Rice as food

{{Short description|none}} thumb|right|A bowl of cooked rice, ready to be eaten. Rice is commonly consumed as food around the world. It occurs in long-, medium-, and short-grained types. It is the staple food of over half the world's population.

Hazards associated with rice consumption include arsenic from the soil, and ''Bacillus cereus'' which can grow in poorly-stored cooked rice, and cause food poisoning.

== Types ==

The varieties of rice are typically classified as long-, medium-, and short-grained.<ref>{{cite web|date=February 25, 2008|editor=Fine Cooking|title=Guide to Rice|url=http://www.finecooking.com/articles/guide-to-rice.aspx|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141016030017/http://www.finecooking.com/articles/guide-to-rice.aspx|archive-date=October 16, 2014|access-date=July 24, 2014|publisher=Fine Cooking}}</ref> '''{{visible anchor|Long grain|text=Long-grain rice}}''' is high in amylose and tends to remain intact after cooking. Some varieties of long-grain rice that are high in amylopectin, known as Thai Sticky rice, are usually steamed.<ref>{{cite web |last=Loha-unchit |first=K. |title=White Sticky Rice – Kao Niow |url=http://www.thaifoodandtravel.com/ingredients/stickyr.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121013231727/http://thaifoodandtravel.com/ingredients/stickyr.html|archive-date=October 13, 2012 |access-date=October 12, 2012}}</ref> '''{{visible anchor|Medium grain|text=Medium-grain rice}}''' is high in amylopectin and becomes more sticky. Medium-grain rice is used for sweet dishes, for risotto in Italy, and many rice dishes, such as {{lang|ca-valencia|arròs negre}}, in Spain. '''{{visible anchor|Short grain|text=Short-grain rice}}''' is stickier and allows the rice to hold its shape when cooked.<ref name="Simmons2009">{{cite book |last=Simmons |first=Marie |title=The Amazing World of Rice: with 150 Recipes for Pilafs, Paellas, Puddings, and More |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TLLu9RLUlLkC&pg=PT23 |date=March 10, 2009 |publisher=HarperCollins |isbn=978-0-06-187543-4 |page=23}}</ref> Short-grain rice is used extensively in Japan,<ref>{{cite book |title=Foreign Crops and Markets |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0bojvKVWlvUC&pg=PA850 |year=1928 |publisher=United States Department of Agriculture, Foreign Agricultural Service |page=850 }}</ref> including sushi<ref name="Kitchen2020">{{cite book |author=America's Test Kitchen |title=The Best of America's Test Kitchen 2021: Best Recipes, Equipment Reviews, and Tastings |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=06gSEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA282|date=October 6, 2020 |publisher=America's Test Kitchen |isbn=978-1-948703-40-6 |page=282 }}</ref> and to accompany savoury dishes.<ref name="AlfordDuguid2003">{{cite book |last1=Alford |first1=Jeffrey |last2=Duguid |first2=Naomi |title=Seductions of Rice |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_0PQHTgRVCEC&pg=PA31 |date=January 1, 2003 |publisher=Artisan |isbn=978-1-57965-234-0 |page=31 }}</ref> Short-grain rice is often used for rice pudding.

Independent of grain length and starchiness, rice can also be differentiated by traits such as aroma<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shan |first1=Q |last2=Zhang |first2=Y |last3=Chen |first3=K |last4=Zhang |first4=K |last5=Gao |first5=C |title=Creation of fragrant rice by targeted knockout of the OsBADH2 gene using TALEN technology. |journal=Plant Biotechnology Journal |date=August 2015 |volume=13 |issue=6 |pages=791–800 |doi=10.1111/pbi.12312 |pmid=25599829 |doi-access=free}}</ref> and pigmentation (red, black). So-called wild rice, which are close cousins of domesticated rice, are not usually included in this classification.

<gallery mode=packed> File:Rice grains (IRRI).jpg|Rice comes in many shapes, colors, and sizes File:Jumli Marshi.jpg|Jumli Marshi rice, unhulled, Nepal </gallery>

Rice also differs by the processing applied to it. Rice starts as whole seeds with inedible rice hulls; removing the hull by milling produces brown rice. Polishing produces first rice with germ, then white rice. Cooking white rice then drying produces instant rice, though there is a significant degradation in taste and texture. Parboiled rice is different from instant rice: parboiled rice is first part-cooked with the husk before milling.

Rice flour and starch often are used in batters and breadings to increase crispiness.

