{{Short description|Species of insect}} {{Speciesbox | image = Khapra beetle.jpg | image_alt = | image_caption = Adult Khapra beetle | image2 =Trogoderma granarium - July 2011.jpg | image2_alt = | image2_caption = Larva of ''Trogoderma granarium'' in dry rice | taxon = Trogoderma granarium | authority = Everts, 1898 }}
The '''khapra beetle''' ('''''Trogoderma granarium'''''), also called '''cabinet beetle''',<ref name=misin2024>{{cite web|url=https://www.misin.msu.edu/facts/detail/?project=misin&id=246&cname=Khapra%20beetle|title=Khapra beetle (Trogoderma granarium)|website=Midwest Invasive Species Information Network|access-date=2025-11-17|year=2024|publisher=Michigan State University Board of Trustees}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.mygetridofguide.com/get-rid-of-cabinet-beetles/ |title=How to Get Rid of Cabinet Beetles | MyGetRidOfGuide.com |access-date=2012-09-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120127232414/http://www.mygetridofguide.com/get-rid-of-cabinet-beetles/ |archive-date=2012-01-27 |url-status=dead }}</ref>{{better source needed|date=November 2025}} is a species of beetle that originated in South Asia. It is one of the world's most destructive pests of grain products and seeds.<ref name="Stibick-1">[http://www.aphis.usda.gov/import_export/plants/manuals/emergency/downloads/nprg-khapra.pdf Stibick, J. (2007) ''New Pest Response Guidelines: Khapra Beetle''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080920192924/http://www.aphis.usda.gov/import_export/plants/manuals/emergency/downloads/nprg-khapra.pdf |date=2008-09-20 }} APHIS–PPQ–Emergency and Domestic Programs, United States Department of Agriculture, Riverdale, Maryland, p. 1-1</ref> It is considered one of the 100 worst invasive species in the world.<ref name="University of Florida">{{cite journal|title=Khapra Beetle, ''Trogoderma granarium'' Everts (Insecta: Coleoptera: Dermestidae)|id=Publication No. EENY-372|date=2024-09-12|orig-date=Originally published May 2006|last=Harris|first=D.L.|journal=Edis |publisher=IFAS Extension, University of Florida|doi=10.32473/edis-in667-2006|doi-access=free|url=https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/IN667|series=Critical Issue: 1. Agricultural and Horticultural Enterprises |volume=2006 |issue=10 }}</ref> Infestations are difficult to control because of the insect's ability to survive without food for long periods, its preference for dry conditions and low-moisture food, and its resistance to many insecticides.<ref name="University of Florida"/> There is a federal quarantine restricting the importation of rice into the U.S. from countries with known infestations of the beetle.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/breaking/chi-khapra-beetle-found-in-rice-shipment-from-india-at-ohare-20110823-story.html|title='Most feared' pest found in shipment at O'Hare|author=Staff report|website=chicagotribune.com|date=23 August 2011 }}</ref> Khapra beetle infestation can spoil otherwise valuable trade goods and threaten significant economic losses if introduced to a new area. Handling or consuming contaminated grain and seed products can lead to health issues such as skin irritation and gastrointestinal distress.<ref name="CFIA">Canadian Food Inspection Agency Trogoderma Granarium Factsheet (http://www.inspection.gc.ca/plants/plant-pests-invasive-species/insects/khapra-beetle/fact-sheet/eng/1328541793480/1328541924086)</ref>
== Description == Adult beetles are brownish and reddish, 1.6–3 mm long. Immature larvae are up to 5 millimeters long and are covered in dense, reddish-brown hair. The larval stage can last four to six weeks, but can be extended up to seven years.<ref name="CFIA"/> Males are dark brown or black, and females are slightly larger with lighter colors.<ref name="CFIA"/> The lifespan of an adult khapra beetle is usually between five and ten days.<ref name="CFIA"/> The beetle prefers hot, dry conditions and can be found in areas where grain and other potential food is stored, such as pantries, malt houses, grain and fodder processing plants, and stores of used grain sacks or crates. The species is native to India and southern Asia,<ref name=misin2024/> with a native range extending from Burma to Western Africa.<ref name="University of Florida"/> The khapra beetle is a synanthrope, predominantly living in close association with humans. Information regarding the beetle's behavior in non-human environments is limited.<ref name="IUCN">{{cite web | title=''Trogoderma granarium'' Khapra beetle|website=Global Invasive Species Database|publisher=International Union for Conservation of Nature | date=2007-05-31 | url=http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/species.php?sc=142 | access-date=2025-11-17}}</ref>
