, pp. 199–205</ref> In some texts, his skin is poetically described as the color of Jambul (''Jamun'', a black-colored fruit).<ref>{{cite book|last1=Vishvanatha|first1=Cakravarti Thakura|title=Sarartha-darsini|date=2011|publisher=Sri Vaikunta Enterprises|isbn=978-81-89564-13-1|page=790|edition=Bhanu Swami}}</ref> [[File:Krishna-in-Kyoto.jpg|thumb|upright|Depiction of Krishna playing the flute in Todai-ji Temple, constructed in 752{{nbsp}}CE on the order of Emperor Shomu, in Nara, Japan]]
Krishna is often depicted wearing a peacock-feather wreath or crown, and playing the bansuri (Indian flute).<ref name="Grolier">{{cite book|title = The Encyclopedia Americana|publisher = Grolier|location = [s.l.]|year = 1988|page = [https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaamer30grol/page/589 589]|isbn = 978-0-7172-0119-8|url = https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaamer30grol/page/589}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title= The New Encyclopædia Britannica |author = Benton, William|year= 1974|publisher= Encyclopædia Britannica|isbn=978-0-85229-290-7|page= 885|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=G8YqAAAAMAAJ&q=Krsna+blue+skin+deity}}</ref> In this form, he is usually shown standing with one leg bent in front of the other in the ''Tribhanga'' posture. He is sometimes accompanied by cows or a calf, which symbolise the divine herdsman ''Govinda''. Alternatively, he is shown as a romantic young boy with the gopis (milkmaids), often making music or playing pranks.<ref>{{cite book |author=Harle, J. C. |title=The art and architecture of the Indian subcontinent |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven, Conn |year=1994 |page=[https://archive.org/details/artarchitectureo00harl/page/410 410] |isbn=978-0-300-06217-5 |quote=figure 327. Manaku, Radha's messenger describing Krishna standing with the cow-girls, gopi from Basohli. |url=https://archive.org/details/artarchitectureo00harl/page/410 }}</ref> [[File:Krishna Govardhana. Bharat Kala Bhavan, ni03-24.jpg|thumb|upright|Krishna lifting Govardhana at Bharat Kala Bhavan, recovered from Varanasi. It is dated to the Gupta Empire era (4th-6th century{{nbsp}}CE).<ref>{{cite book|author=Diana L. Eck|author-link=Diana L. Eck|title=Banaras, City of Light|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J57C4d8Bv6UC|year=1982|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-11447-9|pages=66–67}}</ref>]]
In other icons, he is a part of battlefield scenes of the ''Mahabharata''. He is shown as a charioteer, when he is addressing the Arjuna, symbolically reflecting the events that led to the ''Bhagavad Gita''{{snd}}a scripture of Hinduism. In these depictions, Krishna appears in the front as the charioteer, either as a counsel listening to Arjuna or as the driver of the chariot while Arjuna aims his arrows in the battlefield of Kurukshetra.<ref>{{cite book|author=Ariel Glucklich|title=The Strides of Vishnu: Hindu Culture in Historical Perspective|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KtLScrjrWiAC&pg=PA106|year=2008|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-971825-2|page=106}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=T. A. Gopinatha Rao|title=Elements of Hindu iconography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MJD-KresBwIC&pg=PA210 |year=1993|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0878-2|pages=210–212}}</ref>
Alternate icons of Krishna show him as a baby (''Bala Krishna'', the child Krishna), a toddler crawling on his hands and knees, a dancing child, or an innocent-looking child playfully stealing or consuming butter (''Makkan Chor''),<ref name="hawley3">{{cite book|author=John Stratton Hawley|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ncb_AwAAQBAJ|title=Krishna, The Butter Thief|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2014|isbn=978-1-4008-5540-7|pages=3–8}}</ref> holding Laddu in his hand (''Laddu Gopal'')<ref>{{cite book |title= Students' Britannica India|last= Hoiberg|first= Dale |author2=Ramchandani, Indu |year= 2000|publisher= Popular Prakashan|isbn=978-0-85229-760-5|page= 251|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=kEj-2a7pmVMC&q=Bala+Krishna&pg=PA251}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book | title = The Qualities of Sri Krsna | author = Satsvarupa dasa Goswami| author-link = Satsvarupa dasa Goswami | publisher = GNPress | year = 1998 | page = 152 | isbn = 978-0-911233-64-3 }}</ref> or as a cosmic infant sucking his toe while floating on a banyan leaf during the Pralaya (the cosmic dissolution) observed by sage Markandeya.<ref>{{cite book | title=India: Art and Culture, 1300–1900 |author=Stuart Cary Welch |publisher = Metropolitan Museum of Art |date=1985 |isbn= 978-0-03-006114-1|page =58}}</ref>
Guidelines for the preparation of Krishna icons in design and architecture are described in medieval-era Sanskrit texts on Hindu temple arts such as ''Vaikhanasa agama'', ''Vishnu dharmottara'', ''Brihat samhita'', and ''Agni Purana''.<ref>{{cite book|author=T. A. Gopinatha Rao|title=Elements of Hindu iconography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MJD-KresBwIC&pg=PA200 |year=1993|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0878-2|pages=201–204}}</ref> Similarly, early medieval-era Tamil texts also contain guidelines for sculpting Krishna and Rukmini. Several statues made according to these guidelines are in the collections of the Government Museum, Chennai.<ref>{{cite book|author=T. A. Gopinatha Rao|title=Elements of Hindu iconography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MJD-KresBwIC&pg=PA204 |year=1993|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0878-2|pages=204–208}}</ref>
Krishna iconography forms an important element in the figural sculpture on 17th–19th century terracotta temples of Bengal. In many temples, the stories of Krishna are depicted on a long series of narrow panels along the base of the facade.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Karmakar |first1=Bikas |last2=Gupta |first2=Ila |date=2018 |title=Tracing the Impact of Krishnalila Narratives on Bengal Temple Architecture: A Study of Terracotta Temples of Baranagar |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/2455929618773274 |journal=Journal of Heritage Management |language=en |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=49–70 |doi=10.1177/2455929618773274 |issn=2455-9296|url-access=subscription }}</ref> In other temples, the important Krishnalila episodes are depicted on large brick panels above the entrance arches or on the walls surrounding the entrance.<ref name="Amit">{{citation|url=https://www.aishee.org/krishnalila-in-terracotta-temples|title=Krishnalila in Terracotta Temples|author=Amit Guha|access-date=2 January 2021|archive-date=2 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210102202220/https://www.aishee.org/krishnalila-in-terracotta-temples|url-status=dead}}</ref> == Life and legends == This summary is an account based on literary details from the ''Mahabharata'', the ''Harivamsa'', the ''Bhagavata Purana'', and the ''Vishnu Purana''. The scenes from the narrative are set in ancient India, mostly in the present states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan, Haryana, Delhi, and Gujarat. The legends about Krishna's life are called ''Krishna charitas'' (IAST: Kṛṣṇacaritas).{{sfn|Matchett|2001|p=145}}
=== Birth === {{Main|Birth of Krishna|}}
[[File:Krishna's great escape Bazaar art,1940's.jpg|thumb|Vasudeva carrying infrant Krishna across Yamuna]]
Krishna is born to Devaki and her husband, Vasudeva, in a prision in Mathura. Devaki's brother is a tyrant named Kamsa. At Devaki's wedding, according to ''puranic'' legends, Kamsa is told by fortune tellers that the eighth child of Devaki would kill him. Sometimes, it is depicted as an akashvani (divine voice) announcing his death. Seeking to forestall this prophecy, Kamsa arranges to kill all of Devaki's children as soon as they are born. Kamsa planned to do the same with Krishna, but when Krishna is born, all the jailers miraculously fall into deep sleep and the prison door open. Vasudeva secretly carries the infant Krishna across the Yamuna, exchanges him with Yashoda's daughter, and returns with the girl.<ref name="Lochtefeld2002p314">{{cite book|author=James G. Lochtefeld|title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M|url=https://archive.org/details/illustratedencyc0000loch|url-access=registration|year=2002|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-8239-3179-8|pages=401–402}}</ref> When Kamsa tries to kill the newborn, the exchanged baby appears as the Hindu goddess Yogamaya, warning him that the one who will kill him has already been born in his kingdom, and then disappears, according to the legends in the puranas.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Shimad Bhagavad Puran - Canto 10, Chapter 50 |url=https://vedabase.io/en/library/sb/10/3/50/ |access-date=2026-05-20 |website=Vedabase}}</ref> Krishna grows up with his foster parents Nanda and Yashoda, near modern-day Mathura.<ref name="yashoda">{{cite web|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ho/07/sss/ho_1982.220.8.htm|title=Yashoda and Krishna|date=2011-10-10|publisher=Metmuseum.org|access-date=2011-10-23|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081013214426/http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ho/07/sss/ho_1982.220.8.htm|archive-date=13 October 2008}}</ref><ref name="tkk">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-UiwMRwcT-kC|title=The Krishna key|date=2012|publisher=Westland|isbn=978-9381626689|location=Chennai|page=Key7|language=en|last1=Sanghi|first1=Ashwin|access-date=9 June 2016}}{{Dead link|date=February 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref name="Lok Nath Soni">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wT-BAAAAMAAJ |title=The Cattle and the Stick: An Ethnographic Profile of the Raut of Chhattisgarh|publisher=Anthropological Survey of India, Government of India, Ministry of Tourism and Culture, Department of Culture, 2000 Original from the University of Michigan|year=2000|isbn=978-8185579573|location=Anthropological Survey of India, Government of India, Ministry of Tourism and Culture, Department of Culture, Delhi|pages=16|author=Lok Nath Soni}}</ref> Two of Krishna's siblings also survive, namely Balarama and Subhadra, according to these legends.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bryant|2007|pp=124–130, 224}}</ref> The day of the birth of Krishna is celebrated as Krishna Janmashtami.<ref name="Knott55" />
=== Childhood and youth === [[File: Indischer Maler um 1755 002.jpg|thumb|right|Baby Krishna on a swing, depicted with his foster parents Nanda and Yashoda.]] The legends of Krishna's childhood and youth describe him as a cow-herder, a mischievous boy whose pranks earn him the nickname ''Makhan Chor'' (butter thief), and a protector who steals the hearts of the people in both Gokul and Vrindavana. The texts state, for example, that Krishna lifts the Govardhana hill to protect the inhabitants of Vrindavana from devastating rains and floods.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Doniger |first1=Wendy |url=http://archive.org/details/isbn_9780877790440 |title=Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions |last2=Merriam-Webster |date=1999 |publisher=Springfield, Mass. : Merriam-Webster |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-87779-044-0 |page=503}}</ref>
[[File:Krishna and Balarama Studying with the Brahman Sandipani (1525-1550 CE).jpg|thumb|''Krishna and Balarama Studying with the Brahman Sandipani'' (''Bhagavata Purana'', 1525–1550 CE print).]] Other legends describe him as an enchanter and playful lover of the ''gopis'' (milkmaids) of Vrindavana, especially Radha. These metaphor-filled love stories are known as the ''Rasa lila'' and were romanticized in the poetry of Jayadeva, author of the Gita Govinda. They are also central to the development of the Krishna bhakti traditions worshiping Radha Krishna.<ref>{{cite book|author = Schweig, G. M.|year = 2005|title = Dance of Divine love: India's Classic Sacred Love Story: The Rasa Lila of Krishna|publisher = Princeton University Press|isbn = 978-0-691-11446-0|url=https://press.princeton.edu/books/hardcover/9780691114460/dance-of-divine-love?srsltid=AfmBOoo2cv5vYRoqLngASSU9QPP6V4s7s1AhA13x5dFhQaSh6Eib-fPo}}</ref>
Krishna's childhood illustrates the Hindu concept of ''Lila'', playing for fun and enjoyment and not for sport or gain. His interaction with the gopis at the Rasa-lila or Ras dance is an example. Krishna plays his flute and the gopis come immediately, from whatever they were doing, to the banks of the Yamuna River and join him in singing and dancing. Even those who could not physically be there join him through meditation. He is the spiritual essence and the love-eternal in existence, the gopis metaphorically represent the ''prakṛti'' matter and the impermanent body.<ref name="Largen">{{cite book|author=Largen|first=Kristin Johnston|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D7_gveSP6-sC|title=God at Play: Seeing God Through the Lens of the Young Krishna|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|year=2011|isbn=978-1608330188|location=India|pages=|oclc=1030901369}}</ref>{{rp|256}}
This ''Lila'' is a constant theme in the legends of Krishna's childhood and youth. Even when he is battling with a serpent to protect others, he is described in Hindu texts as if he were playing a game.<ref name="Largen" />{{rp|255}} This quality of playfulness in Krishna is celebrated during festivals as Rasa-Lila and Janmashtami, where Hindus in some regions such as Maharashtra playfully mimic his legends, such as by making human gymnastic pyramids to break open ''handis'' (clay pots) hung high in the air to "steal" butter or buttermilk, spilling it all over the group.<ref name="Largen" />{{rp|253–261}}