<gallery mode=packed> File:Rice Animation.gif|Rice processing A: Rice with chaff B: Brown rice C: Rice with germ D: White rice with bran residue E: Polished (1): Chaff (2): Bran (3): Bran residue (4): Cereal germ (5): Endosperm File:Stages of rice milling.jpg|Unmilled to milled Japanese rice, from left to right, brown rice, rice with germ, white rice File:Brown rice cooked.JPG|Cooked brown rice, Bhutan File:Rice p1160004.jpg|Cooked white rice </gallery>

== Taste factors == The two main components and determinants of taste in rice are starch and protein.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Qiuyuan |last2=Tao |first2=Yu |last3=Cheng |first3=Shuang |last4=Zhou |first4=Lei |last5=Tian |first5=Jinyu |last6=Xing |first6=Zhipeng |last7=Liu |first7=Guodong |last8=Wei |first8=Haiyan |last9=Zhang |first9=Hongcheng |date=November 2020 |title=Relating amylose and protein contents to eating quality in 105 varieties of Japonica rice |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/cche.10358 |journal=Cereal Chemistry |language=en |volume=97 |issue=6 |pages=1303–1312 |doi=10.1002/cche.10358 |s2cid=225104878 |issn=0009-0352|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Citation |last1=Butardo |first1=Vito M. |title=Improving Rice Grain Quality: State-of-the-Art and Future Prospects |date=2019 |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-1-4939-8914-0_2 |work=Rice Grain Quality |volume=1892 |pages=19–55 |editor-last=Sreenivasulu |editor-first=Nese |access-date=2023-11-29 |place=New York, NY |publisher=Springer New York |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-1-4939-8914-0_2 |isbn=978-1-4939-8912-6 |last2=Sreenivasulu |first2=Nese |last3=Juliano |first3=Bienvenido O.|series=Methods in Molecular Biology |pmid=30397798 |s2cid=53245785 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> 80-90% of the weight of an uncooked rice grain is starch, and 7-10% is protein.<ref name=":12" /><ref>{{Citation |last1=Butardo |first1=Vito M. |title=Tailoring Grain Storage Reserves for a Healthier Rice Diet and its Comparative Status with Other Cereals |date=2016 |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1937644815001197 |journal=International Review of Cell and Molecular Biology |volume=323 |pages=31–70 |access-date=2023-11-29 |publisher=Elsevier |language=en |doi=10.1016/bs.ircmb.2015.12.003 |isbn=978-0-12-804808-5 |last2=Sreenivasulu |first2=Nese|pmid=26944618 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Other important components of rice include fat, fibers, and minerals, all comprising less than 1% of rice by weight.<ref name=":22">{{Cite journal |last1=Kasote |first1=Deepak |last2=Sreenivasulu |first2=Nese |last3=Acuin |first3=Cecilia |last4=Regina |first4=Ahmed |date=2022-10-17 |title=Enhancing health benefits of milled rice: current status and future perspectives |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10408398.2021.1925629 |journal=Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition |language=en |volume=62 |issue=29 |pages=8099–8119 |doi=10.1080/10408398.2021.1925629 |pmid=34036858 |s2cid=235201821 |issn=1040-8398|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