The eggs of the khapra beetle are cylindrical with one end more rounded and the other more pointed, about 0.7 mm long and 0.25 mm broad, weighing about 0.02 mg.<ref name="Hadaway">Hadaway, A.B. (1956) "The biology of the dermestid beetles ''Trogoderma granarium Everts'' and ''Trogoderma versicolor (Creutz)''" ''Bulletin of Entomological Research'' 46(4): 781-796</ref><ref name="CFIA"/> The pointy end has a number of spine-like projections.<ref name="Hadaway"/> The eggs are initially a milky white but over several hours turn a pale yellowish color.<ref name="Hadaway"/>
The khapra beetle's physiology is significantly impacted by its diet. Borzoi et al. found that rye provides the most optimal environment for breeding and development of individuals.<ref name="Borzoui">Borzoui et al., (2015) “Different Diets Affecting Biology and Digestive Physiology of the Khapra Beetle, Trogoderma Granarium Everts (Coleoptera: Dermestidae).”</ref> Conversely, walnut and rice diets reduced female fertility and adult weight of the individuals, while increasing the duration of the larval stage.<ref name="Borzoui"/>
== As an invasive species == The khapra beetle has become established in many Mediterranean, Middle Eastern, Asian and African countries.<ref name="University of Florida"/> It has also been discovered in North America. United States customs agents have discovered it in isolated infestations on the east and west coast of the United States, but until this point have been successful in containing and eradicating the pest.<ref name="CFIA"/> US customs agents intercepted the beetle 100 times in 2011, "compared to three to six per year in 2005 and 2006, and averaging about 15 per year from 2007 to 2009".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://news.yahoo.com/blogs/lookout/one-world-most-feared-pests-found-chicago-230341479.html|title=One of the world's 'most feared' pests found in Chicago|website=news.yahoo.com|date=24 August 2011 }}</ref> In 2017, the beetle was recorded for the first time in Sri Lanka. The beetle was found in the packaging of one consignment of tea from Sri Lanka, which was transported to Russia. The Sri Lanka Tea Board expressed that the specimen may have remained in the shipping container following the use of the same container for a previous transport of grain, not of Sri Lankan origin.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dailynews.lk/2017/12/16/local/137530/russia-restricts-tea-supplies-sri-lanka |title=Russia restricts tea supplies from Sri Lanka |work=Daily News |access-date=16 December 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.island.lk/index.php?page_cat=article-details&page=article-details&code_title=176865 |title=Khapra Beetle and Future of Sri Lankan Tea Export |publisher=The Island |access-date=19 December 2017}}</ref> Infestations of sea containers are indeed common.<ref name="IPPC-container" />
The type of product in which the beetle is transported can contribute to its ability to take hold in a new environment. Whole barley flour and cracked wheat kernels were found to support significantly more larvae and adult beetles than other grain products, whereas polished pearl barley, maize, and whole oats supported lower populations.<ref name="Athanassiou-et-al-2016">{{cite journal | last1=Athanassiou | first1=Christos G. | last2=Kavallieratos | first2=Nickolas G. | last3=Boukouvala | first3=Maria C. | title=Population growth of the khapra beetle, ''Trogoderma granarium'' Everts (Coleoptera: Dermestidae) on different commodities | journal=Journal of Stored Products Research | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=69 | year=2016 | issn=0022-474X | doi=10.1016/j.jspr.2016.05.001 | pages=72–77}}</ref>
The Khapra beetle does not present any direct ecological threats to an environment as an invasive species.{{citation needed|date=November 2025}} Indirect effects of its introduction are of greatest concern from a human perspective. Reduced grain seed viability and loss of stored grain seeds can threaten large-scale agriculture and international trade, hence the significant focus by multiple countries on limiting its expansion.