=== Adulthood === {{further information|Krishna in the Mahabharata}} [[File:Krishna Rukmini Satyabhama Garuda.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Krishna with his consorts Rukmini and Satyabhama and his mount Garuda, Tamil Nadu, India, late 12th–13th{{nbsp}}century<ref name="lacma">{{cite web|url=http://collections.lacma.org/node/203163|title=Krishna Rajamannar with His Wives, Rukmini and Satyabhama, and His Mount, Garuda | LACMA Collections|publisher=collections.lacma.org|access-date=2014-09-23|archive-date=16 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140716040855/http://collections.lacma.org/node/203163|url-status=dead}}</ref>]] Krishna legends then describe his return to Mathura. He overthrows and kills the tyrant king, his maternal uncle Kamsa after quelling several assassination attempts by Kamsa. He reinstates Kamsa's father, Ugrasena, as the king of the Yadavas and becomes a leading prince at the court.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bryant|2007|p=290}}</ref> In one version of the Krishna story, as narrated by Shanta Rao, Krishna, after Kamsa's death, leads the Yadavas to the newly built city of Dwaraka. Thereafter, the Pandavas rise. Krishna befriends Arjuna and the other Pandava princes of the Kuru kingdom. Krishna plays a key role in the ''Mahabharata''.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Rao|first1=Shanta Rameshwar|title=Krishna|date=2005|publisher=Orient Longman|location=New Delhi|isbn=978-8125026969|page=108|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NJ747fOWTRMC&pg=PA1}}</ref>
The Bhagavata Purana describes eight wives of Krishna who appear in sequence as Rukmini, Satyabhama, Jambavati, Kalindi, Mitravinda, Nagnajiti (also called Satya), Bhadra and Lakshmana (also called Madra).<ref name="Hudson2008">{{cite book|author=D Dennis Hudson|title=The Body of God : An Emperor's Palace for Krishna in Eighth-Century Kanchipuram: An Emperor's Palace for Krishna in Eighth-Century Kanchipuram|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IMCxbOezDi4C&pg=PA264|access-date=28 March 2013|year=2008|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-970902-1|pages=263–264}}</ref> This has been interpreted as a metaphor where each of the eight wives signifies a different aspect of him.<ref>{{cite book|author=D Dennis Hudson|title=The Body of God : An Emperor's Palace for Krishna in Eighth-Century Kanchipuram: An Emperor's Palace for Krishna in Eighth-Century Kanchipuram|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IMCxbOezDi4C&pg=PA264|access-date=28 March 2013|date=2008|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-970902-1|pages=102–103, 263–273}}</ref> Vaishnava texts mention all gopis as wives of Krishna, but this is understood as spiritual symbolism of devotional relationship and Krishna's complete loving devotion to each and everyone devoted to him.<ref>{{cite book|author=George Mason Williams|title=Handbook of Hindu Mythology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N7LOZfwCDpEC&pg=PA188|access-date=10 March 2013|year=2008|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-533261-2|pages=188, 222}}</ref>
In Krishna-related Hindu traditions, he is most commonly seen with Radha. All of his wives and his lover Radha are considered in the Hindu tradition to be the avatars of the goddess Lakshmi, the consort of Vishnu.<ref>{{Harvnb|Rosen|2006|p=136}}</ref>{{sfn|Bryant|2007|p=443}} ''Gopis'' are considered as Lakshmi's or Radha's manifestations.{{sfn|Bryant|2007|p=443}}<ref name="hawley13">{{cite book|title = The Divine Consort: Rādhā and the Goddesses of India|author=John Stratton Hawley, Donna Marie Wulff|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publisher|date= 1982|isbn = 978-0-89581-102-8|page=12}} Quote: "The regional texts vary in the identity of Krishna's wife (consort), some presenting it as Rukmini, some as Radha, some as Svaminiji, some adding all ''gopis'', and some identifying all to be different aspects or manifestation of one Devi Lakshmi."</ref>
=== Kurukshetra War and ''Bhagavad Gita'' === {{Main|Kurukshetra War|Bhagavad Gita}}
According to the epic poem ''Mahabharata'', Krishna becomes Arjuna's charioteer for the Kurukshetra War, but on the condition that he personally will not raise any weapon. Upon arrival at the battlefield and seeing that the enemies are his family, his grandfather, and his cousins and loved ones, Arjuna is moved and says his heart will not allow him to fight and kill others. He would rather renounce the kingdom and put down his ''Gandiva'' (Arjuna's bow). Krishna then advises him about the nature of life, ethics, and morality when one is faced with a war between good and evil, the impermanence of matter, the permanence of the soul and the good, duties and responsibilities, the nature of true peace and bliss and the different types of yoga to reach this state of bliss and inner liberation. This conversation between Krishna and Arjuna is presented as a discourse called the ''Bhagavad Gita''.<ref>Krishna in the Bhagavad Gita, by Robert N. Minor in {{Harvnb|Bryant|2007|pp=77–79}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{cite book|author=Jeaneane D. Fowler|title=The Bhagavad Gita: A Text and Commentary for Students|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dHX5XwAACAAJ|year=2012|publisher=Sussex Academic Press|isbn=978-1-84519-520-5|pages=1–7}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Eknath Easwaran|title=The Bhagavad Gita: (Classics of Indian Spirituality)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bcnJAAAAQBAJ|year=2007|publisher=Nilgiri Press|isbn=978-1-58638-019-9|pages=21–59}}</ref>
=== Death and ascension === {{Main|Mausala Parva}} [[File:BHALKA TEMPLE VERAVAL.jpg|thumb|Temple at Bhalka marking the site where Krishna took his last breadth]] It is stated in the Indian texts that the legendary Kurukshetra War led to the death of all the hundred sons of Gandhari. After Duryodhana's death, Krishna visits Gandhari to offer his condolences when Gandhari and Dhritarashtra visited Kurukshetra, as stated in Stree Parva. Feeling that Krishna deliberately did not put an end to the war, in a fit of rage and sorrow, Gandhari said, "Thou were indifferent to the Kurus and the Pandavas whilst they slew each other. Therefore, O Govinda, thou shalt be the slayer of thy own kinsmen!" According to the ''Mahabharata'', a fight breaks out at a festival among the Yadavas, who end up killing each other. Mistaking the sleeping Krishna for a deer, a hunter named Jara shoots an arrow towards Krishna's foot that fatally injures him. Krishna forgives ''Jara'' and dies.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bryant|2007|p=148}}</ref><ref name="eck380">{{cite book|author=Diana L. Eck|title=India: A Sacred Geography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uD_0P6gS-vMC&pg=PA380|year=2012|publisher=Harmony |isbn=978-0-385-53190-0|pages=380–381}}, Quote: "Krishna was shot through the foot, hand, and heart by the single arrow of a hunter named Jara. Krishna was reclining there, so they say, and Jara mistook his reddish foot for a deer and released his arrow. There Krishna died."</ref>{{sfn|Mani|1975|p=429}} The pilgrimage (''tirtha'') site of Bhalka in Gujarat marks the location where Krishna is believed to have died. It is also known as ''Dehotsarga'', states Diana L. Eck, a term that literally means the place where Krishna "gave up his body".<ref name="eck380" /> Krishna returned to his transcendent abode, ''Vaikunth'', directly because of his yogic concentration.{{sfn|Mani|1975|p=429}} Waiting gods such as Brahma and Indra were unable to trace the path Krishna took to leave his human incarnation and return to his abode.{{Sfn|Bryant|2003|p=417-418}}<ref>{{Cite book|title=Baby Krishna, Infant Christ: A Comparative Theology of Salvation|last=Largen|first=Kristin Johnston|publisher=Orbis Books|year=2011|isbn=978-1-60833-018-8|page=44}}</ref>
=== Versions and interpretations === {{multiple image | align = right | image1 = Shrinathji Vitthalanath Birthday Shringar.jpg | total_width = 380 | image2 = Lord Jagannath Patachitra.jpg | image3 = Syayambhuvithoba.jpg | footer = Krishna iconography appears in many versions across India. For example (left to right): Srinath, Jagannath, Vithoba. }}
There are numerous versions of Krishna's life story, of which three are most studied: the ''Harivamsa'', the ''Bhagavata Purana'', and the ''Vishnu Purana''.{{sfn|Matchett|2001|pp=9–14, 145–149}} They share the basic storyline but vary significantly in their specifics, details, and styles.{{refn|group=note|Within a period of four or five centuries [around the start of the common era], we encounter our major sources of information, all in different versions. The Mahabharata, the Harivamsa, the Visnu Purana, the Ghata Jataka, and the Bala Carita all appear between the first and the fifth century AD, and each of them represents a tradition of a Krsna cycle different from the others{{sfn|Preciado-Solís|1984|p=40}}}} The most original composition, the ''Harivamsa'' is told in a realistic style that describes Krishna's life as a poor herder but weaves in poetic and allusive fantasy. It ends on a triumphal note, not with the death of Krishna.{{sfn|Matchett|2001|pp=44–49, 63–64, 145}} Differing in some details, the fifth book of the ''Vishnu Purana'' moves away from ''Harivamsa'' realism and embeds Krishna in mystical terms and eulogies.{{sfn|Matchett|2001|pp=89–104, 146}} The ''Vishnu Purana'' manuscripts exist in many versions.{{sfn|Rocher|1986|pp=18, 245–249}}
The tenth and eleventh books of the ''Bhagavata Purana'' are widely considered to be a poetic masterpiece, full of imagination and metaphors, with no relation to the realism of pastoral life found in the ''Harivamsa''. Krishna's life is presented as a cosmic play (''Lila''), where his youth is set as a princely life with his foster father Nanda portrayed as a king.{{sfn|Matchett|2001|pp=108–115, 146–147}} Krishna's life is closer to that of a human being in ''Harivamsa'', but is a symbolic universe in the ''Bhagavata Purana'', where Krishna is within the universe and beyond it, as well as the universe itself, always.{{sfn|Matchett|2001|pp=145–149}} The ''Bhagavata Purana'' manuscripts also exist in many versions, in numerous Indian languages.{{sfn|Rocher|1986|pp=138–149}}{{sfn|Bryant|2007|p=112}}
== Krishna Janmashtami == {{Main|Krishna Janmashtami}} [[File:Yesoda-krishna.jpg|thumb|upright|Krishna, as a young child with his foster mother, Yashoda]]
'''Krishna Janmashtami''', also known as Krishnashtami, Janmashtami, or Gokulashtami, is one of the most important festivals associated with Krishna alongside Holi. The date of Krishna's birth is celebrated every year as Janmashtami.{{sfn|Knott|2000|p=58}} The name Janmastami derives from the Sanskrit words ''janma'', meaning "birth", and ''ashtami'', meaning the eighth day of the Hindu lunar fortnight.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Janamashtami |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Janmashtami |access-date=2026-05-19 |website=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> Janmashtami is celebrated in diverse forms depending on their regional and cultural customs.{{sfn|Melton|2011|p=396}} Hindus celebrate Janmashtami by fasting, singing, praying together, preparing and sharing special food, night vigils, and visiting Krishna or Vishnu temples. Krishna's birth is celebrated and observed on the eighth day (Ashtami) of the dark fortnight (Krishna Paksha) in Shravana Masa (according to the amanta tradition) or Bhadrapada Masa, according to lunisolar Hindu calendar, which is often equivalent to late August or early September of the Gregorian calendar .<ref>{{Cite news |date=2022-08-16 |title=Happy Janmashtami 2022: History and significance behind Lord Krishna's birth anniversary explained |work=The Economic Times |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/happy-janmashtami-2022-history-and-significance-behind-lord-krishnas-birth-anniversary-explained/articleshow/93585203.cms |access-date=2023-05-03 |issn=0013-0389}}</ref><ref name="Lochtefeld2002p314" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite web|title=Krishna Janmashtami|url=https://www.iskconbangalore.org/sri-krishna-janmashtami|website=International Society for Krishna Consciousness|date=26 May 2022 |access-date=May 27, 2026}}</ref>
=== North India === [[File:ISKCON temple, Delhi at Janamashtami.jpg|thumb|ISKCON Temple, Delhi during Janmashtami |alt=ISKCON Temple, Delhi during Janmashtami |299x299px]]
Janmashtami is the largest festival in the North India particularly Braj region, cities such as Mathura and Vrindavan, where Krishna was born and spend most of his childhood are considered sacred pilgrimage sites in Hinduism and visited by millions of people during the festival.{{sfn|Melton|2011|p=459}}<ref name=":6" />{{Sfn|Bryant|2007|p=538-539}}<ref name=":7">{{Cite web |title=Mathura to Celebrate 5,252nd Krishna Janmashtami on Aug 16 with over 5 Million Devotees |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/india/uttar-pradesh/over-5-million-devotees-expected-in-mathura-for-janmashtami-security-tightened-up-3674210 |access-date=2026-05-27 |website=Deccan Herald |language=en}}</ref> Vaishnava communities in these cities in Uttar Pradesh, as well as others in the state, as well as locations in Rajasthan, Delhi, Haryana, Uttarakhand and Himalayan north celebrate Janmashtami. Krishna temples are decorated and lighted up, they attract numerous visitors on the day, while Krishna devotees hold bhakti events and keep night vigil.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kishore |first=B. R. |url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=t3WzDipk9xwC&source=gbs_navlinks_s |title=Hinduism |date=2006 |publisher=Diamond Pocket Books (P) Ltd. |isbn=978-81-7182-073-3 |edition=Revised |publication-date=1998 |page=[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=t3WzDipk9xwC&pg=PA118&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false 118] |language=en}}</ref>