The ratio of the two types of starch, linear amylose and branched amylopectin, affects cooked rice texture. Rice is mostly amylopectin, with amylose making up only 0-30% of the total starch.<ref name=":22" /><ref name=":32">{{Cite journal |last1=Ito |first1=Vivian Cristina |last2=Lacerda |first2=Luiz Gustavo |date=2019-12-15 |title=Black rice (Oryza sativa L.): A review of its historical aspects, chemical composition, nutritional and functional properties, and applications and processing technologies |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308814619314165 |journal=Food Chemistry |volume=301 |article-number=125304 |doi=10.1016/j.foodchem.2019.125304 |pmid=31394335 |s2cid=199507042 |issn=0308-8146|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Amylopectin chains form double helices with each other and encourage crystallization, which raises the peak viscosity and starch gelatinization ability of cooked rice,<ref name=":32" /><ref name=":42">{{Cite journal |last1=Shi |first1=Shijie |last2=Wang |first2=Enting |last3=Li |first3=Chengxuan |last4=Cai |first4=Mingli |last5=Cheng |first5=Bo |last6=Cao |first6=Cougui |last7=Jiang |first7=Yang |date=2022-01-13 |title=Use of Protein Content, Amylose Content, and RVA Parameters to Evaluate the Taste Quality of Rice |journal=Frontiers in Nutrition |volume=8 |doi=10.3389/fnut.2021.758547 |issn=2296-861X |pmc=8793496 |pmid=35096925 |doi-access=free }}</ref> meaning higher amylopectin content in rice will lead to a stickier cooked product.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Shi |first1=Shi-jie |last2=Zhang |first2=Gao-yu |last3=Cao |first3=Cou-gui |last4=Jiang |first4=Yang |date=July 2023 |title=Untargeted UHPLC–Q-Exactive-MS-based metabolomics reveals associations between pre- and post-cooked metabolites and the taste quality of geographical indication rice and regular rice |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2095311923001697 |journal=Journal of Integrative Agriculture |language=en |volume=22 |issue=7 |pages=2271–2281 |doi=10.1016/j.jia.2023.06.003|s2cid=259071465 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Gelatinization is also inhibited by protein, and a higher protein content leads to increased hardness of the surface of rice grains.<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":42" /> Protein and amylose content is determined by the conditions of rice growth. Higher concentrations of fertilizer result in higher protein content,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Shi |first1=Shijie |last2=Ma |first2=Yingying |last3=Zhao |first3=Dan |last4=Li |first4=Lina |last5=Cao |first5=Cougui |last6=Jiang |first6=Yang |date=December 2023 |title=The differences in metabolites, starch structure, and physicochemical properties of rice were related to the decrease in taste quality under high nitrogen fertilizer application |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0141813023034426 |journal=International Journal of Biological Macromolecules |language=en |volume=253 |issue=Pt 1 |article-number=126546 |doi=10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.126546|pmid=37643670 |s2cid=261265203 |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Xiong |first1=Ruoyu |last2=Tan |first2=Xueming |last3=Yang |first3=Taotao |last4=Wang |first4=Haixia |last5=Pan |first5=Xiaohua |last6=Zeng |first6=Yongjun |last7=Zhang |first7=Jun |last8=Zeng |first8=Yanhua |date=December 2023 |title=Starch multiscale structure and physicochemical property alterations in high-quality indica rice quality and cooked rice texture under different nitrogen panicle fertilizer applications |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0141813023033512 |journal=International Journal of Biological Macromolecules |language=en |volume=252 |article-number=126455 |doi=10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.126455|pmid=37633549 |s2cid=261184930 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> and nonoptimal environmental factors such as higher temperature and insufficient water make rice chalkier by decreasing starch levels.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jing |first1=Liquan |last2=Chen |first2=Chen |last3=Lu |first3=Qi |last4=Wang |first4=Yunxia |last5=Zhu |first5=Jianguo |last6=Lai |first6=Shangkun |last7=Wang |first7=Yulong |last8=Yang |first8=Lianxin |date=April 2021 |title=How do elevated atmosphere CO2 and temperature alter the physiochemical properties of starch granules and rice taste? |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0048969720361210 |journal=Science of the Total Environment |language=en |volume=766 |article-number=142592 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.142592|pmid=33071134 |bibcode=2021ScTEn.766n2592J |s2cid=224783804 |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Guan |last2=Shen |first2=Xinru |last3=Bai |first3=Chenyang |last4=Zhuang |first4=Zixin |last5=Jiang |first5=Hao |last6=Yang |first6=Meiying |last7=Wei |first7=Xiaoshuang |last8=Wu |first8=Zhihai |date=November 2023 |title=Metabolomic study on the quality differences and physiological characteristics between rice cultivated in drought and flood conditions |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0308814623005630 |journal=Food Chemistry |language=en |volume=425 |article-number=135946 |doi=10.1016/j.foodchem.2023.135946|pmid=37300996 |s2cid=258471389 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

