Loka

{{short description|Concept of world in Indian religions}} {{Other uses}} thumb|upright|Rajaloka, Saṁgrahaṇīratna by Śrīcandra, 17th century. {{planes of existence}} '''Loka''' ({{Langx|sa|लोक}}) is a concept in Hinduism and other Indian religions, that may be translated as a planet, the universe, a plane, or a realm of existence. In some philosophies, it may also be interpreted as a mental state that one can experience.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Lin |first=Qian |title=On the Early Buddhist Attitude Toward Metaphysics |publisher=Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands |year=2022 |pages=143–162}}</ref> A primary concept in several Indian religions is the idea that different lokas are home to various divine beings, and one takes birth in such realms based on their karma.<ref name=":0" />

==Hinduism== ===Three lokas=== {{Main|Trailokya}} [[File:WLA vanda Vishnu as the Cosmic Man.jpg|thumb|Vishvarupa of Vishnu as the Cosmic Man with the three realms: heaven - Satya to Bhuvar loka (head to belly), earth - Bhu loka (groin), underworld - Atala to Patala loka (legs).]] The most common classification of lokas in Hinduism is the Trailokya, or the three worlds.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/loka "Loka" in the Encyclopedia Britannica]</ref>

The concept of the three worlds has a number of different interpretations in Hindu cosmology.

In Hindu literature, the three worlds refer to either the earth (Bhuloka), heaven (Svarga), and hell (Naraka),<ref>{{Cite web |last=www.wisdomlib.org |date=2017-11-18 |title=Trailokya: 21 definitions |url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/trailokya |access-date=2022-10-24 |website=www.wisdomlib.org |language=en}}</ref> or the earth (Bhuloka), heaven (Svarga), and the netherworld (Patala).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Maruvada |first=Surya N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=krvTDwAAQBAJ&dq=three+worlds+hinduism+heaven%2C+earth%2C+netherworld&pg=PT181 |title=Who is Who in Hindu Mythology - VOL 2: A Comprehensive Collection of Stories from the Pur??as |date=2020-03-02 |publisher=Notion Press |isbn=978-1-64805-686-4 |language=en}}</ref>

==== Bhuloka ==== In the Narada Purana, Bhuloka is identified with the planet Earth, the world of human beings. It is described to be split up into seven regions, referred to as dvipas (islands). These regions are known as Jambudvipa, Plakshadvipa, Shalmaladvipa, Kushadvipa, Kraunchadvipa, Shakadvipa, and Pushkaradvipa. Of special significance is the Indian subcontinent, referred to as Bharatavarsha, which is a land where the fruits of one's actions allows one passage into either Svarga or Naraka. Bhuloka also has seven oceans, namely, Lavana, Ikshu, Sura, Sarpih, Dadhi, Dughdha, and Jala.<ref>{{Cite web |last=www.wisdomlib.org |date=2013-05-25 |title=Geography |url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/the-narada-purana/d/doc57523.html |access-date=2022-10-24 |website=www.wisdomlib.org |language=en}}</ref>

==== Svarga ==== {{Main|Svarga}} Generally translated as heaven, Svarga is identified with the realm of Indra and the devas in contemporary Hinduism. The Vedas offer the reward of Svarga as one's destination for the proper practice of sacrificial rituals on earth.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Cush |first1=Denise |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i_T0HeWE-EAC&dq=svarga+description&pg=PA844 |title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism |last2=Robinson |first2=Catherine A. |last3=York |first3=Michael |date=2008 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-0-7007-1267-0 |pages=844 |language=en}}</ref> In Vedic mythology, Svarga is filled with the nectar of immortality, amrita, with lakes containing lotuses, pools of wine, milk, and ghee, as well as streams that are replete with honey. It is abundant with food and refreshments, and equal opportunity is offered to all of its denizens.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Nagendra Kr |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jXw7-PdwZ7oC&dq=svarga+description&pg=PA101 |title=Vedic Mythology |date=1997 |publisher=APH Publishing |isbn=978-81-7024-867-5 |pages=101 |language=en}}</ref> It is described to be an infinite, complete, as well as an immortal realm, offering pleasure to those rare few who are able to ascend to it. It is sometimes associated with Pitṛloka, the realm of one's ancestors, but this association is not present in all literature.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Craig |first=Edward |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5m5z_ca-qDkC&dq=svarga+description&pg=PA254 |title=Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Index |date=1998 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-0-415-07310-3 |pages=254 |language=en}}</ref>