== Philosophy and theology == [[File:12th-century Krishna playing flute with gathered living beings lost in music at Shaivism Hindu temple Hoysaleswara arts Halebidu Karnataka India.jpg|thumb|12th-century art depicting Krishna playing flute with gathered living beings at Hoysaleswara temple, Karnataka]]
A wide range of theological and philosophical ideas are presented through Krishna in Hindu texts. The teachings of the ''Bhagavad Gita'' can be considered as the first Krishnaite system of theology according to Friedhelm Hardy.{{sfn|Hardy|1987|pp=387–392}}
Ramanuja, a Hindu theologian and philosopher whose works were influential in Bhakti movement,<ref name="KulkeRothermund2004p149">{{cite book|author1=Hermann Kulke|author2=Dietmar Rothermund|title=A History of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RoW9GuFJ9GIC&pg=PA149|year=2004|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-32920-0|page=149}}</ref> presented Krishna in terms of qualified monism, or nondualism (namely, the Vishishtadvaita school).{{sfn|Bryant|2007|pp=329–334 (Francis X Clooney)}} Madhvacharya, a philosopher whose works led to the founding of the Haridasa tradition of Vaishnavism,<ref name="SharmaB">{{cite book|author1=Sharma|author2=B. N. Krishnamurti|title=A History of the Dvaita School of Vedānta and Its Literature|year=2000|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-8120815759|pages=514–516}}</ref> presented Krishna in the framework of dualism (Dvaita).{{sfn|Bryant|2007|pp=358–365 (Deepak Sarma)}} Bhedabheda—a group of schools, which teaches that the individual self is both different and not different from the ultimate reality—predates the positions of monism and dualism. Among medieval Bhedabheda thinkers are Nimbarkacharya, who founded the Nimbarka Sampradaya (of Dvaitadvaita Vedanta),{{sfn|Ramnarace|2014|p=}} and Jiva Goswami, a saint in Gaudiya Vaishnavism,<ref>{{cite web|last=Tripurari |first=Swami |title=The Life of Sri Jiva Goswami |url=http://harmonist.us/2009/12/the-life-of-sri-jiva-goswami/ |work=Harmonist |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130324101939/http://harmonist.us/2009/12/the-life-of-sri-jiva-goswami/ |archive-date=24 March 2013 }}</ref> who described Krishnaite theology in terms of Bhakti yoga and Achintya Bheda Abheda.{{sfn|Bryant|2007|pp=373–378 (Satyanarayana Dasa)}} Krishnaite theology is presented in a pure monism (''Shuddhadvaita'') framework by Vallabha Acharya, the founder of the Pushtimarg sect of Vaishnavism.<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=175zjT9bStcC&q=nathdwara | title=Culture of a Sacred Town: A Sociological Study of Nathdwara | publisher=Popular Prakashan | author=Jindel, Rajendra | year=1976 | pages=34, 37 | isbn=978-8171540402}}</ref>{{sfn|Bryant|2007|pp=479–480 (Richard Barz)}} Madhusūdana Sarasvatī, an Indian philosopher,<ref name="David_1996">{{cite book |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jEUdPqYQjhoC&pg=PA156 |title=Contesting the Nation |editor=David Ludden |chapter=Soldier Monks and Militant Sadhus |author=William R. Pinch |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-8122-1585-4 |pages=148–150 }}</ref> developed a theology of Krishna using a nondualism-monism framework (Advaita Vedanta), while Adi Shankara, credited with unifying and establishing the main currents of thought in Hinduism,<ref>Johannes de Kruijf and Ajaya Sahoo (2014), ''Indian Transnationalism Online: New Perspectives on Diaspora'', {{ISBN|978-1-4724-1913-2}}, p. 105, Quote: "In other words, according to Adi Shankara's argument, the philosophy of Advaita Vedanta stood over and above all other forms of Hinduism and encapsulated them. This then united Hinduism; (...) Another of Adi Shankara's important undertakings which contributed to the unification of Hinduism was his founding of a number of monastic centers."</ref><ref>''Shankara'', Student's Encyclopædia Britannica – India (2000), Volume 4, Encyclopædia Britannica (UK) Publishing, {{ISBN|978-0-85229-760-5}}, p. 379, Quote: "Shankaracharya, philosopher and theologian, most renowned exponent of the Advaita Vedanta school of philosophy, from whose doctrines the main currents of modern Indian thought are derived.";<br />David Crystal (2004), The Penguin Encyclopedia, Penguin Books, p. 1353, Quote: "[Shankara] is the most famous exponent of Advaita Vedanta school of Hindu philosophy and the source of the main currents of modern Hindu thought."</ref><ref>Christophe Jaffrelot (1998), ''The Hindu Nationalist Movement in India'', Columbia University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-231-10335-0}}, p. 2, Quote: "The main current of Hinduism – if not the only one – which became formalized in a way that approximates to an ecclesiastical structure was that of Shankara".</ref> mentioned Krishna in his early eighth-century discussions on Panchayatana puja.{{sfn|Bryant|2007|pp=313–318 (Lance Nelson)}}
The ''Bhagavata Purana'' synthesizes an Advaita, ''Samkhya'', and Yoga framework of Krishna that is based on loving devotion to Krishna.{{sfn|Sheridan|1986|pp=1–2, 17–25}}{{sfn|Kumar Das|2006| pages=172–173}}{{sfn|Brown|1983|pages=553–557}} Bryant describes the synthesis of ideas in the ''Bhagavata Purana'':
{{Blockquote|The philosophy of the ''Bhagavata'' is a mixture of Vedanta terminology, Samkhyan metaphysics, and devotionalized Yoga praxis. (...) The tenth book promotes Krishna as the highest absolute personal aspect of godhead – the personality behind the term Ishvara and the ultimate aspect of Brahman.|Edwin Bryant|''Krishna: A Sourcebook''{{sfn|Bryant|2007|p=114}}}}
While Sheridan and Pintchman both affirm Bryant's view, the latter adds that the Vedantic view emphasized in the ''Bhagavata'' is non-dualist with a difference. In conventional nondual Vedanta, all reality is interconnected and one; the ''Bhagavata'' posits that reality is interconnected and plural.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pintchman |first=Tracy |title=The rise of the Goddess in the Hindu tradition |date=1994 |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-7914-2111-6 |location=Albany, N.Y |pages=132–134}}</ref>{{sfn|Sheridan|1986|pages=17–21}}
Across various theologies and philosophies, a common theme presents Krishna as the essence and symbol of divine love, with human life and love reflecting the divine. The longing and love-filled legends of Krishna and the ''gopi''s, his playful pranks as a baby,<ref>{{cite book|author=John Stratton Hawley|title=Krishna, The Butter Thief|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ncb_AwAAQBAJ |year=2014|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-5540-7|pages=10, 170}}</ref> as well as his later dialogues with other figures, are philosophically treated as metaphors for the human longing for the divine and for meaning, and the play between the universals and the human soul.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/Krishna-Hindu-deity Krishna: Hindu Deity], Encyclopædia Britannica (2015)</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=John M Koller|title=The Indian Way: An Introduction to the Philosophies & Religions of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lgg3DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA210 |year=2016|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-315-50740-8|pages=210–215}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last=Vaudeville | first=Ch. | title=Evolution of Love-Symbolism in Bhagavatism | journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society | volume=82 | issue=1 | pages=31–40 | year=1962 | doi=10.2307/595976 | jstor=595976}}</ref> Krishna's ''lila'' is a theology of love-play. According to John Koller, "Love is presented not simply as a means to salvation, it is the highest life". Human love is God's love.<ref>{{cite book|author=John M Koller|title=The Indian Way: An Introduction to the Philosophies & Religions of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lgg3DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA210 |year=2016|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-315-50740-8|page=210}}</ref>
Other texts that include Krishna, such as the ''Bhagavad Gita'', have attracted numerous ''bhasya'' (commentaries) in the Hindu traditions.<ref name=Juanxxvi /> Though only a part of the ''Mahabharata'', the ''Bhagavad Gita'' itself has 700 verses divided into 18 chapters where Krishna, as a charioteer, guided Arjuna towards the path of ''dharma'' when Arjuna hesitated to fight against his own relatives and elders, whom he deeply respected, on the battlefield of Kurukshetra. Seeing Arjuna's confusion, Krishna shares his philosophical teachings and reminds Arjuna of his responsibility to protect the truth. This conversation between Krishna and Arjuna is presented as the ''Bhagavad Gita,'' a section of ''the Mahabharata'' epic.<ref name=":5" /> It allegorically raises the ethical and moral dilemmas of human life through Krishna and Arjuna. It then presents answers, addressing the ideological questions on human freedoms, choices, and responsibilities towards self and others.<ref name=Juanxxvi /><ref name=feuersteinix /> This Krishna dialogue has attracted numerous interpretations, from being a metaphor for inner human struggle that teaches non-violence to being a metaphor for outer human struggle that advocates a rejection of quietism and persecution.<ref name=Juanxxvi>{{cite book|author=Juan Mascaró|title=The Bhagavad Gita|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UZEKghCNbVIC |year=1962|publisher=Penguin|isbn=978-0-14-044918-1|pages=xxvi–xxviii}}</ref><ref name="feuersteinix">{{cite book|author1=Georg Feuerstein|author2=Brenda Feuerstein|title=The Bhagavad-Gita: A New Translation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V0exkVFiyvcC |year=2011| publisher=Shambhala Publications|isbn=978-1-59030-893-6|pages=ix–xi}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Nicholas F. Gier|title=The Virtue of Nonviolence: From Gautama to Gandhi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tVLt99uleLwC&pg=PA36| year=2004| publisher= State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-7914-5949-2|pages=36–40}}</ref>
Madhusūdana Sarasvatī, known for his contributions to classical Advaita Vedanta, was also a devotee of Krishna and expressed his devotion in various verses within his works, notably in his ''Bhagavad Gita'' commentary, ''Bhagavad Gita Gudarthadipika''. In his works, Krishna is identified as the Supreme Deity and as Bhagavan, whom Madhusudana describes as the nondual Self, embodying Being, Consciousness, and Bliss, the pure Existence underlying all. In his commentary on the ''Gita'', Krishna is often interpreted as representing Nirguna Brahman, thus presenting a transtheistic understanding of deity.{{Sfn|Bryant|2007|p=315}}
== Influence == === Vaishnavism === {{Main|Vaishnavism|Krishnaism}}
[[File:Le temple de Chennakesava (Somanathapura, Inde) (14466110935).jpg|thumb|Relief from the Chennakeshava Temple of Krishna with flute with humans and cows listening, 1258 CE.]] The worship of Krishna is part of Vaishnavism, a major tradition within Hinduism. Krishna is considered a full avatar of Vishnu, or one with Vishnu himself.<ref>{{cite book |author=John Dowson |title=Classical Dictionary of Hindu Mythology and Religion, Geography, History and Literature |publisher=Kessinger Publishing |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-7661-7589-1 |page=361}}</ref> However, the exact relationship between Krishna and Vishnu is complex and diverse,<ref name = Beck>See Beck, Guy, ''"Introduction"'' in {{Harvnb|Beck|2005|pp=1–18}}</ref> with Krishna of Krishnaite sampradayas considered an independent deity and supreme.{{sfn|Hardy|1987|pp=387–392}}<ref name=Knott55>{{Harvnb|Knott|2000|p=55}}</ref> Vaishnavas accept many incarnations of Vishnu, but Krishna is particularly important. Their theologies are generally centered either on Vishnu or an avatar such as Krishna as supreme. The terms Krishnaism and Vishnuism have sometimes been used to distinguish the two, the former implying that Krishna is the transcendent Supreme Being.{{Sfn|Flood|1996|p =117}} Some scholars, as Friedhelm Hardy, do not define Krishnaism as a sub-order or offshoot of Vaishnavism, considering it a parallel and no less ancient current of Hinduism.{{sfn|Hardy|1987|pp=387–392}}