In August 2020 unknown insects were found in a new refrigerator in Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia. The buyers reported it to the federal Agriculture Department who identified the insects as Khapras. If this was already a widespread infestation—or if it was about to become one—agriculture in Australia and the economy of Australia would lose hundreds of millions of dollars per year. As a result, the department immediately began tracking, tracing, inspecting, containing, and treating for the beetles across the ACT and NSW. The department believes this report and the response to it has effectively kept Khapras out of Australia and provided new information as to how to keep them out in the future.<ref name="Aus-biosecurity-awards-2020">{{cite web|title=Australian Biosecurity Awards 2020 Round 2 award recipients|date=November 2020|website=Australian Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment|url=http://www.agriculture.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/biosecurity-awards-2020-round-2.pdf}}</ref>
== Control methods == Fumigation with methyl bromide is the most effective treatment.<ref name="IUCN" /> Powdered neem has been used to control the beetle in wheat stores in India.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.eppo.org/QUARANTINE/insects/Trogoderma_granarium/TROGGA_ds.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081123022136/http://www.eppo.org/QUARANTINE/insects/Trogoderma_granarium/TROGGA_ds.pdf|url-status=dead|title=EPPO Quarantine Pest Data Sheet|archive-date=November 23, 2008}}</ref> Neem powder repels many insects due to its strong odor, but generally does not kill insects. However, it is still useful in protecting crops from infestations.
Research into natural pest management methods has found that extracts from ''Datura metel'' leaves present significant contact toxicity and multi-generational effects to Khapra beetles.<ref name="Ali-et-al-2012">{{cite journal | last1=Ali | first1=Abid | last2=Ahmad | first2=Farooq | last3=Biondi | first3=Antonio | last4=Wang | first4=Yusha | last5=Desneux | first5=Nicolas | title=Potential for using ''Datura alba'' leaf extracts against two major stored grain pests, the khapra beetle ''Trogoderma granarium'' and the rice weevil ''Sitophillus oryzae'' | journal=Journal of Pest Science | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=85 | issue=3 | date=2012-03-25 | issn=1612-4758 | doi=10.1007/s10340-012-0426-1 | pages=359–366| bibcode=2012JPesS..85..359A | s2cid=18512759 }}</ref> Higher concentrations of extract led to higher mortality among the initial generation and subsequent offspring.<ref name="Ali-et-al-2012" /> Prolonged exposure to extreme cold and heat have demonstrated marginal impact, but most larvae were found to have survived extremes well beyond the threshold needed to kill adult beetles.<ref name="Wilches-MS-thesis">{{cite thesis|title=Effects of extreme temperatures on the survival of the quarantine stored-product pest, ''Trogoderma granarium'' (khapra beetle) and on its associated bacteria|first=Diana Maria|last=Wilches Correal|date=2016|s2cid=90360053|institution=University of Lethbridge|location=Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada|degree=Master of Science}}</ref>
Efforts can be taken to prevent contaminated material from being shipped, sea shipping containers can be tracked, and containers can be decontaminated before reuse.<ref name="IPPC-container" /> There is increasing recognition that the global Khapra invasion is an emergency and requires national and international action.<ref name="IPPC-container" />
== Policy and regulations == The United States Department of Agriculture’s Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service has established restrictions on grain and cereal imports from regions known for Khapra beetle infestation since July 2011. These import regulations concern the import of rice, chickpeas, safflower seeds, and soybeans from regions determined to be infested with the Khapra beetle.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/cfr/text/7/319.75-2|title=7 CFR § 319.75-2 - Regulated articles. 1|website=LII / Legal Information Institute}}</ref> Any of these products shipped from regions in question must first be subject to a phytosanitary treatment, and a certificate stating the shipment has been inspected and found clean must be included with the product.<ref name="APHIS">{{cite web | title=Khapra Beetle | website=United States Department of Agriculture - Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service | url=http://www.aphis.usda.gov/aphis/resources/pests-diseases/hungry-pests/the-threat/khapra-beetle/khapra-beetle | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180501020520/https://www.aphis.usda.gov/aphis/resources/pests-diseases/hungry-pests/the-threat/khapra-beetle/khapra-beetle | url-status=dead | archive-date=May 1, 2018 | access-date=2021-01-27}}</ref> Many North African, Middle East, and South Asian countries, such as Afghanistan, Iran, Egypt, Syria, Morocco, Sri Lanka, and India are subject to these regulations.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.aphis.usda.gov/sites/default/files/kb_1.pdf|title=Policy manual |website=www.aphis.usda.gov |access-date=2020-07-12}}</ref> An amendment to the Khapra beetle import regulations was passed in December 2014, adding Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates, South Sudan, and Palestinian Authority to the list of regulated nations.<ref>USDA - Countries Infested with Khapra Beetle (https://www.regulations.gov/document?D=APHIS-2013-0079-0004)</ref>
