Leopard tortoise

{{Short description|Species of tortoise}} {{Speciesbox | image = Leopard Tortoise (Stigmochelys pardalis) (17331907085).jpg | image_caption = On the S90 Road north of Satara, Kruger National Park, South Africa | status = LC | status_system = IUCN3.1 | status_ref = <ref name="iucn status 12 November 2021">{{cite iucn |author=Baker, P.J. |author2=Kabigumila, J. |author3=Leuteritz, T. |author4=Hofmeyr, M. |author5=Ngwava, J.M. |date=2015 |title=''Stigmochelys pardalis'' |volume=2015 |article-number=e.T163449A1009442 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-4.RLTS.T163449A1009442.en |access-date=12 November 2021}}</ref> | status2 = CITES_A2 | status2_system = CITES | status2_ref = <ref name="CITES">{{Cite web|title=Appendices {{!}} CITES|url=https://cites.org/eng/app/appendices.php|access-date=2022-01-14|website=cites.org}}</ref> | genus = Stigmochelys | species = pardalis | authority = (Bell, 1828)<ref name=TTWG/><ref name = "Fritz&Bininda-Emonds">{{Cite journal | last = Fritz | first = U. |author2=Bininda-Emonds, O. R. P. | title = When genes meet nomenclature: Tortoise phylogeny and the shifting generic concepts of ''Testudo'' and ''Geochelone'' | journal = Zoology | volume = 110 | issue = 4 | pages = 298–307 | publisher = Elsevier |date = 2007-07-03 | doi = 10.1016/j.zool.2007.02.003 | pmid = 17611092}}</ref> | synonyms = {{Hidden begin|title=Synonyms}} *''Testudo pardalis'' Bell, 1828 *''Testudo biguttata'' Cuvier, 1829 (''nomen nudum'') *''Testudo armata'' Boie, 1831 (''nomen nudum'') *''Testudo bipunctata'' Gray, 1831 *''Geochelone'' (''Geochelone'') ''pardalis'' — Fitzinger, 1835 *''Megachersine pardalis'' — Hewitt, 1933 *''Testudo pardalis pardalis'' — Loveridge, 1935 *''Geochelone pardalis pardalis'' — Loveridge & E. Williams, 1957 *''Stigmochelys pardalis'' — Gerlach, 2001 *''Centrochelys pardalis pardalis'' — Vetter, 2002 *''Stigmochelys pardalis pardalis'' — Bour, 2002 *''Psammobates pardalis'' — Le, Raxworthy, McCord & Mertz, 2006 *''Testudo pardalis babcocki'' Loveridge, 1935 *''Geochelone pardalis babcocki'' — Loveridge & E. Williams, 1957 *''Geochelone babcocki'' — Pritchard, 1967 *''Geochelone paradalis babcocki'' — Dadd, 1974 *''Geochelone pardalis baboocki'' Młynarski, 1976 (''ex errore'') *''Centrochelys pardalis babcocki'' — Vetter, 2002 *''Stigmochelys pardalis babcocki'' — Bour, 2002 *''Geochelone pardalis babcockii'' Le, Raxworthy, McCord & Mertz, 2006 (''ex errore'') {{Hidden end}} | synonyms_ref = <ref>{{Cite journal | journal = Vertebrate Zoology | title = Checklist of Chelonians of the World | year = 2007 | author = Fritz, Uwe | author2 = Havaš, Peter | volume = 57 | issue = 2 | pages = 294–295 | doi = 10.3897/vz.57.e30895 | s2cid = 87809001 | doi-access = free }}</ref> }}

The '''leopard tortoise''' ('''''Stigmochelys pardalis''''') is a large and attractively marked tortoise found in the savannas of eastern and southern Africa, from Sudan to the southern Cape Province. It is the only extant member of the genus ''Stigmochelys'', although in the past, it was commonly placed in ''Geochelone''.<ref name="TTWG"/> This tortoise is a grazing species that favors semiarid, thorny to grassland habitats. In both very hot and very cold weather, it may dwell in abandoned fox, jackal, or aardvark burrows. The leopard tortoise does not dig other than to make nests in which to lay eggs. Given its propensity for grassland habitats, it grazes extensively upon mixed grasses. It also favors succulents and thistles.