All Vaishnava traditions recognise Krishna as the eighth avatar of Vishnu; others identify Krishna with Vishnu, while Krishnaite traditions such as Gaudiya Vaishnavism,<ref name = McDaniel>See McDaniel, June, ''Folk Vaishnavism and {{IAST|Ṭhākur Pañcāyat}}: Life and status among village Krishna statues'' in {{Harvnb|Beck|2005|p=39}}</ref><ref name="Kennedy1925">{{cite book| author = Kennedy| year = 1925 | title = The Chaitanya Movement: A Study of the Vaishnavism of Bengal| url = https://archive.org/details/pli.kerala.rare.24847| publisher = H. Milford, Oxford University Press, Madras|first=Melville T|language=en}}</ref> Ekasarana Dharma, Mahanam Sampraday, Nimbarka Sampradaya and the Vallabha Sampradaya regard Krishna not just as an avatar of Vishnu, but as the ''Svayam Bhagavan'', the original form of Lord or the same as the concept of Brahman in Hinduism.<ref name="KK">{{cite book |author=K. Klostermaier |title=The Charles Strong Trust Lectures, 1972–1984 |publisher=Brill Academic Pub |year=1997 |page= 109 |isbn=978-90-04-07863-5 |quote=(...) After attaining to fame eternal, he again took up his real nature as Brahman. The most important among Visnu's avataras is undoubtedly Krsna, the black one, also called ''Syama''. For his worshippers he is not an avatara in the usual sense, but Svayam Bhagavan, the Lord himself.|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=F_0UAAAAIAAJ&q=Svayam+bhagavan&pg=PA109 | others = Crotty, Robert B.}}</ref><ref name = VaisnavaInstitute1956>{{cite book |title= Indian Philosophy & Culture, Volume 20 |year= 1975|publisher=The Institute |page= 148|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=yEMB3RBwjTsC |others= Institute of Oriental Philosophy (Vrindāvan, India), Institute of Oriental Philosophy, Vaishnava Research Institute, contributors |quote=On the touch-stone of this definition of the final and positive characteristic of Sri Krsna as the Highest Divinity as Svayam-rupa Bhagavan}}</ref><ref name=Delmonico>Delmonico, N., ''The History Of Indic Monotheism And Modern Chaitanya Vaishnavism'' in {{Harvnb|Bryant|Ekstrand|2004}}</ref><ref name=De1960>{{cite book|author = De, S. K.|year = 1960|title = Bengal's contribution to Sanskrit literature & studies in Bengal Vaisnavism|publisher = KL Mukhopadhyaya}} p. 113: "The Bengal School identifies the Bhagavat with Krishna depicted in the Shrimad-Bhagavata and presents him as its highest personal God."</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Bryant|2007|p=381}}</ref> Gitagovinda of Jayadeva considers Krishna to be the supreme lord while the ten incarnations are his forms. Swaminarayan, the founder of the Swaminarayan Sampradaya, also worshipped Krishna as God himself. "Greater Krishnaism" corresponds to the second and dominant phase of Vaishnavism, revolving around the cults of the Vasudeva, Krishna, and Gopala of the late Vedic period.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url= http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/hindu/devot/vaish.html|title= Vaishnava|access-date= 13 October 2008|encyclopedia= encyclopedia|publisher= Division of Religion and Philosophy University of Cumbria|url-status=dead|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120212183626/http://www.philtar.ac.uk/encyclopedia/hindu/devot/vaish.html|archive-date= 12 February 2012|df= dmy-all}}, University of Cumbria website Retrieved 21 May 2008</ref> Today the faith has a significant following outside of India as well.<ref name="Princeton">{{cite book|author = Graham M. Schweig|title = Dance of Divine Love: The Rڄasa Lڄilڄa of Krishna from the Bhڄagavata Purڄa. na, India's classic sacred love story|publisher = Princeton University Press|location = Princeton, N.J.|year = 2005|pages = Front Matter|isbn = 978-0-691-11446-0|no-pp = true}}</ref>
==== Early traditions ====
The deity ''Krishna-Vāsudeva'' (''{{IAST|kṛṣṇa vāsudeva}}'' "Krishna, the son of Vasudeva) is historically one of the earliest forms of worship in Krishnaism and Vaishnavism.<ref name="Cultofgopal">{{cite journal|title = A Revolution in {{IAST|Kṛṣṇaism}}: The Cult of Gopāla |last = Hein|first = Norvin|jstor = 1062622 |volume=25 |issue = 4|pages=296–317 |doi=10.1086/463051 |journal=History of Religions |year=1986|s2cid = 162049250}}</ref><ref name = bryant4 /> It is believed to be a significant tradition of the early history of Krishna religion in antiquity.<ref>Bhattacharya, Gouriswar: ''Vanamala of Vasudeva-Krsna-Visnu and Sankarsana-Balarama''. In: Vanamala. Festschrift A. J. Gail. Serta Adalberto Joanni Gail LXV. diem natalem celebranti ab amicis collegis discipulis dedicata.</ref> Thereafter, there was an amalgamation of various similar traditions. These include ancient Bhagavatism, the cult of Gopala, of "Krishna Govinda" (cow-finding Krishna), of Balakrishna (baby Krishna) and of "Krishna Gopivallabha"<ref>{{cite web|date=2014-08-05|title=Gopala: Understanding the Essence of Krishna as a Cowherd|url=https://isha.sadhguru.org/in/en/wisdom/article/gopala-understanding-essence-krishna-cowherd |access-date=2021-06-30 |website=Isha Sadhguru|language=en}}</ref> (Krishna the lover).{{refn|group=note|Present-day Krishna worship is an amalgam of various elements. According to historical testimonies, Krishna-Vasudeva worship already flourished in and around Mathura several centuries before Christ. A second important element is the cult of Krishna Govinda. Still later is the worship of Bala-Krishna, the Child Krishna{{snd}}a quite prominent feature of modern Krishnaism. The last element seems to have been Krishna Gopijanavallabha, Krishna the lover of the Gopis, among whom Radha occupies a special position. In some books, Krishna is presented as the founder and first teacher of the Bhagavata religion.{{sfn|Klostermaier|2007|pp=203-204}}}}<ref>{{cite journal|title = Review: ''Krishna: Myths, Rites, and Attitudes''. by Milton Singer; Daniel H. H. Ingalls|journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |volume=27 |number=3 |date=May 1968|last = Basham|first = A. L. |jstor = 2051211|pages=667–670 |doi=10.2307/2051211|s2cid=161458918 }}</ref> According to Andre Couture, the Harivamsa contributed to the synthesis of various figures as aspects of Krishna.<ref>{{cite journal |title= The emergence of a group of four characters (Vasudeva, Samkarsana, Pradyumna, and Aniruddha) in the Harivamsa: points for consideration|journal = Journal of Indian Philosophy|author = Couture, André |s2cid = 170133349|year= 2006|volume = 34|issue = 6|pages= 571–585|doi= 10.1007/s10781-006-9009-x }}</ref>
Already in the early Middle Ages, Jagannathism ({{a.k.a.}} Odia Vaishnavism) originated as the cult of the god Jagannath ({{lit|'Lord of the Universe'}}){{snd}}an abstract form of Krishna.{{sfnm|1a1=Eschmann|1a2=Kulke|1a3=Tripathi|1y=1978|1p=|2a1=Hardy|2y=1987|2pp=387–392|3a1=Starza|3y=1993|3p=|4a1=Miśra|4y=2005|4loc=chapter 9. Jagannāthism}} Jagannathism was a regional temple-centered version of Krishnaism,{{sfn|Hardy|1987|pp=387–392}} where Jagannath is understood as a principal god, Purushottama and Para Brahman, but can also be regarded as a non-sectarian syncretic Vaishnavite and all-Hindu cult.{{sfn|Miśra|2005|p=97|loc=chapter 9. Jagannāthism}} According to the ''Vishnudharma Purana'' ({{circa}} 4th century), Krishna is worshipped in the form of Purushottama in Odia (Odisha).{{sfn|Starza|1993|p=76}}
=== Bhakti tradition === {{Main|Bhakti movement|Bhakti yoga}}
[[File:Meerabai (crop).jpg|thumb|Krishna has been a major part of the Bhakti movement. One of the key devotees was Meera (pictured).]] The use of the term "''bhakti"'', {{Translation|devotion}} in Sanskrit, is not confined to any particular deity. However, Krishna is an important and popular focus of the devotionalism tradition within Hinduism, particularly among the Vaishnava Krishnaite sects.<ref name = McDaniel /><ref name="Klostermaier1974">{{cite journal|author = Klostermaier, K.|year = 1974|title = The Bhaktirasamrtasindhubindu of Visvanatha Cakravartin|journal = Journal of the American Oriental Society|volume = 94|issue = 1|pages = 96–107|doi = 10.2307/599733 |jstor = 599733}}</ref> Devotees of Krishna subscribe to the concept of ''lila'', meaning 'divine play', as the central principle of the universe. It is a form of bhakti yoga, one of three types of yoga discussed by Krishna in the ''Bhagavad Gita''.<ref name="Kennedy1925" /><ref name="Jacobsen">{{cite book |editor-last=Jacobsen |editor-first=Knut A. | year = 2005 | title = Theory And Practice of Yoga: Essays in Honour of Gerald James Larson | page=351 | publisher = Brill Academic Publishers| isbn=978-90-04-14757-7}}</ref><ref name=chapple>Christopher Key Chapple (Editor) and Winthrop Sargeant (Translator), ''The Bhagavad Gita: Twenty-fifth–Anniversary Edition'', State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-1438428420}}, pp. 302–303, 318</ref>
==== Indian subcontinent ==== Bhakti movements devoted to Krishna became prominent in southern India in the 7th to 9th{{nbsp}}centuries CE. The earliest works included those of the Alvar saints of Tamil Nadu.<ref name=Vaudeville1962>{{cite journal|author = Vaudeville, C.|year = 1962|title = Evolution of Love-Symbolism in Bhagavatism|journal = Journal of the American Oriental Society|volume = 82|issue = 1|pages = 31–40|doi = 10.2307/595976|jstor = 595976}}</ref> A major collection of their works is the ''Divya Prabandham''. Alvar Andal's popular collection of songs Tiruppavai, in which she conceives of herself as a gopi, is the most famous of the oldest works in this genre.<ref name="cassel">{{cite book |author=Bowen, Paul |title=Themes and issues in Hinduism |publisher=Cassell |location=London |year=1998 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/themesissuesinhi0000unse/page/64 64–65] |isbn=978-0-304-33851-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/themesissuesinhi0000unse/page/64 }}</ref><ref name=Radhak1975>{{cite book|author = Radhakrisnasarma, C.|year = 1975|title = Landmarks in Telugu Literature: A Short Survey of Telugu Literature|publisher = Lakshminarayana Granthamala}}</ref><ref name=histor>{{cite book|author = Sisir Kumar Das|year = 2005|title = A History of Indian Literature, 500–1399: From Courtly to the Popular|publisher = Sahitya Akademi|page = 49|isbn = 978-81-260-2171-0}}</ref>
The movement originated in South India during the 7th century CE, spreading northwards from Tamil Nadu through Karnataka and Maharashtra; by the 15th{{nbsp}}century, it was established in Bengal and northern India.{{sfnp|Schomer|McLeod|1987|pp=1–2}} Early Krishnaite bhakti pioneers included Nimbarkacharya (7th{{nbsp}}century CE),{{sfn|Ramnarace|2014|p=323}}<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/biography/Nimbarka-Indian-philosopher Nimbarka], Encyclopædia Britannica</ref>{{refn|group=note|"The first ''Kṛṣṇaite sampradāya'' was developed by Nimbārka."{{sfn|Hardy|1987|pp=387–392}}}} and his disciple Srinivasacharya but most emerged later, including Vallabhacharya (15th{{nbsp}}century CE) and Chaitanya Mahaprabhu. They started their own schools, namely Nimbarka Sampradaya, Vallabha Sampradaya, and Gaudiya Vaishnavism, with Krishna and Radha as the supreme gods. In addition, since the 15th century, flourished Tantric variety of Krishnaism, Vaishnava-Sahajiya, is linked to the Bengali poet Chandidas.{{sfn|Basu|1932}}
In the Deccan, particularly in Maharashtra, saint poets of the Warkari sect such as Dnyaneshwar, Namdev, Janabai, Eknath, and Tukaram promoted the worship of Vithoba,<ref name="vithoba">Vithoba is not only viewed as a form of Krishna. He is also by some considered that of Vishnu, Shiva and Gautama Buddha according to various traditions. See: {{cite encyclopedia | title = ''Sri-Vitthal: Ek Mahasamanvay (Marathi)'' by R. C. Dhere | volume = 5 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KnPoYxrRfc0C&q=vithoba&pg=PA4179|access-date=2008-09-20|author= Kelkar, Ashok R.| encyclopedia = Encyclopaedia of Indian literature|publisher = Sahitya Akademi|pages= 4179|year = 2001|orig-year = 1992| isbn = 978-8126012213 }} and {{Cite book|author=Mokashi, Digambar Balkrishna|author2=Engblom, Philip C. |title=Palkhi: a pilgrimage to Pandharpur – translated from the Marathi book Pālakhī by Philip C. Engblom|year=1987|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-88706-461-6| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=vgLZGFH1ZTIC&q=Palkhi:+a+pilgrimage+to+Pandharpur&pg=PA14|page = 35|location=Albany}}</ref> a regional form of Krishna, from the 13th to 18th century.<ref name="Mahony1987"/> Before the Warkari tradition, devotion of Krishna became well established in Maharashtra due to the rise of the Mahanubhava Sampradaya founded by Sarvajna Chakradhara.<ref>''The religious system of the Mahānubhāva sect'', by Anne Feldhaus, Manohar publications: Delhi, 1983.</ref> The Pranami Sampradaya emerged in the 17th century in Gujarat, based on the Krishna-focussed syncretist Hindu-Islamic teachings of Devchandra Maharaj and his famous successor, Mahamati Prannath.{{sfn|Toffin|2012|pp=249–254}} In southern India, Purandara Dasa and Kanakadasa of Karnataka composed songs devoted to the Krishna image of Udupi. Rupa Goswami of Gaudiya Vaishnavism has compiled a comprehensive summary of bhakti called Bhakti-rasamrita-sindhu.<ref name="Klostermaier1974" />
In South India, the acharyas of the Sri Sampradaya have written reverently about Krishna in most of their works, including the ''Tiruppavai'' by Andal<ref>{{cite web|title=Thiruppavai|url=http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/tpv/|work=Ibiblio|access-date=2013-05-24}}</ref> and ''Gopalavimshati'' by Vedanta Desika.<ref>{{cite web|last=Desika|first=Vedanta|title=Gopala Vimshati|url=http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/vdesikan/gopala_vimsati/index.html|work=Ibiblio, Sripedia|access-date=2013-05-23}}</ref>