Australia maintains Khapra beetle import restrictions on all types of seeds, nuts, spices, dried fruits and vegetables, and any unprocessed agricultural products.<ref name="Aus-Ag">{{cite web | title=Home Khapra beetle | website=Australian Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment | date=2015-12-20 | url=http://www.agriculture.gov.au/import/before/pests/khapra_beetle | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151220194838/http://www.agriculture.gov.au/import/before/pests/khapra_beetle | archive-date=2015-12-20 | url-status=dead | access-date=2021-01-27}}</ref> Any imports of these products require a phytosanitary certificate stating the product is inspected and cleaned.<ref name="Aus-Ag" /> Countries of origin in question for this policy include much of Africa, the Middle East, and South Asia.<ref name="Aus-Ag" />
== References == {{Reflist|refs=
<ref name="IPPC-container">{{cite web | title=200 million reasons to take global action on sea containers to keep khapra beetle out! | website=International Plant Protection Convention, Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations | date=2020-12-30 | url=http://www.ippc.int/en/news/200-million-reasons-to-take-global-action-on-sea-containers-to-keep-khapra-beetle-out/ | access-date=2021-01-27}}</ref>
}}
=== Sources === * Banks, H. J. (1994) ''Illustrated identification keys for Trogoderma granarium, T. glabrum, T. inclusum and T. variabile (Coleoptera: Dermestidae) and other Trogoderma associated with stored products'' Division of Entomology, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), Canberra, Australia, {{ISBN|0-643-04870-7}} * Borzoui, Ehsan, Bahram Naseri, and Foroogh Rahimi Namin. "Different Diets Affecting Biology and Digestive Physiology of the Khapra Beetle, Trogoderma Granarium Everts (Coleoptera: Dermestidae)." Journal of Stored Products Research 62 (2015): 1–7. Elsevier. Web. 26 Mar. 2017. * {{cite journal | last1=Ali | first1=Abid | last2=Ahmad | first2=Farooq | last3=Biondi | first3=Antonio | last4=Wang | first4=Yusha | last5=Desneux | first5=Nicolas | title=Potential for using ''Datura alba'' leaf extracts against two major stored grain pests, the khapra beetle ''Trogoderma granarium'' and the rice weevil ''Sitophillus oryzae'' | journal=Journal of Pest Science | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=85 | issue=3 | date=2012-03-25 | issn=1612-4758 | doi=10.1007/s10340-012-0426-1 | pages=359–366| bibcode=2012JPesS..85..359A | s2cid=18512759 }} * Wilches, D., R. Laird, K. Floate, and P. Fields. "Effects of Extreme Temperatures on the Survival of the Quarantine Stored-Product Pest, Trogoderma Granarium (Khapra Beetle)." 11th International Working Conference on Stored Product Protection (n.d.): n. pag. Web. 25 Mar. 2017. * Athanassiou, Christos G., Nickolas G. Kavallieratos, and Maria C. Boukouvala. "Population Growth of the Khapra Beetle, Trogoderma Granarium Everts (Coleoptera: Dermestidae) on Different Commodities." Journal of Stored Products Research 69 (2016): 72–77. Elsevier. Web. 27 Mar. 2017.
== External links == {{Wikispecies|Trogoderma granarium|Khapra beetle}} *[http://www.dermestidae.com/Trogodermagranarium.html Dermestidae of the World] Habitus of male and female, genitalia of male. *[http://www.pestproducts.com/khapra-beetles.htm Khapra beetle at Pestproducts.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130924072504/http://www.pestproducts.com/khapra-beetles.htm |date=2013-09-24 }} *[http://pest.ceris.purdue.edu/pest.php?code=INATANA PestTracker Invasive Insect: Khapra beetle] at Center for Environmental and Regulatory Information Systems * [https://gd.eppo.int/taxon/TROGGA/documents Trogoderma granarium (TROGGA)[Documents]| EPPO Global Database] Documents from EPPO (European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization) * [https://www.ippc.int/publications/dp-3-2012-trogoderma-granarium-everts Diagnostic Protocol 3 (2012): ''Trogoderma granarium Everts'' (International Plant Protection Convention)] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20180501020520/https://www.aphis.usda.gov/aphis/resources/pests-diseases/hungry-pests/the-threat/khapra-beetle/khapra-beetle Hungry Pests Campaign], USDA APHIS (Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service) * [https://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/profile/khapra-beetle Species Profile - Khapra Beetle (''Trogoderma granarium'')], National Invasive Species Information Center, United States National Agricultural Library.
{{Taxonbar|from=Q1314339}} {{Authority control}}
Category:Dermestidae Category:Agricultural pest insects Category:Beetles described in 1898 Category:Storage pests