==== Naraka ==== {{Main|Naraka (Hinduism)}} Naraka is generally translated as hell, and refers to the loka that humans are sent to, to be punished for their sins. Ruled by Yama, sinners are offered appropriate punishments for their sins on earth, and after a period of time, reborn on earth with bad vipāka, which is the effect of bad karma.<ref>{{Cite web |last=www.wisdomlib.org |date=2009-03-29 |title=Naraka, Nāraka: 33 definitions |url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/naraka |access-date=2022-10-24 |website=www.wisdomlib.org |language=en}}</ref> The ''Bhagavata Purana'' enumerates the following 28 Narakas: Tamisra, Andhatamisra, Raurava, Maharaurava, Kumbhipaka, Kalasutra, Asipatravana, Sukaramukha, Andhakupa, Krimibhojana, Samdamsa, Taptasurmi, Vajrakantaka-salmali, Vaitarani, Puyoda, Pranarodha, Visasana, Lalabhaksa, Sarameyadana, Avichi, Ayahpana, Ksharakardama, Raksogana-bhojana, Sulaprota, Dandasuka, Avata-nirodhana, Paryavartana, and Suchimukha.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2012-11-13 |title=Srimad Bhagavatam Canto 5 Chapter 26 |url=http://vedabase.net/sb/5/26/en2 |access-date=2022-10-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121113025849/http://vedabase.net/sb/5/26/en2 |archive-date=2012-11-13 }}</ref>

The Brahmanda Purana conceives them to be Bhūta (past), Bhavya (future), and Bhavat (present)<ref>{{Cite web |last=www.wisdomlib.org |date=2019-06-20 |title=Vaivasvata Manvantara: the Mārīca creation [Chapter 38] |url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/the-brahmanda-purana/d/doc362856.html |access-date=2022-10-24 |website=www.wisdomlib.org |language=en}}</ref>

The scholar Deborah Soifer describes the development of the concept of lokas as follows:

<blockquote>The concept of a loka or lokas develops in the Vedic literature. Influenced by the special connotations that a word for space might have for a nomadic people, ''loka'' in the Veda did not simply mean place or world, but had a positive valuation: it was a place or position of religious or psychological interest with a special value or function of its own. Hence, inherent in the 'loka' concept in the earliest literature was a double aspect; that is, coexistent with spatiality was a religious or soteriological meaning, which could exist independent of a spatial notion, an 'immaterial' significance. The most common cosmological conception of lokas in the Veda was that of the trailokya or triple world: three worlds consisting of earth, atmosphere or sky, and heaven, making up the universe."<ref>Soiver, Deborah A., ''The Myths of Narasimha and Vamana: Two Avatars in Cosmological Perspective'' State University of New York Press (Nov 1991), {{ISBN|978-0-7914-0799-8}} p. 51 [https://books.google.com/books?id=OoFDK_sDGHwC&dq=Vedas+Lokas&pg=PA51]</ref><br></blockquote>

===Fourteen lokas=== {{main|Hindu cosmology#Lokas|Urdhva lokas|Patala|}} In the Puranas and in the Atharvaveda, there are 14 worlds, seven higher ones (''Vyahrtis'') and seven lower ones (''Pātālas''), viz. ''bhu'', ''bhuvas'', ''svar'', ''mahas'', ''janas'', ''tapas'', and ''satya'' above and ''atala'', ''vitala'', ''sutala'', ''rasātala'', ''talātala'', ''mahātala'', ''pātāla'' and ''naraka'' at the bottom.{{cn|date=October 2025}}{{or|date=October 2025}} {{Unreliable source?|date=June 2022}} The higher lokas (1-7) are described as the heavens, populated by higher gods, and full of truth. The lower lokas (8-14) constitute the different "hells".<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Haag |first=James W |title=HINDU COSMOGONY/ COSMOLOGY |publisher=Routledge, 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN |year=2012 |pages=503–504}}</ref> In each of these realms are different deities and beings 'living out their karmic trajectories". Those beings in the higher realms have attained a temporary spiritual liberation due to their positive merits for having strengthened their detachment to the mind, ego and sense objects.<ref name=":0" /> However, ultimate liberation (moksha) is regarded as the highest goal in human life, in which one achieves ultimate union with God.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mishra |first=R.C |title=Moksha and the Hindu Worldview |publisher=New Delhi, India: SAGE Publications |year=2013 |pages=28}}</ref> Moksha, in turn, requires total liberation/detachment from worldly objects and desires.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mishra |first=R.C |title=Moksha and the Hindu Worldview |publisher=New Delhi, India: SAGE Publications |year=2013 |pages=37}}</ref>

<gallery> File:Upper seven Lokas.png|Higher seven Lokas File:Lower seven Lokas purana.png|The lower seven Lokas </gallery>

Lokas: # Satya-loka (Brahma-loka) # Tapa-loka # Jana-loka # Mahar-loka # Svar-loka (Svarga-loka) # Bhuvar-loka # Bhu-loka # Atala-loka # Vitala-loka # Sutala-loka # Talatala-loka # Mahatala-loka # Rasatala-loka # Patala-loka Another lineup of the fourteen lokas is stated as follows:<ref>{{Cite web |last=www.wisdomlib.org |date=2008-06-21 |title=Loka: 45 definitions |url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/loka |access-date=2022-10-24 |website=www.wisdomlib.org |language=en}}</ref>

# Bhur-loka # Bhuvar-loka # Suvar-loka # Mahar-loka # Janar-loka # Tapar-loka # Satya-loka # Brahma-loka # Pitri-loka # Soma-loka # Indra-loka # Gandharva-loka # Rakshasa-loka # Yaksha-loka