==== Outside Asia ==== {{Main|International Society for Krishna Consciousness|A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada}} [[File:Radhakrishna manor.JPG|thumb|upright|Krishna (left) with Radha at Bhaktivedanta Manor, Watford, England]] By 1965, the ''Krishna-bhakti'' movement had spread outside India after Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada (as instructed by his guru, Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati Thakura) travelled from his homeland in West Bengal to New York City. In 1966, he founded the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON), popularly known as the Hare Krishna movement. The purpose of this movement was to write about Krishna in English and to share the Gaudiya Vaishnava philosophy with people in the Western world by spreading the teachings of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu. In the Gaudiya Vaishnava tradition, the six-word verse from the ''Kali-Saṇṭāraṇa Upaniṣad'' "Hare Krishna Hare Krishna, Krishna Krishna Hare Hare; Hare Rama Hare Rama, Rama Rama Hare Hare" is considered the ''maha-mantra'', or the great mantra, of Krishna bhakti.{{sfn|Bryant|Ekstrand|2004|p=42}}<ref>Alanna Kaivalya (2014), Sacred Sound: Discovering the Myth and Meaning of Mantra and Kirtan, New World, {{ISBN|978-1608682430}}, pp. 153–154</ref> The chanting of this ''maha-mantra'' is known as ''hari-nama sankirtana''.<ref>''Srila Prabhupada – He Built a House in which the whole world can live in peace'', Satsvarupa Dasa Goswami, Bhaktivedanta Book Trust, 1984, {{ISBN|0-89213-133-0}} p. xv</ref>
Bhaktivedanta Swami initially had no support or acquaintances in the United States except the Agarwals, an Indian-American family, who were although strangers to him, had agreed to sponsor his visa.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Selengut |first=Chales |date=December 1996 |title=Charisma and religious innovation: Prabhupada and the founding of ISKCON |url=https://www.iskconcommunications.org/iskcon-journal/vol-4/charisma-and-religious-innovation |journal=ISKCON Communications Journal |volume=4 |issue=2|access-date=May 27, 2026}}</ref> After reaching New York, he travelled to Butler, Pennsylvania to met with Agarwals. At Butler, he also delivered lectures to different groups at venues such as local YMCA. After a month, he returned to New York City where he moved between several humble living spaces, from windowless room, and to a loft in the Bowery.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Satsvarūpa Dāsa Gosvāmī |url=http://archive.org/details/isbn_0892131152 |title=Srīla Prabhupāda-līlāmrta: a biography of His Divine Grace A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupāda |date=1980 |publisher=Bhaktivedanta Book Trust |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-89213-115-0 |pages=301, 343–344}}</ref> With the help of a few early followers, he found a stable place on the Lower East Side, where he turned a small store-front curiosity shop at 26 Second Avenue named "Matchless Gifts" into a small temple.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rochford |first=E. Burke |url=https://nyupress.org/9780814775790/hare-krishna-transformed/ |title=Hare Krishna transformed |publisher=New York University Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-8147-7578-3 |series=The New and Alternative Religions Series |location= |page=12 |access-date=May 23, 2026 |url-access=limited |archive-url=https://archive.org/details/harekrishnatrans0000roch/page/n6/mode/1up |archive-date=October 14, 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{Sfn|Goswami|2012|p=36}} he offered classes on the ''Bhagavad-gita'' and other Vaishnava texts and held kirtan (group chanting) of the ''Hare Krishna mantra'':<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gosvāmī |first=Satsvarūpa Dāsa |url=https://books.google.co.in/books/about/Sr%C4%ABla_Prabhup%C4%81da_l%C4%ABl%C4%81mrta.html?id=c4ERAQAAIAAJ&source=kp_book_description&redir_esc=y |title=Srīla Prabhupāda-līlāmrta: A Biography of His Divine Grace A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupāda |date=2002 |publisher=Bhaktivedanta Book Trust |isbn=978-0-89213-355-0 |page=391 |language=en}}</ref> {{Blockquote|''Hare Krishna, Hare Krishna, Krishna Krishna, Hare Hare<br/>Hare Rama, Hare Rama, Rama Rama, Hare Hare.''}}
[[File:Hare Krishna Tree.jpg|thumb|373x373px|The Hare Krishna Tree in Tompkins Square Park, New York.]] After he and his followers held Hare Krishna kirtan one Sunday under a tree in nearby Tompkins Square Park.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Schlueter |first=Visuals by Krista |last2=Lee |first2=Text by Miya |date=2025-05-21 |title=These New Yorkers Are Touching Grass |url=https://www.nytimes.com/card/2025/05/21/style/tompkins-square-park-hare-krishna-tree |access-date=2026-05-28 |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> The ''maha-mantra'' gained the attention of George Harrison and John Lennon of the Beatles,<ref name="charlesbrooks83" /> and Harrison produced a 1969 recording of the mantra by devotees from the London Radha Krishna Temple.<ref>Peter Lavezzoli (2006), ''The Dawn of Indian Music in the West'', Continuum, {{ISBN|0-8264-2819-3}}, p. 195</ref> Titled "Hare Krishna Mantra", the song reached the top twenty on the UK music charts and was also successful in West Germany and Czechoslovakia.<ref name=charlesbrooks83 /><ref name=Clarke308>Peter Clarke (2005), ''Encyclopedia of New Religious Movements'', Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415267076}}, p. 308 Quote: "There they captured the imagination of The Beatles, particularly George Harrison who helped them produce a chart-topping record of the Hare Krishna mantra (1969) and ...".</ref> The mantra of the Upanishad thus helped bring Bhaktivedanta and ISKCON ideas about Krishna into the West.<ref name=charlesbrooks83>Charles Brooks (1989), ''The Hare Krishnas in India'', Princeton University Press, {{ISBN|978-8120809390}}, pp. 83–85</ref>
=== Southeast Asia === [[File:Krishna, Khuong My, 7th-8th century, Quang Nam - Museum of Cham Sculpture - Danang, Vietnam - DSC01580.JPG|thumb|''Krishna lifting the "Govardhan" mountain'', a 7th-century artwork from an archaeological site in Da Nang, Vietnam <ref name="John2014p17" /><ref>{{cite book|author1=Anne-Valérie Schweyer|author2=Paisarn Piemmettawat|title=Viêt Nam ancien: histoire arts archéologie|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mSrsUuIxZXkC&pg=PA388 |year=2011|publisher=Editions Olizane|isbn=978-2-88086-396-8|page=388}}</ref>]] Krishna is found in Southeast Asian history and art, but to a far lesser extent than Shiva, Durga, Nandi, Agastya, and Buddha. In temples (''candi'') of the archaeological sites in hilly volcanic Java, Indonesia, temple reliefs do not portray his pastoral life or his role as the erotic lover, nor do the historic Javanese Hindu texts.{{sfn|Marijke J. Klokke|2000|pp=19–23}} Rather, either his childhood or the life as a king and Arjuna's companion have been more favored. The most elaborate temple arts of Krishna is found in a series of ''Krsnayana'' reliefs in the Prambanan Hindu temple complex near Yogyakarta. These are dated to the 9th{{nbsp}}century CE.{{sfn|Marijke J. Klokke|2000|pp=19–23}}<ref>{{cite book |author=Subhadradis Diskul (M.C.) |author2=Jean Boisselier |editor=Natasha Eilenberg |editor2=Robert L. Brown |title=Living a life in accord with Dhamma: papers in honor of professor Jean Boisselier on his eightieth birthday |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=--m5oQEACAAJ |year=1997 |publisher=Silpakorn University |pages=191–204}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Triguṇa (Mpu.)|author2=Suwito Santoso|title=Krĕṣṇāyana: The Krĕṣṇa Legend in Indonesia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=341kAAAAMAAJ |year=1986|publisher=IAIC| oclc= 15488486}}</ref> Krishna remained a part of the Javanese cultural and theological fabric through the 14th{{nbsp}}century, as evidenced by the 14th-century Penataran reliefs along with those of the Hindu god Rama in east Java, before Islam replaced Buddhism and Hinduism on the island.{{sfn|Marijke J. Klokke|2000|pp=19–23, for reliefs details see 24–41}}
The medieval era arts of Vietnam and Cambodia feature Krishna. The earliest surviving sculptures and reliefs are from the 6th and 7th{{nbsp}}centuries, and these include Vaishnavism iconography.<ref name="John2014p17">{{cite book|author=John Guy|title=Lost Kingdoms: Hindu-Buddhist Sculpture of Early Southeast Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vO_-AgAAQBAJ|year=2014|publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art|isbn=978-1-58839-524-5|pages=17, 146–148}}</ref> According to John Guy, the curator and director of Southeast Asian arts at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the Krishna Govardhana art from 6th/7th-century Vietnam at Danang, and 7th-century Cambodia at Phnom Da cave in Angkor Borei, are some of the most sophisticated of this era.<ref name="John2014p17" />
Krishna's iconography has also been found in Thailand, along with those of Surya and Vishnu. For example, a large number of sculptures and icons have been found in the Si{{nbsp}}Thep and Klangnai sites in the Phetchabun region of northern Thailand.<ref name=":4" /> These are dated to about the 7th and 8th{{nbsp}}centuries, from both the Funan and Zhenla period archaeological sites.<ref name=":4">{{cite book |author1=John Guy |author2=Pierre Baptiste |author3=Lawrence Becker |title=Lost Kingdoms: Hindu-Buddhist Sculpture of Early Southeast Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gCw_AwAAQBAJ |year=2014 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-20437-7 |pages=222–223 |display-authors=etal}}</ref>
== Sacred sites and temples == The pilgrimage sites associated with Krishna such as Mathura and Vrindavan are visited by millions of devotees on this day.{{Sfn|Bryant|2007|pp=538-539}}{{refn|group=note|The center of Krishna-worship has been for a long time Brajbhumi, the district of Mathura that embraces also Vrindavana, Govardhana, and Gokula, associated with Krishna from the time immemorial. Millions of Krishna ''bhaktas'' visit these places every year and participate in the numerous festivals that re-enact divine scenes from Krishna's life on Earth, of which were spent in those very places{{sfn|Klostermaier|2007|p=204}}}} By the late fifteenth century, many temples had been build in Vrindavan at sites associated with Puranic stories about Krishna.{{Sfn|Hardy|1987|pp=387-392}} Regional variations in the iconography of Krishna are seen in his different forms, such as Jagannatha in Odisha, Vithoba in Maharashtra,<ref name="vithoba" /> Shrinathji in Rajasthan<ref>{{cite book|author=Tryna Lyons|title=The Artists of Nathdwara: The Practice of Painting in Rajasthan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cKnGJGOEQukC |year=2004|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0-253-34417-5|pages=16–22}}</ref> and Guruvayoorappan in Kerala.<ref>{{cite book|author=Kunissery Ramakrishnier Vaidyanathan|title=Sri Krishna, the Lord of Guruvayur |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1XLXAAAAMAAJ |year=1992|publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan|pages=2–5}}</ref> The popular Jagannath temple in Puri, Odisha, has been particularly significant within the tradition since about 800 CE, with Jagannath worshipped as a regional form associated with Krishna along with Baladeva and Subhadra.{{sfn|Bryant|2007|pp=139–141}}{{Sfn|Hardy|1987|pp=387-392}} South Indian states such as Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Kerala have many major Krishna temples, including Vithoba Temple, and Guruvayur Temple and Janmashtami is one of the widely celebrated festivals in South India.<ref name="Maithily">{{cite book |last1=Jaganathan |first1=Maithily |title=South Indian Hindu festivals and traditions |chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=xcIrkKUJH9QC|edition= 1st |year=2005 |publisher=Abhinav Publication |location=New Delhi |language=en |isbn=978-81-7017-415-8 |pages=104–105 |chapter=Sri Krishna Jayanti }}</ref> ISKCON has built Krishna temples in the West, as well as other locations such as South Africa.<ref>{{cite book|author=Brian A. Hatcher|title=Hinduism in the Modern World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IdeoCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA118 |year= 2015|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-04631-6|pages=118–119}}</ref>
=== Braj === Braj, also known as Vraja and Brijbhumi, derived from the Sanskrit word ''vraja,'' which was used in oldest accounts on Krishna's childhood to mean "station of herdmen".{{Sfn|Entwistle|2025|p=1}} Braj was never a official name of territory and wasn't defined by enclosed boundaries.{{Sfn|Entwistle|2025|p=1}} In modern days, Braj is a region on both sides of the Yamuna river with its centre at Mathura district. It covers districts of Haryana and Uttar Pradesh as well as some areas of Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh. The region occupies a central place in traditions associated with Krishna because it is believed to preserve the landscapes connected with his childhood, youth, and divine play, considered as a sacred pilgrimage site in Hinduism.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last=Taneja |first=Leena |date=2023-05-10 |title=Losing and Finding Braj: Commodification and Entrepreneurship in the Sacred Land of Krishna |journal=Religions |language=en |volume=14 |issue=5 |pages=643 |doi=10.3390/rel14050643 |doi-access=free |issn=2077-1444}}</ref> Braj is the birth place of Krishna and Radha and both spends most of their childhood there. Within Hindu sacred geography, Braj is regarded as the devotional landscape that holds the spatial and cultural memory of Krishna's earthy lilas (divine activities) with his associates.<ref name=":6" /> Every year million of devotees visits Mathura, Vrindavan, and other neighbouring places.{{Sfn|Bryant|2007|p=538-539}} The region received 7.9 crore (79 million) devotees in the year 2023.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2025-09-20 |title=7.9cr tourists visited Mathura-Vrindavan in 2023: Study |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/lucknow/7-9cr-tourists-visited-mathura-vrindavan-in-2023-study/articleshow/124005786.cms |access-date=2026-05-27 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> Especially during Janmashtami, the region receives footfall of over 5 million devotees in one day.<ref name=":7" />