== Preparation ==

Rinsing rice before cooking removes much of the starch, thereby reducing the extent to which individual grains will stick together. This yields a fluffier rice, whereas not rinsing yields a stickier and creamier result.<ref name="Kenyon">{{cite book |last=Kenyon |first=Chelsie |title=Knack Mexican Cooking: A Step-by-Step Guide to Authentic Dishes Made Easy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Nv9Dim73f_YC&pg=PA15 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-0-7627-6206-4 |page=15}}</ref> Rice produced in the US is usually fortified with vitamins and minerals, and rinsing will result in a loss of nutrients. In 2007, Haitian jails suffered from a beriberi epidemic as US-supplied enriched rice were washed before cooking, stripping them of the nutritious layer;<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Sprague |first1=Jeb |last2=Alexandra |first2=Eunida |date=17 January 2007 |title=Haiti: Mysterious Prison Ailment Traced to U.S. Rice |agency=Inter Press Service |url=http://www.ipsnews.net/2007/01/haiti-mysterious-prison-ailment-traced-to-us-rice/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130530034501/http://www.ipsnews.net/2007/01/haiti-mysterious-prison-ailment-traced-to-us-rice/ |archive-date=30 May 2013}}</ref> this is despite FDA's rules requiring fortification nutrients to be somewhat resistant to washing.<ref>{{cite web |title=21 CFR § 137.350 - Enriched rice. |url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/cfr/text/21/137.350 |website=LII / Legal Information Institute |language=en |access-date=2023-03-03 |archive-date=2023-03-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230303060207/https://www.law.cornell.edu/cfr/text/21/137.350 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Rice may be soaked to decrease cooking time, conserve fuel, minimize exposure to high temperature, and reduce stickiness. For some varieties, soaking improves the texture of the cooked rice by increasing expansion of the grains. Rice may be soaked for 30 minutes up to several hours.

Brown rice may be soaked in warm water for 20 hours to stimulate germination. This process, called germinated brown rice (GBR),<ref>{{cite web |first1=Shoichi |last1=Ito |first2=Yukihiro |last2=Ishikawa |title=Marketing of Value-Added Rice Products in Japan: Germinated Grown Rice and Rice Bread|url=http://www.hatsuga.com/DOMER/english/en/GBRRB.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130530221121/http://www.hatsuga.com/DOMER/english/en/GBRRB.html |archive-date=May 30, 2013 |access-date=February 12, 2004 |publisher=Tottori University |location=Japan}}</ref> activates enzymes and enhances amino acids including gamma-aminobutyric acid to improve the nutritional value of brown rice. This method is a result of research carried out for the United Nations International Year of Rice.

Rice is cooked by boiling or steaming, and absorbs water during cooking. With the absorption method, rice is cooked in a volume of water equal to the volume of dry rice plus any evaporation losses, which is commonly measured with the tip of the finger.<ref>{{cite book |last=Davidson |first=Alan |author-link=Alan Davidson (food writer) |title=The Oxford Companion to Food |date=2014 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-967733-7 |page=618 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RL6LAwAAQBAJ&dq=rice+finger+water+oxford&pg=PA618 |access-date=July 21, 2023 |quote=the [Filipino] way of measuring is to put the middle finger in, and add enough water to reach the knuckle}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Tila |first1=Jet |author1-link=Jet Tila |title=101 Asian Dishes You Need to Cook Before You Die |date=2017 |publisher=Page Street Publishing Co. |isbn=978-1-62414-382-3 |page=174 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tSFoDQAAQBAJ&dq=rice+finger+water&pg=PT175 |access-date=July 21, 2023 |quote=Insert your index until touching the top of the rice with your fingertip. Add water until the water just reaches the first crease of your finger.}}</ref><ref>{{cite AV media |first=Dan |last=Souza |date= November 17, 2018 |title=The Best Way to Cook Rice is All About the Right Ratio |work=What's Eating Dan? |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JOOSikanIlI |publisher=America's Test Kitchen }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Simmering Rice |url=https://www.exploratorium.edu/food/simmering-rice |website=exploratorium.edu |access-date=July 21, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200222175005/https://www.exploratorium.edu/food/simmering-rice |archive-date=February 22, 2020}}</ref> With the rapid-boil method, rice may be cooked in a large quantity of water which is drained before serving. Rapid-boil preparation is not desirable with enriched rice, as much of the enrichment additives are lost when the water is discarded. Electric rice cookers, popular in Asia and Latin America, simplify the process of cooking rice. Rice (or any other grain) is sometimes quickly fried in oil or fat before boiling (for example saffron rice or risotto); this makes the cooked rice less sticky, and is a cooking style commonly called pilaf in Iran and Afghanistan or biryani in India and Pakistan.

== Dishes ==

In Arab cuisine, rice is an ingredient of many soups and dishes with fish, poultry, and other types of meat. It is used to stuff vegetables or is wrapped in grape leaves (dolma). When combined with milk, sugar, and honey, it is used to make desserts. In some regions, such as Tabaristan, bread is made using rice flour. Rice may be made into congee (also called rice porridge or rice gruel) by adding more water than usual, so that the cooked rice is saturated with water, usually to the point that it disintegrates. Rice porridge is commonly eaten as a breakfast food, and is a traditional food for the sick.