==Taxonomy and etymology== The phylogenic placement of the leopard tortoise has been subject to several revisions. Different authors have placed it in ''Geochelone'' (1957), ''Stigmochelys'' (2001), ''Centrochelys'' (2002), and ''Psammobates'' (2006). More recently, consensus appears to have settled on ''Stigmochelys'', a monotypic genus.<ref name=TTWG>{{cite book |author=Turtle Taxonomy Working Group |chapter=Turtles of the world, 7th edition: annotated checklist of taxonomy, synonymy, distribution with maps, and conservation status |title=Conservation Biology of Freshwater Turtles and Tortoises: A Compilation Project of the IUCN/SSC Tortoise and Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group|date=2014 |chapter-url=https://www.iucn-tftsg.org/wp-content/uploads/file/Accounts/crm_5_000_checklist_v7_2014.pdf |publisher=IUCN/SSC Tortoise and Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group |series=Chelonian Research Monographs |volume=5 |issue=7 |pages=329–479 |doi=10.3854/crm.5.000.checklist.v7.2014|isbn=978-0-9653540-9-7 }}</ref><ref name="Fritz&Bininda-Emonds" /><ref name="iucn status 12 November 2021" /> Considerable debate has occurred about the existence of two subspecies, ''S. p. pardalis'' and ''S. p. babcocki'', but recent work does not support this distinction.<ref name="iucn status 12 November 2021" />

''Stigmochelys'' is a combination of Greek words: ''stigma'' meaning "mark" or "point" and ''chelone'' meaning "tortoise". The specific name ''pardalis'' is from the Latin word ''pardus'' meaning "leopard" and refers to the leopard-like spots on the tortoise's shell.

== Description == thumb|200px|left|Shell patterns fade in mature specimens. The leopard tortoise is the fourth-largest species of tortoise in the world, with typical adults reaching {{convert|40|cm|in|abbr=on}} and weighing {{convert|13|kg|lb|abbr=on}}. Adults tend to be larger in the northern and southern ends of their range, where typical specimens weigh up to {{convert|20|kg|lb|abbr=on}}, and an exceptionally large tortoise may reach {{convert|70|cm|in|abbr=on}} and weigh {{convert|40|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Branch">{{cite book | last = Branch| first = Bill |author-link=William Roy Branch| title = Tortoises, Terrapins & Turtles of Africa | publisher = Struik Publishers| year = 2008| location = South Africa| isbn = 978-1-77007-463-7 | page = 128 }}</ref>

The carapace is high and domed with steep, almost vertical sides. Juveniles and young adults are attractively marked with black blotches, spots, or even dashes and stripes on a yellow background. In mature adults, the markings tend to fade to a nondescript brown or grey. The head and limbs are uniformly colored yellow, tan, or brown.<ref name="Branch" />

==Distribution and habitat== They are widely distributed across the arid and savanna regions of eastern and southern Africa, extending from South Sudan and Somalia, across East Africa, to South Africa and Namibia. The species is generally absent from the humid forest regions of Central Africa. Over this range, the leopard tortoise occupies the most varied habitats of any African tortoise, including grasslands, thorn-scrub, mesic brushland, and savannas. They can be found at altitudes ranging from sea level to {{convert|2900|m|ft|abbr=on}}.<ref name="TTWG" /><ref name="iucn status 12 November 2021" />

== Ecology and behavior == thumb|200px|right|Leopard tortoise eating plant material thumb|200px|right|Leopard tortoise eating Leopard tortoises are herbivorous; their diet consists of a wide variety of plants including forbs, thistles, grasses, and succulents. They consume berries and other fruits when available.<ref name="animaldiversity.org">{{cite web | url=https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Psammobates_pardalis/ | title=Psammobates pardalis (Leopard Tortoise) | website=Animal Diversity Web }}</ref> They sometimes gnaw on bones or even ash and hyena feces to obtain calcium, necessary for bone development and their eggshells.<ref name="animaldiversity.org"/> Seeds can pass undigested through the gut, so the leopard tortoise plays a significant role in seed dispersal. Normally active during the day, they are less active during hot weather or during the dry season.<ref name="iucn status 12 November 2021" /><ref name="Branch" />