== Performance arts == === Dance and culture === {{multiple image | direction = horizontal | total_width = 350 | image1 = Flickr - dalbera - Danseuse de Kuchipudi jouant Krishna (musée Guimet).jpg | image2 = Rasa Lila in Manipuri dance style.jpg | image3 = Krishnanattam (théâtre rituel du Kerala).jpg | footer = The Krishna legends in the ''Bhagavata Purana'' have inspired many performance arts repertoire, such as Kathak, Kuchipudi (left), Odissi and Krishnanattam (right).<ref name="Kenneth Valpey 2013">Ravi Gupta and Kenneth Valpey (2013), ''The Bhagavata Purana'', Columbia University Press, {{ISBN|978-0231149990}}, pp. 185–200</ref>{{sfn|Varadpande|1987|pp=98-99}} The ''Rasa Lila'' where Krishna plays with the gopis in Manipuri dance style (center) }}
Indian dance and music theatre traces its origins and techniques to the ancient ''Sama Veda'' and ''Natyasastra'' texts.{{sfn|Beck|1993|pp=107–108}}<ref>PV Kane, ''History of Sanskrit Poetics'', Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120802742}} (2015 Reprint), pp. 10–41</ref> The stories enacted and the numerous choreographic themes are inspired by the legends in Hindu texts, including Krishna-related literature such as ''Harivamsa'' and ''Bhagavata Purana''.{{sfn|Varadpande|1987|pages=92–94}}
The Krishna stories have played a key role in the history of Indian theatre, music, and dance, particularly through the tradition of ''Rasaleela''. These are dramatic enactments of Krishna's childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. One common scene involves Krishna playing flute in Rasa Leela, only to be heard by certain ''gopis'' (cowherd maidens), which is theologically supposed to represent divine call only heard by certain enlightened beings.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Vemsani |first1=Lavanya |title=Krishna in history thought and culture |chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=4fw2DAAAQBAJ |year=2016 |publisher=ABC-Clio LLC|location=California |language=en |isbn=978-1-61069-210-6|pages=179–180 |chapter=Music and Krishna }}</ref> Some of the text's legends have inspired secondary theatre literature such as the eroticism in Gita Govinda.<ref>Graham Schweig (2007), ''Encyclopedia of Love in World Religions'' (Editor: Yudit Kornberg Greenberg), Volume{{nbsp}}1, {{ISBN|978-1851099801}}, pp. 247–249</ref>
Krishna-related literature such as the ''Bhagavata Purana'' accords a metaphysical significance to the performances and treats them as a religious ritual, infusing daily life with spiritual meaning, thus representing a good, honest, happy life. Similarly, Krishna-inspired performances aim to cleanse the hearts of faithful actors and listeners. Singing, dancing, and performing any part of ''Krishna Lila'' is an act of remembering the dharma in the text, as a form of ''para bhakti'' (supreme devotion). To remember Krishna at any time and in any art, asserts the text, is to worship the good and the divine.{{sfn|Varadpande|1987|pages=95–97}}
Classical dance styles such as Kathak, Odissi, Manipuri, Kuchipudi and Bharatanatyam in particular are known for their Krishna-related performances.{{sfn|Varadpande|1987|page=98}} Krisnattam (Krishnattam) traces its origins to Krishna legends, and is linked to another major classical Indian dance form called Kathakali.<ref name=Zarrilli2000>{{cite book|author = Zarrilli, P. B.|year = 2000|title = Kathakali Dance-Drama: Where Gods and Demons Come to Play|url = https://archive.org/details/kathakalidancedr00zarr|url-access = limited|publisher = Routledge|page = [https://archive.org/details/kathakalidancedr00zarr/page/n262 246]}}</ref> Bryant summarizes the influence of Krishna stories in the ''Bhagavata Purana'' as, "[it] has inspired more derivative literature, poetry, drama, dance, theatre and art than any other text in the history of Sanskrit literature, with the possible exception of the ''Ramayana''.{{sfn|Bryant|2007|page=118}}{{sfn|Archer|2004}}
The Palliyodam, a type of large boat built and used by Aranmula Parthasarathy Temple in Kerala for the annual water processions of Uthrattathi Jalamela and Valla Sadhya has the legend that it was designed by Krishna and were made to look like Sheshanaga, the serpent on which Vishnu rests.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/explained-what-palliyodam-and-why-kerala-actor-was-arrested-photoshoot-it-155155|title=Explained: What is a Palliyodam, and why a Kerala actor was arrested for photoshoot on it|newspaper=thenewsminute|access-date=13 September 2021}}</ref>
=== In popular culture === Krishna has been depicted in several television series and films in multiple languages across India. Many Hindu texts have been adapted into video series, with Krishna as a main character or a key supporting role. Krishna-related films include the Bengali film ''Radha Krishna'' (1933)<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DcUtCgAAQBAJ&q=Radha+Krishna+1933&pg=PA69|title=Bengali Cinema: 'An Other Nation'|last=Sharmistha Gooptu|date=November 2010|publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781136912177|access-date=3 May 2018}}</ref>, the Telugu-Tamil film ''Mayabazar'' (1957)<ref>{{Cite news|last=Srikanth|date=15 October 1967|title=సినిమా: శ్రీ కృష్ణ అవతారం|trans-title=Cinema: Sri Krishnavataram|work=Visalaandhra|url=https://indiancine.ma/documents/GVM/0,0,2550,1650|access-date=17 September 2020|language=te|archive-date=14 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201114130711/https://indiancine.ma/documents/GVM/0,0,2550,1650|url-status=live}}</ref>, and the Hindi animated film ''Krishna Aur Kans'' (2012)<ref>{{cite web|title='Krishna Aur Kans' set for widest ever domestic release of an Indian animation movie|url=http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2012-07-26/news/32869469_1_gokulathil-kannan-movie-in-different-languages-english-movie|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140812233618/http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2012-07-26/news/32869469_1_gokulathil-kannan-movie-in-different-languages-english-movie|url-status=dead|archive-date=12 August 2014|work=The economic times|access-date=26 July 2012}}</ref>. Krishna has been portrayed in several Television series including B. R. Chopra's ''Mahabharat'' (1988)<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-10-02|title=31 years of Mahabharat on Doordarshan: Interesting facts about one of most popular TV shows ever|url=https://www.financialexpress.com/entertainment/31-years-of-mahabharat-on-doordarshan-know-interesting-facts-about-one-of-most-popular-tv-shows-ever/1724556/|access-date=2020-07-24|website=The Financial Express|language=en-US}}</ref>, Ramanand Sagar's ''Shri Krishna'' (1993)<ref>{{Cite news |date=2020-04-27 |title=After 'Ramayan' and 'Mahabharat', now 'Shri Krishna' is returning to Doordarshan |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/after-ramayan-and-mahabharat-now-shri-krishna-is-returning-to-doordarshan/articleshow/75400171.cms |access-date=2024-06-30 |work=The Economic Times |issn=0013-0389}}</ref>, ''Jai Shri Krishna'' (2008)<ref>{{Cite news |date=2020-05-28 |title=Dubbed version of Jai Shri Krishna to entertain Tamil audience |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/dubbed-version-of-jai-shri-krishna-to-entertain-tamil-audience/articleshow/76067795.cms |access-date=2026-05-03 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>, ''Mahabharat'' (2013)<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.rediff.com/movies/report/review-mahabharat-so-far-so-good-tv/20130917.htm|title=Review: Mahabharat, so far so good|publisher=Rediff|author=Nishi Tiwari|access-date=17 September 2013|archive-date=1 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220501105830/https://www.rediff.com/movies/report/review-mahabharat-so-far-so-good-tv/20130917.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>, ''RadhaKrishn'' (2018)<ref>{{Cite news|title=Mallika Singh and Sumedh Mudgalkar: We feel fortunate, it's a blessing to portray Radha and Krishna |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/mallika-singh-and-sumedh-mudgalkar-we-feel-fortunate-its-a-blessing-to-portray-radha-and-krishna/articleshow/80886998.cms|access-date=2021-09-11|website=The Times of India|date=13 February 2021 |language=en}}</ref>, and ''Shrimad Bhagwat Mahapuran'' (2019)<ref>{{Cite web|title=Uddhav Thackeray extends his best wishes to the team of Color's 'Shrimad Bhagwat Mahapuran'! SEE PICS |work=ABP News |date=2 June 2019 |access-date=2 June 2019 |url=https://news.abplive.com/entertainment/television/shrimad-bhagwat-mahapuran-shri-uddhav-thackeray-extends-his-best-wishes-to-the-team-of-colors-show-1004181}}</ref>.{{Hinduism}} {{Vaishnavism}}
== Outside Hinduism == === Jainism === The Jainism tradition lists 63 ''Śalākāpuruṣa'' or notable figures which, amongst others, includes the twenty-four ''Tirthankaras'' (spiritual teachers) and nine sets of triads. In every half time cycle, according to Jain cosmology, there are nine sets of ''Balabhadra'' (gentle heroes), ''Vasudevas'' (violent heroes), and ''Prativāsudevas'' (anti-heroes) each set known as triads.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZP_f9icf2roC |title=Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions |date=1999 |publisher=Merriam-Webster |isbn=978-0-87779-044-0 |editor-last=Doniger |editor-first=Wendy |location=Springfield, Mass |page=550 |access-date=May 23, 2026 |editor-last2=Merriam-Webster, Inc |archive-url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780877790440 |archive-date=July 3, 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> One of these sets is Krishna as the ''Vasudeva'', Balarama as the ''Balabhadra'', and Jarasandha as the ''Prativāsudeva''. In each age of the Jain cyclic, a ''Vasudeva (violent hero)'' is born with an elder brother termed as the ''Baladeva (gentle hero)''. Between the triads, ''Baladeva'' upholds the principle of non-violence, a central idea in Jainism. The villain is the ''Prati-vasudeva'', who attempts to destroy the world. To save the world, ''Vasudeva-Krishna'' has to forsake the non-violence principle and kill the ''Prati-Vasudeva''.<ref>{{cite book|last=Jaini|first=P. S.|author-link=Padmanabh Jaini|date=1993|title=Jaina Puranas: A Puranic Counter Tradition|publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=978-0-7914-1381-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-kZFzHCuiFAC&pg=PA207}}</ref> The stories of these triads can be found in the ''Harivamsa Purana'' ({{Circa|8th century CE}}{{nbsp}}) of Jinasena (not be confused with its namesake, the addendum to ''Mahābhārata'') and the ''Trishashti-shalakapurusha-charita'' of Hemachandra.{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2016|p=26}}<ref name = Jer>See Jerome H. Bauer "Hero of Wonders, Hero in Deeds: [https://books.google.com/books?id=0SJ73GHSCF8C&pg=PA151 "Vasudeva Krishna in Jaina Cosmohistory]" in {{Harvnb|Beck|2005|pp=167–169}}</ref>
The story of Krishna's life depicted in the ''Puranas'' of Jainism follows the same general outline as those in the Hindu texts, but in details, they are very different: they include Jain ''Tirthankaras'' as figures in the story, and generally are polemically critical of Krishna, unlike the versions found in the ''Mahabharata'', the ''Bhagavata Purana'', and the ''Vishnu Purana''.{{sfn|Cort|1993|pp=220-233}} For example, Krishna loses battles in the Jain versions, and his ''gopis'' and his clan of Yadavas die in a fire created by an ascetic named Dvaipayana. Similarly, after dying from the hunter Jara's arrow, the Jaina texts state Krishna goes to the third hell in Jain cosmology, while his brother is said to go to the sixth heaven.<ref name="Glasenapp1999p317">{{cite book|author=Helmuth von Glasenapp|title=Jainism: An Indian Religion of Salvation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WzEzXDk0v6sC&pg=PA317 |year=1999|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1376-2|pages=316–318}}</ref>
Vimalasuri is attributed to be the author of the Jain version of the ''Harivamsa Purana'', but no manuscripts have been found that confirm this. It is likely that later Jain scholars, probably Jinasena of the 8th{{nbsp}}century, wrote a complete version of Krishna legends in the Jain tradition and credited it to the ancient Vimalasuri. Partial and older versions of the Krishna story are available in Jain literature, such as in the ''Antagata Dasao'' of the ''Svetambara'' ''Agama'' tradition.{{sfn|Cort|1993|p=191}}
In other Jain texts, Krishna is stated to be a cousin of the twenty-second ''Tirthankara'', Neminatha. The Jain texts state that Neminatha taught Krishna all the wisdom that he later gave to Arjuna in the ''Bhagavad Gita''. According to Jeffery D. Long, a professor of religion known for his publications on Jainism, this connection between Krishna and Neminatha has been a historic reason for Jains to accept, read, and cite the ''Bhagavad Gita'' as a spiritually important text, celebrate Krishna-related festivals, and intermingle with Hindus as spiritual cousins.<ref>{{cite book|author=Jeffery D. Long|title=Jainism: An Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JmRlAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA42 |year= 2009|publisher =I.B. Tauris|isbn= 978-1-84511-625-5|page=42}}</ref>