== Nutrition == {{Nutritional value |name=Rice, white, long-grain, regular, unenriched, cooked without salt |water=68.44 g |kcal=130 |protein=2.69 g |fat=0.28 g |carbs=28.1 g |sugars=0.05 g |fiber=0.4 g |iron_mg=0.2 |manganese_mg=0.472 |calcium_mg=10 |magnesium_mg=12 |phosphorus_mg=43 |potassium_mg=35 |sodium_mg=1 |zinc_mg=0.049 |pantothenic_mg=0 |vitB6_mg=0.093 |folate_ug=0 |thiamin_mg=0.02 |riboflavin_mg=0.013 |niacin_mg=0.4 |note=[https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/food-details/169757/nutrients Link to USDA FoodData Central entry] |source_usda=1 }} Rice is the staple food of over half the world's population. It is the predominant dietary energy source for 17 countries in Asia and the Pacific, 9 countries in North and South America and 8 countries in Africa. Rice provides 20% of the world's dietary energy supply, while wheat supplies 19% and maize (corn) 5%.<ref>{{cite web |title=Rice is Life |publisher= United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) |year=2004 |url=http://www.fao.org/rice2004/en/f-sheet/factsheet3.pdf |access-date=November 21, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111110193515/http://www.fao.org/rice2004/en/f-sheet/factsheet3.pdf |archive-date=November 10, 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Cooked unenriched long-grain white rice is composed of 68% water, 28% carbohydrates, 3% protein, and 1% fat (table). A {{convert|100|g|oz|abbr=off|adj=on|frac=2}} reference serving of it provides {{convert|130|kcal|kJ|order=flip|abbr=off}} of food energy and contains moderate amounts of manganese per 100-gram serving (table). Cooked unenriched short-grain rice has a very similar nutritional profile (see footnote link).<ref>{{cite web |title=168932/2512381/20444 Rice, white, long grain, unenriched, raw |url=https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/food-details/168932/nutrients |website=fdc.nal.usda.gov}}</ref>

A detailed analysis of nutrient content of rice suggests that the nutrition value of rice varies based on a number of factors. It depends on the type and strain of rice, such as white, brown, red, and black (or purple) varieties, each having different prevalence across world regions.<ref name="who2018">{{cite book |title=Guideline: Fortification of rice with vitamins and minerals as a public health strategy |url=http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/272535/9789241550291-eng.pdf?ua=1 |publisher=World Health Organization (WHO)|isbn=978-92-4-155029-1 |access-date=August 7, 2018 |date=2018}}</ref> It also depends on nutrient quality of the soil rice is grown in, whether and how the rice is polished or processed, the manner it is enriched, and how it is prepared before consumption.<ref>{{cite web |title=Rice in human nutrition |year=1993 |publisher=United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) |first=Juliano |last=Bo |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/T0567E/T0567E00.htm |access-date=November 21, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111001002157/http://www.fao.org/docrep/T0567E/T0567E00.htm |archive-date=October 1, 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref>

A 2018 World Health Organization (WHO) guideline showed that fortification of rice to reduce malnutrition may involve different micronutrient strategies, including iron only, iron with zinc, vitamin A, and folic acid, or iron with other B-complex vitamins, such as thiamin, niacin, vitamin B6, and pantothenic acid.<ref name=who2018/> A systematic review of clinical research on the efficacy of rice fortification showed the strategy had the main effect of reducing the risk of iron deficiency by 35% and increasing blood levels of hemoglobin.<ref name=who2018/> The guideline established a major recommendation: "Fortification of rice with iron is recommended as a public health strategy to improve the iron status of populations, in settings where rice is a staple food."<ref name=who2018/>

Rice grown experimentally under elevated carbon dioxide levels, similar to those predicted for the year 2100 as a result of human activity, had less iron, zinc, and protein, as well as lower levels of thiamin, riboflavin, folic acid, and pantothenic acid.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wishart |first=Skye |date=July–August 2018 |title=Second-rate grains |url=https://www.nzgeo.com/stories/second-rate-grains/ |journal=New Zealand Geographic |issue=152 |page=25 |access-date=August 3, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180803074429/https://www.nzgeo.com/stories/second-rate-grains/ |archive-date=August 3, 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> The following table shows the nutrient content of rice and other major staple foods in a raw form on a dry weight basis to account for their different water contents.<ref>{{cite web |title=USDA FoodData Central |publisher= United States Department of Agriculture |url=https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403171801/https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html |archive-date=April 3, 2019 |date=April 1, 2019 |access-date=July 22, 2023}}</ref>