===Gallery===

<gallery> File:Hinducosm Map1.svg|Large scale structure of the Brahmanda (material sphere-like Universe) According to Hindu cosmology, the universe contains 7 upper and 7 lower planes of existence. File:HinducosmoMap2.svg|Map 2: Intermediate neighbourhood of the Earth according to one Hindu cosmology. File:HinducosmoMap3.svg|Map 3: Local neighbourhood of the Earth according to one Hindu cosmology. </gallery>

== Buddhism == {{Further|Buddhist cosmology}}

=== Six lokas === {{main|Six Lokas}}

In the Tibetan and Tantric schools, "Six Lokas" refers to a Bönpo and Nyingmapa spiritual practice or discipline that works with chakras and the six dimensions or classes of beings in the Bhavachakra. In Buddhist cosmology, Kama-Loka, Rupa-Loka, Arupa-Loka are the realms that are inhabited by various beings.<ref>Desired Realms (Rupa Loka, Arupa Loka, Kama Loka)</ref>{{clarify|date=July 2020}} Additionally, those who inhabit these realms will identify with the characteristics of that realm. For example, a being that resides in Kama-loka experiences predominantly sensual desires, whereas a being in Rupa-loka will experience deep meditation.<ref name=":1" /> Various early suttas also suggest that there is a close relationship between psychology and cosmology, equating to different levels of existence in the cosmos, which can be interpreted as the afformentioned lokas.<ref name=":1" />

=== Three lokas === {{main|Trailokya#Buddhist cosmology}} There is a cosmological view in Buddhism called Trailokya.<ref>{{Cite web |title=triloka |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803105721221 |access-date=2021-10-09 |website=Oxford Reference |language=en}}</ref> In early Buddhism, based upon the Pali Canon and related Agamas, there are three distinct realms: First the ''Kama Loka'', or the world of sensuality, in which humans, animals, and some devas reside, the second is ''Rupadhatu Loka'', or the world of material existence, in which certain beings mastering specific meditative attainments reside, and the third is ''Arupadhatu Loka'', or the immaterial, formless world, in which formless spirits reside. Arahants, who have attained the highest goal of Nirvana have unbound themselves from individual existence in any form, in any realm, and cannot be found here, there, or in between, i.e., they are found in no loka whatsoever.{{Citation needed|date=November 2022}} The early suttas also contain information regarding another important domain known as the supramundane realm, (''lokottara''/''lokuttara'' 出世間, “beyond the world”), which is described as being experienced by awakened noble beings.<ref name=":1" />

== Jainism == {{main|Jain cosmology}} [[File:Jain universe.JPG|thumb|Universe structure as told by Kevalins]] In Jain texts, the universe is referred to as loka. Although loka originally means "open space," Jain teachers preferred to derive it from the verbal root ''lok'', which means to see. They explain loka as "that which is seen by the omniscient ones."<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Dundas |first=Paul |title=The Jains |date=2002 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-26605-5 |edition=2nd |series=Library of religious beliefs and practices |location=London; New York |pages=90}}</ref>

Jain cosmology postulates an eternal and ever-existing loka which works on universal natural laws, there being no creator and destroyer deity.<ref>Jain cosmology</ref> According to the Jain cosmology, the universe is divided into three parts:<ref name="Shah, Natubhai 1998. p. 25">Shah, Natubhai (1998). p. 25</ref> # Urdhva Loka - the realms of the gods or heavens # Madhya Loka – the realms of the humans, animals and plants # Adho Loka – the realms of the hellish beings or the infernal regions Jain cosmology uses the terms ''loka'' and ''aloka'' to describe the inhabitable and uninhabitable spaces in the universe. The philosophy describes how inhabitable space (''loka'') will never penetrate into the uninhabitable space (''aloka)'' and vice versa, both of which are a subdivision of space (''ākāśa'').<ref>{{Cite book |last=Balcerowicz |first=Piotr |title=Beginnings of Jaina Ontology and Its Models |publisher=Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands |year=2021 |pages=657–697}}</ref> In the ''aloka'', there is nothing except strong winds.<ref name=":2" /> In Jain cosmology, on achieving moksha, the soul becomes free of the wordly realm once the fruits of all good and bad karmas have been received.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mishra |first=R.C |title=Moksha and the Hindu Worldview |publisher=Sage Publications |year=2013 |pages=28}}</ref>

== Theosophy == {{Main|Trailokya#Theosophical views}} The concept of lokas was adopted by Theosophy, and can be found in the writings of Blavatsky and G. de Purucker. One of Blavatsky's three worlds are kamaloka (world of desires), which is like a temporary after-life state or an astral plane, according to the teachings of Blavatsky, Leadbeater, and Steiner.

== References == {{reflist}}

{{Brahmanda}} {{Death in Hinduism}} {{HinduMythology}}

Category:Hindu cosmology Category:Buddhist cosmology Category:Jain cosmology Category:Sanskrit words and phrases