=== Buddhism === [[File:Tibetan_Krishna.jpg|thumb|Depiction of Krishna playing the flute, mural of Bhutia Busty Monastery, Darjeeling district, India]] The story of Krishna occurs in the Jataka tales in Buddhism.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.vipassana.info/ay/andhakavenhu_puttaa.htm|title = Andhakavenhu Puttaa|publisher = www.vipassana.info|access-date = 15 June 2008}}</ref> The ''Vidhurapandita Jataka'' mentions ''Madhura'' (Sanskrit: Mathura), the ''Ghata Jataka'' mentions Kamsa, Devagabbha (Sk: Devaki), Upasagara or Vasudeva, Govaddhana (Sk: Govardhana), Baladeva (Balarama), and Kanha or Kesava (Sk: Krishna, Keshava).<ref name=Law1941>{{cite book|author = Law, B. C.|year = 1941|title = India as Described in Early Texts of Buddhism and Jainism|publisher = Luzac|url =https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.513920/2015.513920.India-as#page/n5/mode/2up|pages=99–101}}</ref><ref name=Jaiswal>{{cite journal|author = Jaiswal, S.|year = 1974|title = Historical Evolution of the Ram Legend|journal = Social Scientist|jstor = 3517633|volume = 21|issue = 3–4|pages = 89–97|doi = 10.2307/3517633}}</ref>
Like the Jain versions of the Krishna legends, the Buddhist versions such as one in ''Ghata Jataka'' follow the general outline of the story,<ref>{{cite book|author=G.P. Malalasekera|title=Dictionary of Pali Proper Names|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=x8ObMQ1GGsUC&pg=PA439|year=2003|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=978-81-206-1823-7|page=439}}</ref> but are different from the Hindu versions as well.<ref name=Law1941 />{{sfn|Bryant|2007|p=6}} For example, the Buddhist legend describes Devagabbha (Devaki) to have been isolated in a palace built upon a pole after she is born, so no future husband could reach her. Krishna's father similarly is described as a powerful king, but who meets up with Devagabbha anyway, and to whom Kamsa gives away his sister Devagabbha in marriage. The siblings of Krishna are not killed by Kamsa, though he tries. In the Buddhist version of the legend, all of Krishna's siblings grow to maturity.<ref name= Francis314 />
Krishna and his siblings' capital becomes Dvaravati. The Arjuna and Krishna interaction is missing in the Jataka version. A new legend is included, wherein Krishna laments in uncontrollable sorrow when his son dies, and a Ghatapandita feigns madness to teach Krishna a lesson.<ref>{{cite book|author=Gunapala Piyasena Malalasekera|title=Dictionary of Pāli Proper Names: A-Dh|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=up5O9zrSX80C&pg=PA825 |year=2007|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-3021-9|pages=825–826}}</ref> The Jataka tale also includes internecine destruction among his siblings after they all get drunk. Krishna also dies in the Buddhist legend by the hand of a hunter named Jara, but while he is traveling to a frontier city. Mistaking Krishna for a pig, Jara throws a spear that fatally pierces his feet, causing Krishna great pain and then his death.<ref name= Francis314>{{cite book|author1=H. T. Francis|author2=E. J. Thomas|title=Jataka Tales|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WYjRAwAAQBAJ |year=1916|publisher=Cambridge University Press (Reprinted: 2014) |isbn=978-1-107-41851-6|pages=314–324}}</ref>
At the end of this ''Ghata-Jataka'' discourse, the Buddhist text declares that Sariputta, one of the revered disciples of the Buddha in the Buddhist tradition, was incarnated as Krishna in his previous life to learn lessons on grief from the Buddha in his prior rebirth:
{{Blockquote|Then he [Master] declared the Truths and identified the Birth: "At that time, Ananda was Rohineyya, Sariputta was Vasudeva [Krishna], the followers of the Buddha were the other persons, and I myself was Ghatapandita."|Jataka Tale No. 454|Translator: W. H. D. Rouse<ref name=cowell57>{{cite book|author1=E.B. Cowell|author2=WHD Rouse|title=The Jātaka: Or, Stories of the Buddha's Former Births|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.553497|year=1901|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.553497/page/n75 57]}}</ref>}}
While the Buddhist Jataka texts co-opt Krishna-Vasudeva and make him a student of the Buddha in his previous life,<ref name=cowell57 /> the Hindu texts co-opt the Buddha and make him an avatar of Vishnu.<ref>{{cite book|author=Daniel E Bassuk |title=Incarnation in Hinduism and Christianity: The Myth of the God-Man |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k3iwCwAAQBAJ |date= 1987 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-1-349-08642-9 |pages=40 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Edward Geoffrey Parrinder|title=Avatar and Incarnation: The Divine in Human Form in the World's Religions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VkV5AAAAMAAJ|year=1997|publisher=Oxford: Oneworld|isbn=978-1-85168-130-3|pages=19–24, 35–38, 75–78, 130–133}}</ref> In Chinese Buddhism, Taoism and Chinese folk religion, the figure of Krishna has been amalgamated and merged with that of Nalakuvara to influence the formation of the god Nezha, who has taken on iconographic characteristics of Krishna such as being presented as a divine god-child and slaying a nāga in his youth.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Shahar|first=Meir|title=Oedipal god : the Chinese Nezha and his Indian origins|date=2015|isbn=978-0-8248-4760-9|location=Honolulu|oclc=899138008}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Shen|first1=Xuezheng|last2=Li|first2=Jingwen|last3=Zhang|first3=Yunzhuo|last4=Liu|first4=Shanshan|last5=Hong|first5=Jangsun|last6=Lee|first6=Jongyoon|date=2020-03-31|title=Devil or God: Image Transformation of Chinese Mythology Character "Nezha"（1927–2019）|url=http://www.dbpia.co.kr/Journal/ArticleDetail/NODE09330491|journal=Cartoon and Animation Studies|language=en|volume=58|pages=159–200|doi=10.7230/KOSCAS.2020.58.159|s2cid=219661006|issn=1738-009X|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
=== Other === Krishna's life is written about in "Krishna Avtar" of the ''Chaubis Avtar'', a composition in Dasam Granth traditionally and historically attributed to Sikh Guru Gobind Singh.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.info-sikh.com/VVPage1.html|title=Chaubis Avtar|website=info-sikh.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810182823/http://www.info-sikh.com/VVPage1.html |archive-date=10 August 2017 |url-status=usurped}}</ref> Within the Sikh-derived 19th-century Radha Soami movement, the followers of its founder Shiv Dayal Singh used to consider him the Living Master and incarnation of God (Krishna/Vishnu).{{refn|group=note|"Various branches of Radhasoami have argued about the incarnationalism of Satguru (Lane, 1981). Guru Maharaj Ji has accepted it and identifies with Krishna and other incarnations of Vishnu."<ref>{{cite journal |last=DuPertuis |first=Lucy |title=How People Recognize Charisma: The Case of Darshan in Radhasoami and Divine Light Mission |journal=Sociological Analysis |publisher=Oxford University Press |volume=47 |issue=2 |pages=111–124 |date=1986 |doi=10.2307/3711456 |jstor=3711456}}</ref>}}
Baháʼís believe that Krishna was a "Manifestation of God", or one in a line of prophets who have revealed the Word of God progressively for a gradually maturing humanity. In this way, Krishna shares an exalted station with Abraham, Moses, Zoroaster, Buddha, Jesus, Muhammad, the Báb, and the founder of the Baháʼí Faith, Bahá'u'lláh.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last= Smith |first= Peter |encyclopedia= A concise encyclopedia of the Bahá'í Faith |title= Manifestations of God |year= 2000 |publisher= Oneworld Publications |location= Oxford |isbn= 978-1-85168-184-6 |page= [https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope0000smit/page/231 231] |url= https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope0000smit/page/231 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author= Esslemont, J. E. |author-link=John Esslemont |year= 1980 |title= Bahá'u'lláh and the New Era |edition= 5th |publisher=Baháʼí Publishing Trust |location=Wilmette, Illinois|isbn= 978-0-87743-160-2 |url= http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/je/BNE/bne-6.html#gr5 |page = 2}}</ref>
Ahmadiyya, a 20th-century Islamic movement, consider Krishna as one of their ancient prophets.<ref>Siddiq & Ahmad (1995), Enforced Apostasy: Zaheeruddin v. State and the Official Persecution of the Ahmadiyya Community in Pakistan, Law & Inequality, Volume 14, pp. 275–324</ref><ref>{{cite book | last=Minahan | first=James | title=Ethnic groups of South Asia and the Pacific: An Encyclopedia | publisher=ABC-CLIO | location=Santa Barbara, California| year=2012 | isbn=978-1-59884-659-1 | pages=6–8}}</ref><ref>Burhani A. N. (2013), Treating minorities with fatwas: a study of the Ahmadiyya community in Indonesia, Contemporary Islam, Volume 8, Issue 3, pp. 285–301</ref> Their founder, Mirza Ghulam Ahmad stated that he was himself a prophet in the likeness of prophets such as Krishna, Jesus, and Muhammad,<ref>{{cite book|title=Muslims, and Others in Sacred Space|pages=104–105|first=Margaret|last=Cormack|year=2013|publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref> who had come to earth as a latter-day reviver of religion and morality. He also claimed to be Krishna himself.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ahmad |first1=Mirza Ghulam |title=Haqiqatul Wahi |date=1907 |publisher=Islam International Publications |isbn=978-1-84880-764-8 |page=655 |url=https://new.alislam.org/library/books/haqiqatul-wahi |access-date=6 February 2026}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Al Hakam - The claims of Hazrat Mirza Ghulam Ahmad (as) |url=https://www.alhakam.org/the-claims-of-hazrat-mirza-ghulam-ahmad-as/ |access-date=6 February 2026 |archive-date=11 December 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251211142322/https://www.alhakam.org/the-claims-of-hazrat-mirza-ghulam-ahmad-as/ |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref>
Krishna worship or reverence has been adopted by several new religious movements since the 19th{{nbsp}}century, and he is sometimes a member of an eclectic pantheon in occult texts, along with Greek, Buddhist, biblical, and even historical figures.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Harvey |first= D. A. |s2cid= 143606373 |year= 2003|title= Beyond Enlightenment: Occultism, Politics, and Culture in France from the Old Regime to the ''Fin-de-Siècle'' |journal= The Historian |volume= 65 |issue= 3 |pages= 665–694|doi= 10.1111/1540-6563.00035 }}</ref> For instance, Édouard Schuré, an influential figure in perennial philosophy and occult movements, considered Krishna a ''Great Initiate'', while Theosophists regard Krishna as an incarnation of Maitreya (one of the Masters of the Ancient Wisdom), the most important spiritual teacher for humanity along with Buddha.<ref name = Schure>{{cite book|last = Schure| first = Edouard| author-link = Édouard Schuré |title=Great Initiates: A Study of the Secret History of Religions| publisher = Garber Communications| year = 1992|isbn = 978-0-89345-228-5}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last = Hanegraaff |first = Wouter J. | author-link = Wouter Hanegraaff |title = New Age Religion and Western Culture: Esotericism in the Mirror of Secular Thought |publisher = Brill Publishers |year= 1996|page =390 |isbn=978-90-04-10696-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last = Hammer |first =Olav| author-link = Olav Hammer |title = Claiming Knowledge: Strategies of Epistemology from Theosophy to the New Age|url = https://archive.org/details/claimingknowledg00hamm_713 |url-access = limited |publisher =Brill Publishers |year=2004 |pages =[https://archive.org/details/claimingknowledg00hamm_713/page/n83 62], 174 |isbn = 978-90-04-13638-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last = Ellwood |first = Robert S. |title =Theosophy: A Modern Expression of the Wisdom of the Ages | publisher = Quest Books |page= 139 |year =1986 |isbn=978-0-8356-0607-3 }}</ref>
Krishna was canonised by Aleister Crowley and is recognised as a saint of Ecclesia Gnostica Catholica in the Gnostic Mass of Ordo Templi Orientis.<ref>Crowley associated Krishna with Roman god Dionysus and Magickal formulae IAO, AUM and INRI. See {{Cite book|last = Crowley|first = Aleister| author-link = Aleister Crowley | title = Liber Aleph |publisher = Weiser Books| isbn=978-0-87728-729-2| page = 71|url = http://sacred-texts.com/oto/aleph_3.htm|year = 1991}} and {{cite book | last = Crowley|first = Aleister| author-link = Aleister Crowley| title = The Book of Lies| publisher = Red Wheels| year = 1980|isbn = 978-0-87728-516-8| pages = 24–25|title-link = The Book of Lies (Crowley)}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last = Apiryon |first = Tau |author2=Apiryon |title = Mystery of Mystery: A Primer of Thelemic Ecclesiastical Gnosticism | publisher = Red Flame|location= Berkeley |year = 1995| isbn = 978-0-9712376-1-2}}</ref>
==See also== *Krishnaism *Vishnuism
== Notes == {{Contains special characters|Sanskrit}} {{reflist|group=note}}