== Hazards ==

=== Arsenic ===

As arsenic occurs in soil, water, and air, the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) monitors the levels of arsenic in foods, particularly in rice products used commonly for infant food.<ref name="fda-ars">{{cite web |url=https://www.fda.gov/food/foodborneillnesscontaminants/metals/ucm319870.htm |title=Arsenic in Rice and Rice Products |publisher=United States Environmental Protection Agency |date=April 24, 2017 |access-date=May 12, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170502180624/https://www.fda.gov/Food/FoodborneIllnessContaminants/Metals/ucm319870.htm |archive-date=May 2, 2017 }}</ref> While growing, rice plants tend to absorb arsenic more readily than other food crops, requiring expanded testing by the FDA for possible arsenic-related risks associated with rice consumption in the United States.<ref name=fda-ars/> In April 2016, the FDA proposed a limit of 100 parts per billion (ppb) for inorganic arsenic in infant rice cereal and other foods to minimize exposure of infants to arsenic.<ref name=fda-ars/> For water contamination by arsenic, the United States Environmental Protection Agency has set a lower standard of 10 ppb.<ref name="epa">{{cite web |url=https://www.epa.gov/dwreginfo/chemical-contaminant-rules |title=Chemical Contaminant Rules |publisher=United States Environmental Protection Agency |date=April 24, 2017 |access-date=May 12, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170519033834/https://www.epa.gov/dwreginfo/chemical-contaminant-rules |archive-date=May 19, 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Arsenic is a IARC Group 1 carcinogen.<ref name=fda-ars/><ref name=EFSA2009>{{cite journal |title=Scientific Opinion on Arsenic in Food |journal=EFSA Journal |date=October 28, 2009 |volume=7 |issue=10 |page=1351 |doi=10.2903/j.efsa.2009.1351 |author=EFSA Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain (CONTAM) |doi-access=free }}</ref> The amount of arsenic in rice varies widely with the greatest concentration in brown rice and rice grown on land formerly used to grow cotton, such as in Arkansas, Louisiana, Missouri, and Texas.<ref name=CR1112>{{cite news |title=Arsenic in your food: Our findings show a real need for federal standards for this toxin |url=http://www.consumerreports.org/cro/magazine/2012/11/arsenic-in-your-food/index.htm |access-date=March 13, 2014 |work=Consumer Reports |date=November 2012 |url-status=live |archive-date=March 8, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140308144211/http://www.consumerreports.org/cro/magazine/2012/11/arsenic-in-your-food/index.htm }}</ref> White rice grown in Arkansas, Louisiana, Missouri, and Texas, which account collectively for 76 percent of American-produced rice, had higher levels of arsenic than other regions of the world studied, possibly because of past use of arsenic-based pesticides to control cotton weevils.<ref name="cpotera"/> Jasmine rice from Thailand and Basmati rice from Pakistan and India contain the least arsenic among rice varieties in one study.<ref name="cpotera">{{cite journal |last=Potera |first=Carol |title=U.S. rice serves up arsenic |journal=Environmental Health Perspectives |volume=115 |issue=6 |pages=A296 |date=June 2007 |pmid=17589576 |pmc=1892142 |doi=10.1289/ehp.115-a296 }}</ref>

=== ''Bacillus cereus'' ===

Cooked rice can contain ''Bacillus cereus'' spores, which produce an emetic toxin when left at {{convert|4|–|60|°C|°F}}. When storing cooked rice for use the next day, rapid cooling is advised to reduce the risk of toxin production.<ref>{{cite web |title=Can reheating rice cause food poisoning? |url=http://www.nhs.uk/chq/Pages/can-reheating-rice-cause-food-poisoning.aspx?CategoryID=51&SubCategoryID=215 |work=National Health Service |date=June 26, 2018 |access-date=February 19, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130708044941/http://www.nhs.uk/chq/pages/can-reheating-rice-cause-food-poisoning.aspx?categoryid=51&subcategoryid=215 |archive-date=July 8, 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> One of the enterotoxins produced by ''Bacillus cereus'' is heat-resistant; reheating contaminated rice kills the bacteria, but does not destroy the toxin already present.

== References ==

Category:Cereals Category:Types of food Category:Rice