The leopard tortoise reaches sexual maturity between 12 and 15 years old,<ref name="iucn status 12 November 2021" /> and may live as long as 80 to 100 years.<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.marylandzoo.org/animal/leopard-tortoise/ |title=Leopard Tortoise |publisher=Maryland Zoo |access-date=2021-01-30}}</ref> During the mating season, males fight over females, ramming and butting their competitors. They trail after females for quite some distance, often ramming them into submission. When mating, the male makes grunting vocalizations. Nesting occurs between May and October when the female digs a hole and lays a clutch of five to 30 eggs. As many as five to seven clutches may be laid in a single season. Incubation takes 8–15 months depending on temperature.<ref name=Ernst>{{cite book|last1=Ernst|first1=Carl H.|last2=Barbour|first2=Roger W.|title=Turtles of the World|url=https://archive.org/details/turtlesofworld00erns|url-access=registration|date=1989|publisher=Smithsonian Institution Press|pages=[https://archive.org/details/turtlesofworld00erns/page/248 248–249]|isbn=978-0-87474-414-9 }}</ref> The numerous predators of the eggs and hatchlings include rock monitors, puff adders, jackals, and crows. Adults have few natural predators, but lions and hyenas have occasionally been reported preying on them.<ref name="iucn status 12 November 2021" />

== Conservation == The leopard tortoise is a widespread species and remains common throughout most of its range. Human activities, including agricultural burning, consumption, and especially commercial exploitation in the pet trade, are potential threats, but have not yet caused significant population declines. They are increasingly being bred in captivity for the pet trade. For example, most tortoises exported from Kenya and Tanzania originate in captive-breeding programs, alleviating collection from the wild.<ref name="iucn status 12 November 2021" />

The leopard tortoise has been listed in Appendix II of CITES since 1975, and in 2000, the United States banned their import because of the risk posed by heartwater, an infectious disease carried by tortoise ticks that could seriously impact the US livestock industry.

==Gallery== <gallery> File:Geochelone pardalis00.jpg|One-month-old hatchling Leopard tortoise (Stigmochelys pardalis) juvenile.jpg|Juvenile Image:Tortoise closeup.jpg|Small 20-year-old leopard tortoise eating File:Geochelone pardalis02.jpg|Retracted fore legs of adult female leopard tortoise File:Stigmochelys pardalis05.jpg|Close-up of scutes File:Geochelone pardalis 1.jpg|Three adult leopard tortoises File:Leopard Tortoise.JPG|Mature adult (faded) File:Stamp of Azerbaijan 324.jpg|Leopard tortoise on Azerbaijan stamp File:Geochelone pardalis01.jpg|Three baby leopard tortoises File:Leopard tortoise digging hole.jpg|Leopard tortoise digging a hole to lay eggs File:Leopard tortoise laying eggs.jpg|Leopard tortoise laying eggs File:Leopard tortoise closing hole.jpg|Leopard tortoise closing hole with eggs in </gallery>

==References== {{Reflist}}

==Further reading== *Bell T (1828). "Descriptions of three new Species of Land Tortoises". ''Zoological Journal'' '''3''': 419–421. (''Testudo pardalis'', new species, pp. 420–421). (in English and Latin). *Branch, Bill (2004). ''Field Guide to Snakes and other Reptiles of Southern Africa''. Third Revised edition, Second impression. Sanibel Island, Florida: Ralph Curtis Books. 399 pp. {{ISBN|0-88359-042-5}}. (''Geochelone pardalis'', pp. 29–30 + Plate 4). *Gray JE (1873). ''Hand-list of the Specimens of Shield Reptiles in the British Museum''. London: Trustees of the British Museum. (Edward Newman, printer). iv + 124 pp. (''Stigmochelys'', new genus, p. 5). *Loveridge A (1935). "Scientific Results of an Expedition to Rain Forest Regions in Eastern Africa. I. New Reptiles and Amphibians from East Africa". ''Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoölogy at Harvard College'' '''79''': 1–19. (''Testudo pardalis babcocki'', new subspecies, pp. 4–5).

==External links== *{{EMBL species|genus=Stigmochelys|species=pardalis}} *{{Cite web|url=https://www.tortoisetrust.org/articles/leopards.htm|title=Tortoise Trust Web - Observations on Dehydration in Reptiles.|last=Edqvist|first=Ulf|website=www.tortoisetrust.org|access-date=2016-04-11}} *{{Cite web|url=http://www.chelonia.org/articles/mistypardaliscare.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020821055608/http://www.chelonia.org/Articles/Mistypardaliscare.htm|url-status=usurped|archive-date=August 21, 2002|title=''Geochelone pardalis'' (Leopard Tortoise) Care – Misty Corton|website=www.chelonia.org|access-date=2016-04-11}} *[https://web.archive.org/web/20190920193439/http://www.iucn-tftsg.org/ IUCN/SSC Tortoise and Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group]

Category:Stigmochelys Category:Turtles of Africa Category:Reptiles of Southern Africa Category:Fauna of East Africa Category:Reptiles described in 1828 Category:Taxa named by Thomas Bell (zoologist) Category:Articles containing video clips