== References == {{Reflist}} == Sources == {{Refbegin}} * {{cite book|surname=Archer |given=W. G. |author-link=W.G. Archer |title=The Loves of Krishna in Indian Painting and Poetry |url={{Google books|czLDAgAAQBAJ|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |year=2004 |orig-date=1957 |place=Mineola, NY |publisher=Dover Publ. |isbn=0-486-43371-4}} * {{cite book|surname=Basu |given=M. M. |title=The Post-Caitanya Sahajiya Cult of Bengal |year=1932 |place=Calcutta |publisher=University of Calcutta Press}} * {{cite book|surname=Beck |given=Guy L. |title=Sonic Theology: Hinduism and Sacred Sound |year=1993 |isbn=0872498557 |url={{Google books|cY1Xw1ZlIeQC|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |place=Columbia, SC |publisher=University of South Carolina Press |series=Studies in Comparative Religion}} * {{cite book|editor-surname=Beck |editor-given=Guy L. |title=Alternative Krishnas: Regional and Vernacular Variations on a Hindu Deity |url= {{Google books|0SJ73GHSCF8C|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |place=Albany, NY |publisher=SUNY Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7914-6415-1}} * {{cite journal|last=Brown |first=C. Mackenzie |year=1983 |title=The Origin and Transmission of the Two "Bhāgavata Purāṇas": A Canonical and Theological Dilemma |url=|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Religion|volume=51|issue=4|pages=551–567 |jstor=1462581 |doi=10.1093/jaarel/li.4.551}} * {{cite book|last1=Bryant |first1=Edwin F. |author-link1=Edwin Bryant (author) |last2=Ekstrand |first2=Maria |title=The Hare Krishna Movement: The Postcharismatic Fate of a Religious Transplant |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mBMxPdgrBhoC |year=2004 |location=New York |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-50843-8}} * {{cite book|last=Bryant |first=Edwin F. |author-link=Edwin Bryant (author) |title=Krishna: the beautiful legend of God: Srimad Bhagavata Purana |publisher=Penguin |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-14-191337-7 |location=|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y8Bb0tRW7W4C}} * {{cite book|last=Bryant |first = Edwin F. |authorlink=Edwin Bryant (author) |year=2007 |title = Krishna: A Sourcebook |publisher = Oxford University Press |isbn = 978-0-19-514891-6|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=HVDqCkW1WpUC}} * {{cite book|last=Cort| first=J. E.|date=1993|editor=Wendy Doniger|title=An Overview of the Jaina Puranas, in Purana Perennis|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-kZFzHCuiFAC| publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-1-4384-0136-2}} * {{cite book |last=Entwistle |first=Alan W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HDZEEQAAQBAJ&dq=info:DWCpJ_L9E5gJ:scholar.google.com/&pg=PR5 |title=Braj, Centre of Krishna Pilgrimage |date=2025-02-10 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-64659-9 |language=en}} * {{cite book |editor-surname1=Eschmann |editor-given1=Anncharlott |editor-link1=Anncharlott Eschmann |editor-surname2=Kulke |editor-given2=Hermann |editor-link2=Hermann Kulke |editor-surname3=Tripathi |editor-given3=Gaya Charan |year=1978 |orig-date=Rev. ed. 2014 |title=The Cult of Jagannath and the regional tradition of Orissa |series=South Asian Studies, 8 |publisher=Manohar |place=New Delhi |url={{Google books|rnlCAAAAYAAJ|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |isbn=978-8173046179}} * {{cite book|last = Flood|first= Galvin D.|pages=|year = 1996|title = An Introduction to Hinduism|publisher = Cambridge University Press|isbn = 978-0-521-43878-0|author-link=Gavin Flood|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=KpIWhKnYmF0C|volume=}} * ''Garuda Pillar of Besnagar'', Archaeological Survey of India, Annual Report (1908–1909). Calcutta: Superintendent of Government Printing, 1912, 129. * {{cite book|last=Goswami |first=Tamal Krishna |editor-first1=Graham M. |editor-last1=Schweig |author-link=Tamal Krishna Goswami |title=A Living Theology of Krishna Bhakti: Essential Teachings of A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-1997-9663-2 |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199796632.001.0001|oclc=7335553355|lccn=2011050785}} * {{cite encyclopedia |year=1987 |surname=Hardy |given=Friedhelm E. |author-link=Friedhelm Hardy |title=Kṛṣṇaism |editor=Mircea Eliade |editor-link=Mircea Eliade |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Religion |pages=387–392|place=New York |publisher=MacMillan |volume=8 |isbn=978-0-02897-135-3 |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/krsnaism |via=Encyclopedia.com}} * {{cite book|surname=Hawley |given=John Stratton |year=2020 |title=Krishna's Playground: Vrindavan in the 21st Century |place=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0190123987}} * {{cite journal|last=Irwin |first=John |title=The Heliodorus Pillar at Besanagar |journal=Purātattva |volume=8|publisher=Archaeological Society of India (co-published Art and Archaeology Research Papers, USA) |year=1974 |pages=166–176}} * {{cite journal|last=Khare |first=M. D. |title=Discovery of a Vishnu temple near the Heliodorus pillar, Besnagar, Dist. Vidisha (MP) |year=1967 |volume=13 |journal=Lalit Kala |jstor=44138838 |pages=21–27}} * {{cite book |last=Klostermaier |first=Klaus K. |title=A Survey of Hinduism |date=2007 |publisher=State University of New York Press |edition=3rd |location=Albany (N.Y.)|url = https://archive.org/details/surveyofhinduism0003klos|isbn = 978-0-7914-7081-7 }} * {{cite book | last = Knott | first = Kim | year = 2000 |volume= | title = Hinduism: A Very Short Introduction | publisher = Oxford University Press | isbn = 978-0-19-285387-5 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Wv8XK_GU9icC }} * {{cite book|last=Kumar Das|first=Sisir|title=A history of Indian literature, 500–1399|publisher=Sahitya Akademi|year=2006|isbn=978-81-260-2171-0|location=|pages=|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BC3l1AbPM8sC}} * {{cite book |last=Mani |first=Vettam |url=http://archive.org/details/puranicencyclopa00maniuoft |title=Puranic encyclopaedia : a comprehensive dictionary with special reference to the epic and Puranic literature |date=1975 |publisher=Delhi : Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-0-8426-0822-0}} * {{cite book|author=Marijke J. Klokke|title=Narrative Sculpture and Literary Traditions in South and Southeast Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fx3mpR4uKmkC|year=2000|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-11865-2}} * {{cite book|last=Matchett|first=Freda|title=Kṛṣṇa, Lord or Avatāra?|publisher=Routledge|year=2001|isbn=978-0-7007-1281-6|location=|pages=|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1oqTYiPeAxMC}} * {{cite book |last=Melton |first=J. Gordon | author-link = J. Gordon Melton |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KDU30Ae4S4cC&pg=PA396 |title=Religious Celebrations: An Encyclopedia of Holidays, Festivals, Solemn Observances, and Spiritual Commemorations |date=2011-09-13 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-59884-205-0}} * {{cite book|surname=Miśra |given=Narayan |title=Annals and Antiquities of the Temple of Jagannātha |editor=Durga Nandan Mishra |year=2005 |place=New Delhi |publisher=Sarup & Sons |isbn=81-7625-747-8 |url={{Google books|WKUkLzqNv64C|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}}} * {{cite book|last=Preciado-Solís|first=Benjamín|title=The Kṛṣṇa Cycle in the Purāṇas: Themes and Motifs in a Heroic Saga |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JvCaWvjGDVEC&pg=PA40 |year=1984|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-0-89581-226-1}} * {{cite thesis|surname=Ramnarace |given=Vijay |year=2014 |title=Rādhā-Kṛṣṇa's Vedāntic Debut: Chronology & Rationalisation in the Nimbārka Sampradāya |type=PhD thesis |place=University of Edinburgh |url=https://www.era.lib.ed.ac.uk/bitstream/handle/1842/26018/Ramnarace2015.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.era.lib.ed.ac.uk/bitstream/handle/1842/26018/Ramnarace2015.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Raychaudhuri |first=Hemchandra |title=Political History of Ancient India |date=1972 |publisher=University of Calcutta |location=Calcutta}} Originally published in 1923 * {{Cite book|first=Ludo|last=Rocher|year=1986|author-link=Ludo Rocher|title=The Puranas|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|isbn=978-3-447-02522-5|location=|pages=}} * {{Cite book|last=Rosen|first=Steven|author-link=Satyaraja Dasa|title=Essential Hinduism|publisher=Praeger|location=New York|pages=|year=2006|isbn=978-0-275-99006-0}} * {{cite book |last=|first=|title=The Sants: Studies in a Devotional Tradition of India |volume=|editor1-first=Karine |editor1-last=Schomer |editor2-first=W. H. |editor2-last=McLeod |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |pages=|year=1987 |isbn=978-8120802773}} * {{cite book |last=Shah |first=Natubhai |title=Jainism: The World of Conquerors |url={{Google books|qLNQKGcDIhsC|plainurl=yes}} |volume=I |pages=|date=2004 |orig-date=1998 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1938-2 |ref={{sfnref|Natubhai Shah|2004}} }} * {{cite book|last=Sheridan|first=Daniel|title=The Advaitic Theism of the Bhāgavata Purāṇa|publisher=South Asia Books|location=Columbia, Mo|pages=|year=1986|isbn=978-81-208-0179-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qrtYYTjYFY8C}} * {{cite book |last=Singh |first=Upinder |author-link=Upinder Singh |title=A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pq2iCwAAQBAJ |volume=|pages=|publisher=Pearson Education |date=2016 |isbn=978-93-325-6996-6 |ref={{sfnref|Upinder Singh|2016}} }} * {{cite book|surname=Starza |given=O. M. |title=The Jagannatha Temple at Puri: Its Architecture, Art and Cult |series=Studies in South Asian culture, 15 |url={{Google books|v4bV3beb0n8C|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |place=Leiden; New York; Köln |year=1993 |publisher=Brill |isbn=90-04-09673-6}} * {{cite book|author1=Susan V Mishra|author2=Himanshu P Ray|title=The Archaeology of Sacred Spaces|publisher=Routledge|year=2017|isbn=978-1-138-67920-7|location=|pages=}} * ''The Jataka or Stories of the Buddha's Former Births'', edited by E. B. Cowell, (1895) * ''The Mahabharata'' of Krishna-Dwaipayana Vyasa, translated by Kisari Mohan Ganguli, published between 1883 and 1896 * ''The Vishnu-Purana'', translated by H. H. Wilson, (1840) * ''The Srimad Bhagavatam'', translated by A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, (1988) copyright Bhaktivedanta Book Trust * {{cite book|surname=Toffin |given=Gérard |chapter=The Power of Boundaries: Transnational Links among Krishna Pranamis of India and Nepal |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uuuICwAAQBAJ&pg=PT249 |editor=John Zavos |display-editors=etal |title=Public Hinduisms |url={{Google books|uuuICwAAQBAJ|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |year=2012 |place=New Delhi |publisher=Sage Publ. India |isbn=978-81-321-1696-7 |pages=249–254}} * {{cite book|last=Varadpande|first=Manohar Laxman|title=History of Indian theatre|publisher=Abhinav Publications|year=1987|isbn=978-81-7017-221-5|url=http://archive.org/details/historyofindiant0000mlva}} * {{cite book |last=Rochford |first=E. Burke |URL=https://books.google.co.in/books/about/Hare_Krishna_Transformed.html?id=HiD5Enrerv0C&redir_esc=y |archive-url=http://archive.org/details/harekrishnatrans0000roch |title=Hare Krishna transformed |date=2007 |publisher=New York University Press |access-date=May 31, 2026 |archive-date=October 14, 2020 |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-8147-7578-3 |language=en |doi=10.1111/j.1748-0922.2007.00197_1.x}} {{refend}}
== Further reading == * {{cite journal |surname=Brown |given=Sara Black |title=Krishna, Christians, and Colors: The Socially Binding Influence of Kirtan Singing at a Utah Hare Krishna Festiva |journal=Ethnomusicology |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5406/ethnomusicology.58.3.0454 |date=2014 |volume=58 |number=3 |pages=454–480 |doi=10.5406/ethnomusicology.58.3.0454|jstor=10.5406/ethnomusicology.58.3.0454 |url-access=subscription }} * {{cite book |surname=Case |given=Margaret H. |title=Seeing Krishna: The Religious World of a Brahman Family in Vrindavan |url={{Google books|Zh7OoTSH5UwC|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |place=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2000 |isbn=0-19-513010-3}} * {{cite journal |surname=Crooke |given=W. |title=The Legends of Krishna |journal=Folklore |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1253142 |date=March 1900 |volume=11 |number=1 |pages=1–42|doi=10.1080/0015587X.1900.9720517 |jstor=1253142 |url-access=subscription }} * {{cite journal |surname=Hudson |given=Dennis |title=Bathing in Krishna: A Study in Vaiṣṇava Hindu Theology |journal=The Harvard Theological Review |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1509739 |date=1980 |volume=73 |number=3/4 |pages=539–566|doi=10.1017/S0017816000002315 |jstor=1509739 |s2cid=162804501 |url-access=subscription }}
== External links == {{Sister project links|wikt= no|n= no |b= no |v= no|commonscat=yes|d=Q42891}} * {{Britannica|323556}} <!--======================== {{No more links}} ============================ | PLEASE BE CAUTIOUS IN ADDING MORE LINKS TO THIS ARTICLE. Wikipedia | | is not a collection of links nor should it be used for advertising. | | | | Excessive or inappropriate links WILL BE DELETED. | | See Wikipedia:External links & Wikipedia:Spam for details. | ========{{No more links}}=============-->
{{Krishna|state = expanded}} {{VishnuAvatars}} {{Hindu Culture and Epics}} {{Mahābhārata}} {{Hindudharma}} {{Portal bar|Hinduism|India|Religion}} {{Authority control}}
Category:Akilattirattu Ammanai Category:Avatars of Vishnu Category:Ayyavazhi mythology Category:Creator gods Category:Characters in the Bhagavata Purana Category:Characters in the Mahabharata Category:Destroyer gods Category:Flautists Category:Forms of Vishnu Category:Hindu eschatology Category:Hindu given names Category:Hindu gods Category:Krishna Category:Life-death-rebirth gods Category:Love and lust gods Category:Miracle workers Category:Names of God in Hinduism Category:People from Mathura Category:Puranic chronology Category:Salakapurusa Category:Savior gods Category:Self-declared messiahs Category:Vaishnavism Category:Year of birth uncertain Category:Year of death uncertain Category:Heroes in Hindu mythology Category:Killed deities Category:Prophets in Ahmadiyya